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Bibard A, Martinetti D, Giraud A, Picado A, Chalvet-Monfray K, Porphyre T. Quantitative risk assessment for the introduction of bluetongue virus into mainland Europe by long-distance wind dispersal of Culicoides spp.: A case study from Sardinia. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2024. [PMID: 38955987 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Europe faces regular introductions and reintroductions of bluetongue virus (BTV) serotypes, most recently exemplified by the incursion of serotype 3 in the Netherlands. Although the long-distance wind dispersal of the disease vector, Culicoides spp., is recognized as a virus introduction pathway, it remains understudied in risk assessments. A Quantitative Risk Assessment framework was developed to estimate the risk of BTV-3 incursion into mainland Europe from Sardinia, where the virus has been present since 2018. We used an atmospheric transport model (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) to infer the probability of airborne dispersion of the insect vector. Epidemiological disease parameters quantified the virus prevalence in vector population in Sardinia and its potential first transmission after introduction in a new area. When assuming a 24h maximal flight duration, the risk of BTV introduction from Sardinia is limited to the Mediterranean Basin, mainly affecting the southwestern area of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Malta, and Corsica. The risk extends to the northern and central parts of Italy, Balearic archipelago, and mainland France and Spain, mostly when maximal flight duration is longer than 24h. Additional knowledge on vector flight conditions and Obsoletus complex-specific parameters could improve the robustness of the model. Providing both spatial and temporal insights into BTV introduction risks, our framework is a key tool to guide global surveillance and preparedness against epizootics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Bibard
- Global Innovation, Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health France, Saint-Priest, France
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, UMR 5558, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, VetAgro Sup, Villeurbanne, France
- Epidémiologie Des Maladies Animales et Zoonotiques, UMR EPIA, Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Davide Martinetti
- Biostatistique et Processus Spatiaux, UMR 0546, INRAE, Avignon, France
| | - Aymeric Giraud
- Biostatistique et Processus Spatiaux, UMR 0546, INRAE, Avignon, France
| | - Albert Picado
- Global Innovation, Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health France, Saint-Priest, France
| | - Karine Chalvet-Monfray
- Epidémiologie Des Maladies Animales et Zoonotiques, UMR EPIA, Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Thibaud Porphyre
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Évolutive, UMR 5558, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, VetAgro Sup, Villeurbanne, France
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2
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Ashby M, Moore R, King S, Newbrook K, Flannery J, Batten C. Designing a Multiplex PCR-xMAP Assay for the Detection and Differentiation of African Horse Sickness Virus, Serotypes 1-9. Microorganisms 2024; 12:932. [PMID: 38792762 PMCID: PMC11124020 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12050932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
African horse sickness is a severe and often fatal disease affecting all species of equids. The aetiological agent, African horse sickness virus (AHSV), can be differentiated into nine serotypes. The identification of AHSV serotypes is vital for disease management, as this can influence vaccine selection and help trace disease incursion routes. In this study, we report the development and optimisation of a novel, molecular-based assay that utilises multiplex PCR and microsphere-based technology to expedite detection and differentiation of multiple AHSV serotypes in one assay. We demonstrated the ability of this assay to identify all nine AHSV serotypes, with detection limits ranging from 1 to 277 genome copies/µL depending on the AHSV serotype. An evaluation of diagnostic sensitivity and specificity revealed a sensitivity of 88% and specificity of 100%. This method can serotype up to 42 samples per run and can be completed in approximately 4-6 h. It provides a powerful tool to enhance the rapidity and efficiency of AHSV serotype detection, thereby facilitating the generation of epidemiological data that can help understand and control the incidence of AHSV worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ashby
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK; (R.M.); (S.K.); (K.N.); (C.B.)
| | - Rebecca Moore
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK; (R.M.); (S.K.); (K.N.); (C.B.)
| | - Simon King
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK; (R.M.); (S.K.); (K.N.); (C.B.)
| | - Kerry Newbrook
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK; (R.M.); (S.K.); (K.N.); (C.B.)
| | - John Flannery
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Biotechnology, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone Campus, N37HD68 Athlone, Ireland;
| | - Carrie Batten
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK; (R.M.); (S.K.); (K.N.); (C.B.)
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3
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Boender GJ, Hagenaars TJ, Holwerda M, Spierenburg MAH, van Rijn PA, van der Spek AN, Elbers ARW. Spatial Transmission Characteristics of the Bluetongue Virus Serotype 3 Epidemic in The Netherlands, 2023. Viruses 2024; 16:625. [PMID: 38675966 PMCID: PMC11054275 DOI: 10.3390/v16040625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A devastating bluetongue (BT) epidemic caused by bluetongue virus serotype 3 (BTV-3) has spread throughout most of the Netherlands within two months since the first infection was officially confirmed in the beginning of September 2023. The epidemic comes with unusually strong suffering of infected cattle through severe lameness, often resulting in mortality or euthanisation for welfare reasons. In total, tens of thousands of sheep have died or had to be euthanised. By October 2023, more than 2200 locations with ruminant livestock were officially identified to be infected with BTV-3, and additionally, ruminants from 1300 locations were showing BTV-associated clinical symptoms (but not laboratory-confirmed BT). Here, we report on the spatial spread and dynamics of this BT epidemic. More specifically, we characterized the distance-dependent intensity of the between-holding transmission by estimating the spatial transmission kernel and by comparing it to transmission kernels estimated earlier for BTV-8 transmission in Northwestern Europe in 2006 and 2007. The 2023 BTV-3 kernel parameters are in line with those of the transmission kernel estimated previously for the between-holding spread of BTV-8 in Europe in 2007. The 2023 BTV-3 transmission kernel has a long-distance spatial range (across tens of kilometres), evidencing that in addition to short-distance dispersal of infected midges, other transmission routes such as livestock transports probably played an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gert-Jan Boender
- Department of Epidemiology, Bioinformatics, Animal Studies and Vaccine Development, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands; (G.-J.B.); (T.J.H.)
| | - Thomas J. Hagenaars
- Department of Epidemiology, Bioinformatics, Animal Studies and Vaccine Development, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands; (G.-J.B.); (T.J.H.)
| | - Melle Holwerda
- Department of Virology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands; (M.H.); (P.A.v.R.)
| | - Marcel A. H. Spierenburg
- Incident- and Crisis Centre (NVIC), Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), P.O. Box 43006, 3540 AA Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.H.S.); (A.N.v.d.S.)
| | - Piet A. van Rijn
- Department of Virology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands; (M.H.); (P.A.v.R.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Centre for Human Metabolomics, North-West University, Private Bag X 6001, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Arco N. van der Spek
- Incident- and Crisis Centre (NVIC), Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA), P.O. Box 43006, 3540 AA Utrecht, The Netherlands; (M.A.H.S.); (A.N.v.d.S.)
| | - Armin R. W. Elbers
- Department of Epidemiology, Bioinformatics, Animal Studies and Vaccine Development, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands; (G.-J.B.); (T.J.H.)
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4
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Viadanna PHO, Surphlis A, Cheng AC, Dixon CE, Meisner S, Wilson KN, White ZS, DeRuyter E, Logan TD, Krauer JMC, Lednicky JA, Wisely SM, Subramaniam K. A novel bluetongue virus serotype 2 strain isolated from a farmed Florida white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) arose from reassortment of gene segments derived from co-circulating serotypes in the Southeastern USA. Virus Genes 2024; 60:100-104. [PMID: 38182930 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-023-02047-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Bluetongue disease is a reportable animal disease that affects wild and farmed ruminants, including white-tailed deer (WTD). This report documents the clinical findings, ancillary diagnostics, and genomic characterization of a novel reassortant bluetongue virus serotype 2 (BTV-2) strain isolated from a dead Florida farmed WTD in 2022. Our analyses support that this BTV-2 strain likely stemmed from the acquisition of genome segments from co-circulating BTV strains in Florida and Louisiana. In addition, our analyses also indicate that genetically uncharacterized BTV strains may be circulating in the Southeastern USA; however, the identity and reassortant status of these BTV strains cannot be determined based on the VP2 and VP5 genome sequences. Hence, continued surveillance based on complete genome characterization is needed to understand the genetic diversity of BTV strains in this region and the potential threat they may pose to the health of deer and other ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro H O Viadanna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Austin Surphlis
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - An-Chi Cheng
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Catherine E Dixon
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Sarah Meisner
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Kristen N Wilson
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Zoe S White
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Emily DeRuyter
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, 1225 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Tracey D Logan
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, 1225 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Juan M C Krauer
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - John A Lednicky
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, 1225 Center Dr, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Samantha M Wisely
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, 110 Newins-Ziegler Hall, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Kuttichantran Subramaniam
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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5
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Prudhomme J, Depaquit J, Fite J, Quillery E, Bouhsira E, Liénard E. Systematic review of hematophagous arthropods present in cattle in France. Parasite 2023; 30:56. [PMID: 38084937 PMCID: PMC10714678 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2023059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The arrival of pathogens, whether zoonotic or not, can have a lasting effect on commercial livestock farms, with dramatic health, social and economic consequences. However, available data concerning the arthropod vectors present and circulating on livestock farms in France are still very imprecise, fragmentary, and scattered. In this context, we conducted a systematic review of the hematophagous arthropod species recorded on different types of cattle farms in mainland France (including Corsica). The used vector "groups" studied were biting flies, biting midges, black flies, fleas, horse flies, lice, louse flies, mosquitoes, sand flies, and ticks. A large number of documents were selected (N = 9,225), read (N = 1,047) and analyzed (N = 290), allowing us to provide distribution and abundance maps of different species of medical and veterinary interest according to literature data. Despite the large number of documents collected and analyzed, there are few data provided on cattle farm characteristics. Moreover, data on all arthropod groups lack numerical detail and are based on limited data in time and/or space. Therefore, they are not generalizable nor comparable. There is still little information on many vectors (and their pathogens) and still many unknowns for most studied groups. It appears necessary to provide new, updated and standardized data, collected in different geographical and climatological areas. Finally, this work highlights the lack of entomologists, funding, training and government support, leading to an increased risk of uncontrolled disease emergence in cattle herds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorian Prudhomme
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InTheres, University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT 31300 Toulouse France
| | - Jérôme Depaquit
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Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Faculté de Pharmacie, EA7510 EpidémioSurveillance et Circulation de Parasites dans les Environnements, and ANSES, USC Pathogènes-Environnement-Toxoplasme-Arthropodes-Réservoirs-bioDiversité Reims France
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Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire, Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie 51092 Reims France
| | - Johanna Fite
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French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Risk Assessment Department Maisons-Alfort Cedex France
| | - Elsa Quillery
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French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety, Risk Assessment Department Maisons-Alfort Cedex France
| | - Emilie Bouhsira
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InTheres, University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT 31300 Toulouse France
| | - Emmanuel Liénard
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InTheres, University of Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT 31300 Toulouse France
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6
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Li L, Fu L, Zhang L, Feng Y. Varicella-zoster virus infection and primary membranous nephropathy: a Mendelian randomization study. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19212. [PMID: 37932291 PMCID: PMC10628161 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46517-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary membranous nephropathy (MN) is a rare autoimmune cause of kidney failure. Observational studies have suggested some relationship between virus infection and primary MN, but the association remains unclear. The current study performed a two‑sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to explore the causal association between varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection (chickenpox and shingles) and primary MN using genome‑wide association studies (GWASs) summary statistics. The exposure datasets containing chickenpox and shingles were obtained from the GWASs conducted by the 23andMe cohort. And summary-level statistics for primary MN were used as the outcome dataset, comprising 2150 cases and 5829 controls from European Ancestry. The inverse variance weighted method was adopted as the main analysis. As a result, we found that both genetically determined chickenpox (odds ratio [95% confidential interval] = 3.61 [1.74-7.50], p = 5.59e-04) and shingles (p = 7.95e-03, odds ratio [95% confidential interval] = 2.49 [1.27-4.91]) were causally associated with an increased risk of developing primary MN. In conclusion, our MR findings provided novel genetic evidence supporting the causal effect of VZV infection on primary MN. Further studies are needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms mediating the causal association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Li
- Department of Dermatology, Chengdu Second People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Lixin Fu
- Department of Dermatology, Chengdu Second People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Liwen Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Chengdu Second People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Yanyan Feng
- Department of Dermatology, Chengdu Second People's Hospital, Chengdu, Sichuan, China.
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7
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Jahanroshan N, Dalir‐Naghadeh B, Lotfollahzadeh S, Abdollahi M, Azarmi S, Moosakhani F. Bluetongue outbreak in a sheep flock from Iran. Vet Med Sci 2023; 9:2791-2795. [PMID: 37776265 PMCID: PMC10650254 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an arthropodborne Orbivirus that belongs to the Reoviridae family. Bluetongue is one of the most important diseases of sheep. A flock of 300 Lacon sheep just arrived from France, located in the countryside of Qazvin city, Iran, was examined, in August 2022. In history taking and clinical examination, submandibular oedema (216/300, 72%), fever (216/300, 72%), inappetence (216/300, 72%), stomatitis (216/300, 72%), nasal discharge (90/300, 30%) and lameness (30/300, 10%) were recorded. Foot-and-mouth disease, bluetongue (BT), contagious ecthyma and peste des petits ruminants were the most important differential diagnosis with reference to clinical signs. Tongue scraping samples from four clinically affected sheep were sent to the laboratory for PCR tests and, in all of them, BTV was detected. The affected flock had a history of vaccination with an attenuated live vaccine in the previous 4 months. The morbidity rate, mortality rate and case fatality rate were 72% (216/300), 7% (21/300) and 9.7% (21/216), respectively. This report is the first documented clinical form of BT in sheep from Iran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Jahanroshan
- Department of TheriogenologyFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of TehranTehranIran
- Private Veterinary PractitionerTehranIran
| | - Bahram Dalir‐Naghadeh
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical PathologyFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUrmia UniversityUrmiaIran
| | - Samad Lotfollahzadeh
- Department of Internal MedicineFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of TehranTehranIran
| | - Mostafa Abdollahi
- Department of Clinical SciencesFaculty of Veterinary MedicineSemnan UniversitySemnanIran
| | - Sareh Azarmi
- Reproduction BiotechnologyFaculty of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of TehranTehranIran
| | - Farhad Moosakhani
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyFaculty of Veterinary MedicineIslamic Azad UniversityKarajIran
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8
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Zhang S, Zhang Q, Zhang H, Liang R, Chen Q, Niu B. Assessing the export trade risk of bluetongue virus serotypes 4 and 8 in France. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2023; 43:1124-1136. [PMID: 35994609 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) causes an economic loss of $3 billion every year in the world. After two serious occurrences of BT (bluetongue virus [BTV] occurrence in 2006 and 2015), France has been controlling for decades, but it has not been eradicated. As the largest live cattle export market in the world, France is also one of the major exporters of breeding animals and genetic materials in the world. The biosafety of its exported cattle and products has always been a concern. The scenario tree quantitative model was used to analyze the risk of BTV release from French exported live cattle and bovine semen. The results showed that with the increase in vaccination coverage rates, the risk decreased. If the vaccine coverage is 0%, the areas with the highest average risk probability of BTV-4 and BTV-8 release from exported live cattle were Haute-Savoie and Puy-de-Dôme, and the risk was 2.96 × 10-4 and 4.25 × 10-4 , respectively. When the vaccine coverage was 90%, the risk probability of BTV-4 and BTV-8 release from exported live cattle was 2.96 × 10-5 and 4.24 × 10-5 , respectively. The average probability of BTV-8 release from bovine semen was 1.09 × 10-10 . Sensitivity analysis showed that the probability of false negative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test and the probability of BT infection in the bull breeding station had an impact on the model. The identification of high-risk areas and the discovery of key control measures provide a reference for decision makers to assess the risk of French exports of live cattle and bovine semen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwen Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Technical Center for Animal, Plant and Food Inspection and Quarantine of Shanghai Customs, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ruirui Liang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qin Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing Niu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
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9
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Bréard E, Postic L, Gondard M, Bernelin-Cottet C, Le Roux A, Turpaud M, Lucas P, Blanchard Y, Vitour D, Bakkali-Kassimi L, Zientara S, Al Rawahi W, Sailleau C. Circulation of Bluetongue Virus Serotypes 1, 4, 8, 10 and 16 and Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus in the Sultanate of Oman in 2020-2021. Viruses 2023; 15:1259. [PMID: 37376559 DOI: 10.3390/v15061259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The circulation of Bluetongue (BT) and Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease (EHD) in the Middle East has already been reported following serological analyses carried out since the 1980s, mostly on wild ruminants. Thus, an EHD virus (EHDV) strain was isolated in Bahrain in 1983 (serotype 6), and more recently, BT virus (BTV) serotypes 1, 4, 8 and 16 have been isolated in Oman. To our knowledge, no genomic sequence of these different BTV strains have been published. These same BTV or EHDV serotypes have circulated and, for some of them, are still circulating in the Mediterranean basin and/or in Europe. In this study, we used samples from domestic ruminant herds collected in Oman in 2020 and 2021 for suspected foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) to investigate the presence of BTV and EHDV in these herds. Sera and whole blood from goats, sheep and cattle were tested for the presence of viral genomes (by PCR) and antibodies (by ELISA). We were able to confirm the presence of 5 BTV serotypes (1, 4, 8, 10 and 16) and the circulation of EHDV in this territory in 2020 and 2021. The isolation of a BTV-8 strain allowed us to sequence its entire genome and to compare it with another BTV-8 strain isolated in Mayotte and with homologous BTV sequences available on GenBank.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Bréard
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Lydie Postic
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Mathilde Gondard
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Cindy Bernelin-Cottet
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Aurélie Le Roux
- Laboratory of Ploufragan, ANSES, Unit of Viral Genetics and Biosafety, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Mathilde Turpaud
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Pierrick Lucas
- Laboratory of Ploufragan, ANSES, Unit of Viral Genetics and Biosafety, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Yannick Blanchard
- Laboratory of Ploufragan, ANSES, Unit of Viral Genetics and Biosafety, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Damien Vitour
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Labib Bakkali-Kassimi
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Wafaa Al Rawahi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat P.C. 123, Oman
- Central Laboratory of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries Wealth and Water Resources, Muscat P.C. 100, Oman
| | - Corinne Sailleau
- UMR 1161 VIROLOGIE, INRA, ENVA, ANSES, Laboratory for Animal Health, Paris Est University, 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
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10
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Re-Emergence of BTV-4 in Sheep Farms in Kosovo, 2020: A Retrospective Study. Transbound Emerg Dis 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/3112126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Kosovo has previously seen two bluetongue (BT) epizootics, each caused by a different serotype, BTV-9 in 2001 and BTV-4 in 2014. Since 2014, no clinical cases of BT have been reported in Kosovo. In September, 2020, clinical signs suggestive of BTV infection were observed in several sheep farms in Kosovo. Blood samples from sheep (n = 40) were collected and subjected to further molecular investigations. Molecular analyses confirmed BTV serotype 4 (BTV-4) infection in thirty-six sheep from five different farms across two different regions. Full genome sequence analyses indicated that the BTV-4 strains (KOS2020/01 and KOS2020/02) detected in Kosovo in 2020 had high sequence identity (99.9%-100%) with a strain responsible for an outbreak in North Macedonia in July, 2020, (MKD2020/06) and with previous isolates (≥99.3%) from Greece, Hungary, and France. The percent nucleotide sequence (nt%) identity and phylogenetic analyses suggest that the incursion of BTV-4 into Kosovo was a re-emergence of a previously seen strain and not a novel reassortant. This could be due to a reintroduction of the strain into the region or from subclinical circulation which had been ongoing and underreported for years. Surveillance across Kosovo and the Balkan region to monitor the circulation of BTV is crucial if outbreaks are to be brought under control.
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11
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Sailleau C, Postic L, Chatenet X, Salat O, Turpaud M, Durand B, Vitour D, Zientara S, Bréard E. Serological Responses in Cattle following Booster Vaccination against Serotypes 4 and 8 Bluetongue Virus with Two Bivalent Commercial Inactivated Vaccines. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122719. [PMID: 36560723 PMCID: PMC9781302 DOI: 10.3390/v14122719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the outbreak of bluetongue in Northern Europe in 2006, numerous outbreaks involving several serotypes have been observed. Since 2008, compulsory or voluntary vaccination campaigns with inactivated vaccines have been carried out to eradicate these serotypes. In France, serotypes 8 and 4 have been enzootic since 2017, and currently, the majority of vaccinations take place in the context of animal movements, to comply with the regulations of the importing countries. Several vaccine manufacturers have developed inactivated vaccines against serotypes 4 and 8 (mono or bivalent). In this study, we investigated and compared the serological responses to a booster vaccination with two different bivalent inactivated vaccines (BTVPUR suspension injectable® 4 + 8, Boehringer Ingelheim or SYVAZUL ® BTV 4 + 8, Biové) following a primary vaccination with BTVPUR® 4 + 8 in the previous year. The results show that using an alternative vaccine for booster vaccination is at least as effective as using the homologous vaccine. Indeed, the antibody response against BTV-8 is higher in the case of a heterologous vaccination and identical for BTV-4. This information could allow more flexibility in the choice of vaccines used for booster vaccination, particularly in cases where homologous vaccines are in short supply or unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Sailleau
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
- Correspondence:
| | - Lydie Postic
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | | | - Olivier Salat
- Commissions Vaches Laitières et Qualité du Lait de la SNGTV, Clinique Vétérinaire de la Haute Auvergne, 15100 Saint Flour, France
| | - Mathilde Turpaud
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Benoit Durand
- Epidemiology Unit, Laboratory for Animal Health, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES), University Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Damien Vitour
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Emmanuel Bréard
- UMR VIROLOGIE, INRAE, École Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES Laboratoire de Santé Animale, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
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12
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Yang QL, Zhang SW, Qiu SY, Zhang Q, Chen Q, Niu B. Spatio-temporal and trade export risk analysis of bluetongue disease in France: A case study of China. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:955366. [PMID: 36406078 PMCID: PMC9669432 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.955366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue disease (BT) is a viral disease that can be introduced through imported animals and animal products, affecting local animal husbandry. In this study, the spatial and temporal patterns of BT outbreaks (outbreak: a BT infection in cattle, sheep, or goats on a farm, involving at least one infected animal) in France were analyzed and the risk of introducing bluetongue virus (BTV) into countries through trade was assessed. A spatiotemporal analysis of BT reported during the study period (2015-2018) showed that there were clustered outbreaks of BT in France in 2016 and 2017, with outbreaks concentrated from August to December. The outbreak moved eastward from the center of mainland France to surrounding countries. A semi-quantitative risk analysis framework was established by combining the likelihood assessment and consequence analysis of introducing BTV into trading countries through trade. Exemplified by China, the research showed that in the analysis of the likelihood of BTV from France being introduced into trading countries through live cattle trade, China imports a large number of live cattle, bringing high risks. The likelihood of introducing bovine semen into trading countries was similar to that of live cattle, but the harm caused by the trade in live cattle was higher than that caused by the trade in bovine semen. This risk analysis framework can provide a reference for other countries to quickly assess the risk of bluetongue transmission in import and export trade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao-ling Yang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China,School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shu-wen Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
| | - Song-yin Qiu
- Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Technology Center of Animal, Plant and Food Inspection and Quarantine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qin Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China,*Correspondence: Qin Chen
| | - Bing Niu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China,Bing Niu
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13
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Gahn MCB, Seck MT, Ciss M, Lo MM, Ndiaye M, Fall M, Biteye B, Sailleau C, Viarouge C, Postic L, Zientara S, Bréard E, Fall AG. Insight on Bluetongue virus transmission in small ruminants in Senegal. Acta Trop 2022; 232:106487. [PMID: 35487295 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, arthropod-borne viral disease of domestic and wild ruminants. The disease causes animal mortality, production decrease and commercial limits for herds. Despite the active circulation of the disease in the world, few studies have been carried out in Senegal. The objective of this study was to assess the current prevalence of BT in small ruminants and the serotypes circulating in Senegal. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the fourteen regions of Senegal. After the sampling campaign, sera collected in sheep and goats herds were screened for the presence of Bluetongue virus (BTV) specific antibodies using c-Elisa. The whole blood of seropositive animals was further analyzed by RT-qPCR and positive samples were typed to identify BTV serotypes. Analysis of several risk factors such as age, sex and species of animals was performed using logistic regression. The overall seroprevalence of BTV in Senegal was 72.6% (95% CI: 70.3-74.9%) with 75.9% (95% CI: 72.2-79.5%) in goat and 70.6% (95% CI: 67.5-73.6%) in sheep. Female (prevalence=77.1%) and adult (prevalence=80%) animals showed the highest seropositivity to BTV compared respectively to male (55.7%, p=6.133e-09) and young (49.4%, p < 2.2e-16). The RT-qPCR results showed the presence of BT viral genome in 359 small ruminants. The results obtained from serological and genotyping studies showed an active spread of the Bluetongue virus in domestic ruminants and phylogenetic analysis showed that the BTV-2 is one of the circulating serotypes in Senegal. This study allows having baseline information for controlling Bluetongue in Senegal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Cicille Ba Gahn
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal.
| | - Momar Talla Seck
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Mamadou Ciss
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Modou Moustapha Lo
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Mbengué Ndiaye
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Moussa Fall
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Biram Biteye
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal
| | - Corinne Sailleau
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Cyril Viarouge
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Lydie Postic
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Emmanuel Bréard
- UMR Virologie, INRA, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, ANSES, Laboratoire de santé animale, Université Paris-Est, Maison Alfort 94700, France
| | - Assane Gueye Fall
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (ISRA-LNERV), Institut Sénégalais de Recherches Agricoles, BP: 2057 Dakar-Hann, Sénégal.
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14
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Sana K, Soufien S, Thameur BH, Liana T, Massimo S, Kaouther G, Raja G, Haikel H, Bassem BHM, Wiem K, Monia L, Ameni BS, Naouel F, Anissa D, Mehdi BA, Sarah T, Chedia S, Giovanni S, Salah H. Risk-based serological survey of bluetongue and the first evidence of bluetongue virus serotype 26 circulation in Tunisia. Vet Med Sci 2022; 8:1671-1682. [PMID: 35510402 PMCID: PMC9297743 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bluetongue (BT), a vector-borne disease of wild and domestic ruminants, is responsible for severe economic losses in flocks. To reduce this impact, a surveillance and control plan was implemented in Tunisia. However, the epidemiological situation of BT remains incompletely understood, especially for the circulating serotypes. OBJECTIVE The aim of this survey was to determine the seroprevalence, to identify the circulating serotypes and to identify the associated risk factors for bluetongue virus (BTV) circulation in Tunisia using risk-based sampling (RBS). METHODS A total of 3314 blood samples were randomly collected from 67 sectors using risk-based sampling and screened by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (c-ELISAs). Out of the 1330 positive samples, 200 samples were analysed by serum neutralization test (SNT) to identify circulating BTV serotypes. RESULTS Of 3314 sera, 1330 were c-ELISA-positive (40.1%) for antibodies against the BTV structural protein VP7. The result of SNT showed the presence of BTV-1, BTV-2, BTV-3, BTV-4 and, for the first time in Tunisia, BTV-26. The logistic regression model revealed that older animals had nearly two times the odds of being infected with BTV compared to younger animals. Flocks with a history of BT were almost 1.5 times more likely to be at risk for contracting BTV infection. The flock size, housing indoors and intensive production system were significant protective factors. CONCLUSIONS High seroprevalence of BTV among sheep was highlighted in Tunisia. The neutralization test showed the presence of the following BTV serotypes: BTV-1, BTV-2, BTV-3, BTV-4 and, for the first time in Tunisia, BTV-26. Age, production system and flock size were important variables associated with BTV infection in sheep. This finding is crucial, as it will allow the adjustment of the BT control programme in Tunisia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalthoum Sana
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Sghaier Soufien
- Institut de la Recherche Vétérinaire de Tunisie, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ben Hassine Thameur
- Direction Générale des Services Vétérinaires, Commissariat Régional au Développement Agricole de Nabeul, Nabeul, Tunisia
| | - Teodori Liana
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise Giuseppe Caporale, Teramo, Italy
| | - Spedicato Massimo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise Giuseppe Caporale, Teramo, Italy
| | - Guesmi Kaouther
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Gharbi Raja
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Hajlaoui Haikel
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Bel Haj Mohamed Bassem
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khalfaoui Wiem
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Lachtar Monia
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ben Salem Ameni
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Fatnassi Naouel
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Dhaouadi Anissa
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ben Ali Mehdi
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Thabet Sarah
- Institut de la Recherche Vétérinaire de Tunisie, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Seghaier Chedia
- National Centre of Zoosanitary Vigilance, Ministère de L'agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Savini Giovanni
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise Giuseppe Caporale, Teramo, Italy
| | - Hammami Salah
- Service de Microbiologie, Immunologie et Pathologie Générale, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire de Sidi Thabet, Tunisia Universitè de la Manouba, Manouba, Tunisia
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15
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Jiménez-Ruiz S, Vicente J, Risalde MA, Acevedo P, Cano-Terriza D, González-Barrio D, Barroso P, García-Bocanegra I. Survey of Culicoides-borne Bluetongue and Schmallenberg viruses at the wildlife-livestock interface in Doñana National Park (Spain). Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e1815-e1824. [PMID: 35304824 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A cross-sectional study was carried out to assess the circulation of bluetongue virus (BTV) and Schmallenberg virus (SBV) within the wild and domestic ungulate host community in Doñana National Park (southwestern Spain). A total of 440 animals, including 138 cattle, 102 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 101 fallow deer (Dama dama) and 99 wild boar (Sus scrofa) were sampled in 2015 during the seasonal peak of Culicoides spp. (summer-autumn). Serum and spleen samples were analysed to detect exposure (using commercial blocking ELISAs) and infection (by RT-PCR), respectively, to BTV and SBV. Cattle were not tested by BTV-bELISA because all were previously vaccinated against BTV serotypes 1 and 4. High BTV seroprevalences were found in red deer (97.0%) and fallow deer (64.7%). Antibodies against SBV were detected in 37.0% of cattle, 16.8% of red deer, 23.5% of fallow deer and 2.0% of wild boar. Thirty-eight of the 203 deer (18.7%; 17 red deer and 21 fallow deer) were co-exposed to both viral agents. BTV-4 RNA was confirmed in four red deer and two fallow deer. SBV RNA was found in two fallow deer. Co-infections were not detected. Our results indicate high exposure, widespread distribution, and active circulation of BTV and SBV in the ruminant community in the study area. We provide additional evidence for the potential role of wild cervids as reservoirs of these Culicoides-borne viruses in two different epidemiological scenarios: with vaccination (BTV) and without vaccination (SBV) of sympatric livestock. This study highlights the importance of wildlife surveillance, particularly of cervid species, for the proper execution of control programmes of Culicoides-borne diseases in extensively reared livestock. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saúl Jiménez-Ruiz
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad y Biotecnología (SaBio). Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, 13071, Spain.,Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ). Departamento de Sanidad Animal. Facultad de Veterinaria. Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, 14014, Spain
| | - Joaquín Vicente
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad y Biotecnología (SaBio). Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, 13071, Spain
| | - María A Risalde
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ). Departamento de Anatomía, Anatomía Patológica Comparadas y Toxicología. Facultad de Veterinaria. Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, 14014, Spain.,Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Grupo de Virología Clínica y Zoonosis, Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Reina Sofía, Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, 14004, Spain.,CIBERINFEC
| | - Pelayo Acevedo
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad y Biotecnología (SaBio). Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, 13071, Spain
| | - David Cano-Terriza
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ). Departamento de Sanidad Animal. Facultad de Veterinaria. Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, 14014, Spain.,CIBERINFEC
| | - David González-Barrio
- Parasitology Reference and Research Laboratory, Spanish National Centre for Microbiology, Madrid, 28220, Spain.,SALUVET, Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - Patricia Barroso
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad y Biotecnología (SaBio). Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (UCLM-CSIC-JCCM), Ciudad Real, 13071, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Zoonosis (GISAZ). Departamento de Sanidad Animal. Facultad de Veterinaria. Universidad de Córdoba (UCO), Córdoba, 14014, Spain.,CIBERINFEC
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16
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Ropiak HM, King S, Busquets MG, Newbrook K, Pullinger GD, Brown H, Flannery J, Gubbins S, Batten C, Rajko-Nenow P, Darpel KE. Identification of a BTV-Strain-Specific Single Gene That Increases Culicoides Vector Infection Rate. Viruses 2021; 13:1781. [PMID: 34578362 PMCID: PMC8472919 DOI: 10.3390/v13091781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the 2000s, the distribution of bluetongue virus (BTV) has changed, leading to numerous epidemics and economic losses in Europe. Previously, we found a BTV-4 field strain with a higher infection rate of a Culicoides vector than a BTV-1 field strain has. We reverse-engineered parental BTV-1 and BTV-4 strains and created BTV-1/BTV-4 reassortants to elucidate the influence of individual BTV segments on BTV replication in both C. sonorensis midges and in KC cells. Substitution of segment 2 (Seg-2) with Seg-2 from the rBTV-4 significantly increased vector infection rate in reassortant BTV-14S2 (30.4%) in comparison to reverse-engineered rBTV-1 (1.0%). Replacement of Seg-2, Seg-6 and Seg-7 with those from rBTV-1 in reassortant BTV-41S2S6S7 (2.9%) decreased vector infection rate in comparison to rBTV-4 (30.2%). However, triple-reassorted BTV-14S2S6S7 only replicated to comparatively low levels (3.0%), despite containing Seg-2, Seg-6 and Seg-7 from rBTV-4, indicating that vector infection rate is influenced by interactions of multiple segments and/or host-mediated amino acid substitutions within segments. Overall, these results demonstrated that we could utilize reverse-engineered viruses to identify the genetic basis influencing BTV replication within Culicoides vectors. However, BTV replication dynamics in KC cells were not suitable for predicting the replication ability of these virus strains in Culicoides midges.
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17
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Bréard E, Turpaud M, Beaud G, Postic L, Fablet A, Beer M, Sailleau C, Caignard G, Viarouge C, Hoffmann B, Vitour D, Zientara S. Development and Validation of an ELISA for the Detection of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 4-Specific Antibodies. Viruses 2021; 13:v13091741. [PMID: 34578322 PMCID: PMC8473233 DOI: 10.3390/v13091741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we describe the development and evaluation of a double antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) able to detect serotype 4-specific antibodies from BTV-4 infected or vaccinated animals using a recombinant BTV-4 VP2 protein. The coding sequence of VP2 was inserted into a pVote plasmid by recombination in the Gateway® cloning system. Vaccinia virus (VacV) was used as a vector for the expression of the recombinant VP2. After production in BSR cells, recombinant VP2 was purified by immunoprecipitation using a FLAG tag and then used both as the coated ELISA antigen and as the HRP-tagged conjugate. The performance of the ELISA was evaluated with 1186 samples collected from BTV negative, infected or vaccinated animals. The specificity and sensitivity of the BTV-4 ELISA were above the expected standards for the detection of anti-BTV-4 VP2 antibodies in animals reared in Europe or in the Mediterranean basin. Cross-reactions were observed with reference sera for serotypes 10 and 20, and to a lesser extent with serotypes 12, 17 and 24, due to their genetic proximity to serotype 4. Nevertheless, these serotypes have never been detected in Europe and the Mediterranean area. This ELISA, which requires only the production of a recombinant protein, can be used to detect BTV serotype 4-specific antibodies and is therefore an attractive alternative diagnostic method to serum neutralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Bréard
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Mathilde Turpaud
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Georges Beaud
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Lydie Postic
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Aurore Fablet
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.B.); (B.H.)
| | - Corinne Sailleau
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Grégory Caignard
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Cyril Viarouge
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Bernd Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (M.B.); (B.H.)
| | - Damien Vitour
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
| | - Stéphan Zientara
- UMR 1161 Virologie, Laboratory for Animal Health, INRAE, Department of Animal Health, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (M.T.); (G.B.); (L.P.); (A.F.); (C.S.); (G.C.); (C.V.); (D.V.); (S.Z.)
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Fay PC, Mohd Jaafar F, Batten C, Attoui H, Saunders K, Lomonossoff GP, Reid E, Horton D, Maan S, Haig D, Daly JM, Mertens PPC. Serological Cross-Reactions between Expressed VP2 Proteins from Different Bluetongue Virus Serotypes. Viruses 2021; 13:1455. [PMID: 34452321 PMCID: PMC8402635 DOI: 10.3390/v13081455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue (BT) is a severe and economically important disease of ruminants that is widely distributed around the world, caused by the bluetongue virus (BTV). More than 28 different BTV serotypes have been identified in serum neutralisation tests (SNT), which, along with geographic variants (topotypes) within each serotype, reflect differences in BTV outer-capsid protein VP2. VP2 is the primary target for neutralising antibodies, although the basis for cross-reactions and serological variations between and within BTV serotypes is poorly understood. Recombinant BTV VP2 proteins (rVP2) were expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana, based on sequence data for isolates of thirteen BTV serotypes (primarily from Europe), including three 'novel' serotypes (BTV-25, -26 and -27) and alternative topotypes of four serotypes. Cross-reactions within and between these viruses were explored using rabbit anti-rVP2 sera and post BTV-infection sheep reference-antisera, in I-ELISA (with rVP2 target antigens) and SNT (with reference strains of BTV-1 to -24, -26 and -27). Strong reactions were generally detected with homologous rVP2 proteins or virus strains/serotypes. The sheep antisera were largely serotype-specific in SNT, but more cross-reactive by ELISA. Rabbit antisera were more cross-reactive in SNT, and showed widespread, high titre cross-reactions against homologous and heterologous rVP2 proteins in ELISA. Results were analysed and visualised by antigenic cartography, showing closer relationships in some, but not all cases, between VP2 topotypes within the same serotype, and between serotypes belonging to the same 'VP2 nucleotype'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra C. Fay
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK; (P.C.F.); (E.R.); (D.H.); (J.M.D.)
- The Pirbright Institute, Surrey, Woking GU24 ONF, UK;
| | - Fauziah Mohd Jaafar
- UMR VIROLOGIE 1161, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (F.M.J.); (H.A.)
| | - Carrie Batten
- The Pirbright Institute, Surrey, Woking GU24 ONF, UK;
| | - Houssam Attoui
- UMR VIROLOGIE 1161, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, F-94700 Maisons-Alfort, France; (F.M.J.); (H.A.)
| | - Keith Saunders
- John Innes Centre, Department of Biochemistry and Metabolism, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK; (K.S.); (G.P.L.)
| | - George P. Lomonossoff
- John Innes Centre, Department of Biochemistry and Metabolism, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK; (K.S.); (G.P.L.)
| | - Elizabeth Reid
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK; (P.C.F.); (E.R.); (D.H.); (J.M.D.)
| | - Daniel Horton
- Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
| | - Sushila Maan
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India;
| | - David Haig
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK; (P.C.F.); (E.R.); (D.H.); (J.M.D.)
| | - Janet M. Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK; (P.C.F.); (E.R.); (D.H.); (J.M.D.)
| | - Peter P. C. Mertens
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK; (P.C.F.); (E.R.); (D.H.); (J.M.D.)
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19
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White JR, Williams DT, Davies K, Wang J, Chen H, Certoma A, Davis SS, Weir RP, Melville LF, Eagles D. Bluetongue virus serotype 12 enters Australia - a further incursion of novel western lineage genome segments. J Gen Virol 2020; 102. [PMID: 33331813 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an arbovirus (genus: Orbivirus) that occurs worldwide. It infects domestic and wild ruminant species and can cause disease in livestock, producing high economic impact. Recently, it gained extra prominence throughout Europe, with disease occurring in regions traditionally free of BTV. BTV enters Australia from Southeast Asia via wind-borne infected Culicoides spp. The first Australian isolation was 1975 (BTV-20) and further serotypes were isolated between 1979-86 (BTV-1, -3, -9, -15, -16, -21, -23). Despite increased, more sensitive, monitoring, no more were detected in over two decades, implying a stable BTV episystem of eastern ancestry. Isolations of BTV-2, -7 and -5 then occurred between 2007-15, with the latter two possessing genome segments with high sequence identity to western isolates. We report on the first isolation and genomic characterization of BTV-12, which revealed that three more novel western topotype gene segments have entered northern Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R White
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - David T Williams
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kelly Davies
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jianning Wang
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Honglei Chen
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrea Certoma
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Richard P Weir
- Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Department of Primary Industry and Resources, Northern Territory Government, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Lorna F Melville
- Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Department of Primary Industry and Resources, Northern Territory Government, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia
| | - Debbie Eagles
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness (formerly: Australian Animal Health Laboratory), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
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20
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Flannery J, King S, Rajko-Nenow P, Popova Z, Krstevski K, Djadjovski I, Batten C. Re-emergence of BTV serotype 4 in North Macedonia, July 2020. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:220-223. [PMID: 33108681 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bluetongue virus serotype 4 (BTV-4) was confirmed in sheep in North Macedonia in July 2020. The full genome of this BTV-4 strain (MKD2020/06) was shown to be most closely related (99.74% nt identity) to the Greek GRE2014/08 and the Hungarian HUN1014 strains, indicating the re-emergence of this BTV serotype in the Balkan region since it was last reported in 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Zagorka Popova
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Skopje, Macedonia
| | - Kiril Krstevski
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Skopje, Macedonia
| | - Igor Djadjovski
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Skopje, Macedonia
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Ashby M, Rajko-Nenow P, Batten C, Flannery J. Simultaneous Detection of Bluetongue Virus Serotypes Using xMAP Technology. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8101564. [PMID: 33050655 PMCID: PMC7650804 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8101564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue is an economically important disease of ruminants caused by the bluetongue virus (BTV). BTV is serologically diverse, which complicates vaccination strategies. Rapid identification of the causative BTV serotypes is critical, however, real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) can be costly and time consuming to perform when the circulating serotypes are unknown. The Luminex xMAP technology is a high-throughput platform that uses fluorescent beads to detect multiple targets simultaneously. We utilized existing BTV serotyping RT-qPCR assays for BTV-1 to BTV-24 and adapted them for use with the xMAP platform. The xMAP assay specifically detected all 24 BTV serotypes when testing reference strains. In all BTV-positive samples, the sensitivity of the BTV xMAP was 87.55% whereas the sensitivity of the serotype-specific RT-qPCR was 79.85%. The BTV xMAP assay allowed for the specific detection of BTV serotypes 1-24 at a lower cost than current RT-qPCR assays. Overall, the assay provides a useful novel diagnostic tool, particularly when analyzing large sample sets. The use of the BTV xMAP assay will allow for the rapid assessment of BTV epidemiology and may inform decision-making related to control and prevention measures.
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Alonso C, Utrilla-Trigo S, Calvo-Pinilla E, Jiménez-Cabello L, Ortego J, Nogales A. Inhibition of Orbivirus Replication by Aurintricarboxylic Acid. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197294. [PMID: 33023235 PMCID: PMC7582255 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) and African horse sickness virus (AHSV) are vector-borne viruses belonging to the Orbivirus genus, which are transmitted between hosts primarily by biting midges of the genus Culicoides. With recent BTV and AHSV outbreaks causing epidemics and important economy losses, there is a pressing need for efficacious drugs to treat and control the spread of these infections. The polyanionic aromatic compound aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) has been shown to have a broad-spectrum antiviral activity. Here, we evaluated ATA as a potential antiviral compound against Orbivirus infections in both mammalian and insect cells. Notably, ATA was able to prevent the replication of BTV and AHSV in both cell types in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. In addition, we evaluated the effect of ATA in vivo using a mouse model of infection. ATA did not protect mice against a lethal challenge with BTV or AHSV, most probably due to the in vivo effect of ATA on immune system regulation. Overall, these results demonstrate that ATA has inhibitory activity against Orbivirus replication in vitro, but further in vivo analysis will be required before considering it as a potential therapy for future clinical evaluation.
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