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Fusaro A, Zecchin B, Giussani E, Palumbo E, Agüero-García M, Bachofen C, Bálint Á, Banihashem F, Banyard AC, Beerens N, Bourg M, Briand FX, Bröjer C, Brown IH, Brugger B, Byrne AMP, Cana A, Christodoulou V, Dirbakova Z, Fagulha T, Fouchier RAM, Garza-Cuartero L, Georgiades G, Gjerset B, Grasland B, Groza O, Harder T, Henriques AM, Hjulsager CK, Ivanova E, Janeliunas Z, Krivko L, Lemon K, Liang Y, Lika A, Malik P, McMenamy MJ, Nagy A, Nurmoja I, Onita I, Pohlmann A, Revilla-Fernández S, Sánchez-Sánchez A, Savic V, Slavec B, Smietanka K, Snoeck CJ, Steensels M, Svansson V, Swieton E, Tammiranta N, Tinak M, Van Borm S, Zohari S, Adlhoch C, Baldinelli F, Terregino C, Monne I. High pathogenic avian influenza A(H5) viruses of clade 2.3.4.4b in Europe-Why trends of virus evolution are more difficult to predict. Virus Evol 2024; 10:veae027. [PMID: 38699215 PMCID: PMC11065109 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veae027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Since 2016, A(H5Nx) high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus of clade 2.3.4.4b has become one of the most serious global threats not only to wild and domestic birds, but also to public health. In recent years, important changes in the ecology, epidemiology, and evolution of this virus have been reported, with an unprecedented global diffusion and variety of affected birds and mammalian species. After the two consecutive and devastating epidemic waves in Europe in 2020-2021 and 2021-2022, with the second one recognized as one of the largest epidemics recorded so far, this clade has begun to circulate endemically in European wild bird populations. This study used the complete genomes of 1,956 European HPAI A(H5Nx) viruses to investigate the virus evolution during this varying epidemiological outline. We investigated the spatiotemporal patterns of A(H5Nx) virus diffusion to/from and within Europe during the 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 epidemic waves, providing evidence of ongoing changes in transmission dynamics and disease epidemiology. We demonstrated the high genetic diversity of the circulating viruses, which have undergone frequent reassortment events, providing for the first time a complete overview and a proposed nomenclature of the multiple genotypes circulating in Europe in 2020-2022. We described the emergence of a new genotype with gull adapted genes, which offered the virus the opportunity to occupy new ecological niches, driving the disease endemicity in the European wild bird population. The high propensity of the virus for reassortment, its jumps to a progressively wider number of host species, including mammals, and the rapid acquisition of adaptive mutations make the trend of virus evolution and spread difficult to predict in this unfailing evolving scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Fusaro
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
| | - Bianca Zecchin
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
| | - Edoardo Giussani
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
| | - Elisa Palumbo
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
| | - Montserrat Agüero-García
- Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ctra. M-106, Km 1,4 Algete, Madrid 28110, Spain
| | - Claudia Bachofen
- Federal Department of Home Affairs FDHA Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Sensemattstrasse 293, Mittelhäusern 3147, Switzerland
| | - Ádám Bálint
- Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate (NEBIH), Laboratory of Virology, National Food Chain Safety Office, Tábornok utca 2, Budapest 1143, Hungary
| | - Fereshteh Banihashem
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- WOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy Beerens
- Department of Virology Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Houtribweg 39, Lelystad 8221 RA, The Netherlands
| | - Manon Bourg
- Luxembourgish Veterinary and Food Administration (ALVA), State Veterinary Laboratory, 1 Rue Louis Rech, Dudelange 3555, Luxembourg
| | - Francois-Xavier Briand
- Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l’Alimentation, de l’Environnement et du Travail, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Unité de Virologie, Immunologie, Parasitologie Avaires et Cunicoles, 41 Rue de Beaucemaine – BP 53, Ploufragan 22440, France
| | - Caroline Bröjer
- Department of Pathology and Wildlife Disease, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden
| | - Ian H Brown
- WOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Brigitte Brugger
- Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority, Austurvegur 64, Selfoss 800, Iceland
| | - Alexander M P Byrne
- WOAH/FAO international reference laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, United Kingdom
| | - Armend Cana
- Kosovo Food and Veterinary Agency, Sector of Serology and Molecular Diagnostics, Kosovo Food and Veterinary Laboratory, Str Lidhja e Pejes, Prishtina 10000, Kosovo
| | - Vasiliki Christodoulou
- Laboratory for Animal Health Virology Section Veterinary Services (1417), 79, Athalassa Avenue Aglantzia, Nicosia 2109, Cyprus
| | - Zuzana Dirbakova
- Department of Animal Health, State Veterinary Institute, Pod Dráhami 918, Zvolen 96086, Slovakia
| | - Teresa Fagulha
- I.P. (INIAV, I.P.), Avenida da República, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Quinta do Marquês, Oeiras 2780 – 157, Portugal
| | - Ron A M Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, Rotterdam 3015 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Garza-Cuartero
- Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL), Backweston Campus, Stacumny Lane, Celbridge, Co. Kildare W23 X3PH, Ireland
| | - George Georgiades
- Thessaloniki Veterinary Centre (TVC), Department of Avian Diseases, 26th October Street 80, Thessaloniki 54627, Greece
| | - Britt Gjerset
- Immunology & Virology department, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Arboretveien 57, Oslo Pb 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Beatrice Grasland
- Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l’Alimentation, de l’Environnement et du Travail, Laboratoire de Ploufragan-Plouzané-Niort, Unité de Virologie, Immunologie, Parasitologie Avaires et Cunicoles, 41 Rue de Beaucemaine – BP 53, Ploufragan 22440, France
| | - Oxana Groza
- Republican Center for Veterinary Diagnostics (NRL), 3 street Murelor, Chisinau 2051, Republic of Moldova
| | - Timm Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems 17493, Germany
| | - Ana Margarida Henriques
- I.P. (INIAV, I.P.), Avenida da República, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Quinta do Marquês, Oeiras 2780 – 157, Portugal
| | - Charlotte Kristiane Hjulsager
- Department for Virus and Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 5 Artillerivej, Copenhagen DK-2300, Denmark
| | - Emiliya Ivanova
- National Reference Laboratory for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, National Diagnostic and Research Veterinary Medical Institute (NDRVMI), 190 Lomsko Shose Blvd., Sofia 1231, Bulgaria
| | - Zygimantas Janeliunas
- National Food and Veterinary Risk Assessment Institute (NFVRAI), Kairiukscio str. 10, Vilnius 08409, Lithuania
| | - Laura Krivko
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment (BIOR), Laboratory of Microbilogy and Pathology, 3 Lejupes Street, Riga 1076, Latvia
| | - Ken Lemon
- Virological Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Veterinary Sciences Division, Department of Virology, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute (AFBI), Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland
| | - Yuan Liang
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Grønnegårdsvej 15, Frederiksberg 1870, Denmark
| | - Aldin Lika
- Animal Health Department, Food Safety and Veterinary Institute, Rruga Aleksandër Moisiu 10, Tirana 1001, Albania
| | - Péter Malik
- Veterinary Diagnostic Directorate (NEBIH), Laboratory of Virology, National Food Chain Safety Office, Tábornok utca 2, Budapest 1143, Hungary
| | - Michael J McMenamy
- Virological Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Veterinary Sciences Division, Department of Virology, Agri-Food and Bioscience Institute (AFBI), Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland
| | - Alexander Nagy
- Department of Molecular Biology, State Veterinary Institute Prague, Sídlištní 136/24, Praha 6-Lysolaje 16503, Czech Republic
| | - Imbi Nurmoja
- National Centre for Laboratory Research and Risk Assessment (LABRIS), Kreutzwaldi 30, Tartu 51006, Estonia
| | - Iuliana Onita
- Institute for Diagnosis and Animal Health (IDAH), Str. Dr. Staicovici 63, Bucharest 050557, Romania
| | - Anne Pohlmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems 17493, Germany
| | - Sandra Revilla-Fernández
- Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety (AGES), Institute for Veterinary Disease Control, Robert Koch Gasse 17, Mödling 2340, Austria
| | - Azucena Sánchez-Sánchez
- Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Laboratorio Central de Veterinaria (LCV), Ctra. M-106, Km 1,4 Algete, Madrid 28110, Spain
| | - Vladimir Savic
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Poultry Centre, Heinzelova 55, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Brigita Slavec
- University of Ljubljana – Veterinary Faculty/National Veterinary Institute, Gerbičeva 60, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
| | - Krzysztof Smietanka
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, Puławy 24-100, Poland
| | - Chantal J Snoeck
- Luxembourg Institute of Health (LIH), Department of Infection and Immunity, 29 Rue Henri Koch, Esch-sur-Alzette 4354, Luxembourg
| | - Mieke Steensels
- Avian Virology and Immunology, Sciensano, Rue Groeselenberg 99, Ukkel 1180, Ukkel, Belgium
| | - Vilhjálmur Svansson
- Biomedical Center, Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldnavegi 3 112 Reykjavík Ssn. 650269 4549, Keldur 851, Iceland
| | - Edyta Swieton
- Department of Poultry Diseases, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantow 57, Puławy 24-100, Poland
| | - Niina Tammiranta
- Finnish Food Authority, Animal Health Diagnostic Unit, Veterinary Virology, Mustialankatu 3, Helsinki FI-00790, Finland
| | - Martin Tinak
- Department of Animal Health, State Veterinary Institute, Pod Dráhami 918, Zvolen 96086, Slovakia
| | - Steven Van Borm
- Avian Virology and Immunology, Sciensano, Rue Groeselenberg 99, Ukkel 1180, Ukkel, Belgium
| | - Siamak Zohari
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), Travvägen 20, Uppsala 75189, Sweden
| | - Cornelia Adlhoch
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Gustav III:s boulevard 40, Solna 169 73, Sweden
| | | | - Calogero Terregino
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
| | - Isabella Monne
- European Reference Laboratory (EURL) for Avian Influenza and Newcastle Disease, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, viale dell'universita 10, Legnaro, Padua 35020, Italy
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Beyit AD, Meki IK, Barry Y, Haki ML, El Ghassem A, Hamma SM, Abdelwahab N, Doumbia B, Ahmed Benane H, Daf DS, Sidatt ZEA, Ould Mekhalla L, El Mamy B, Gueya MOB, Settypalli TBK, Ouled Ahmed Ben Ali H, Datta S, Cattoli G, Lamien CE, Dundon WG. Avian influenza H5N1 in a great white pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), Mauritania 2022. Vet Res Commun 2023; 47:2193-2197. [PMID: 36930249 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-023-10100-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
In February 2022, mortalities among great white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus) were reported in the Parc National de Diawling, southwestern Mauritania. Samples were collected and processed, indicating the presence of high pathogenicity avian influenza subtype H5N1. A nearly complete genome was generated for one sample, revealing a high similarity [> 99.5% (H5) nucleotide sequence identity] with Clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 identified in Europe in 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellahi Diambar Beyit
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Irene K Meki
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Yahya Barry
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Mohamed Lemine Haki
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Abdellahi El Ghassem
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Sidi Mohamed Hamma
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Navee Abdelwahab
- Office National de Recherches Et de Développement de L'Elevage Et du Pastoralisme (ONARDEP), Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Baba Doumbia
- Direction Des Services Vétérinarie (DVS), Ministère de L'Elevage, Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | - Hacen Ahmed Benane
- Direction Des Services Vétérinarie (DVS), Ministère de L'Elevage, Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | | | | | | | - Bezeid El Mamy
- REDISSE III-MR, Ministère de L'Elevage, Nouakchott, Mauritania
- Institut Supérieur d'Enseignement Technologique (ISET) de Rosso, Ministère de L'Enseignement Supérieur, Nouakchott, Mauritania
| | | | - Tirumala Bharani Kumar Settypalli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Hatem Ouled Ahmed Ben Ali
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sneha Datta
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giovanni Cattoli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Charles E Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - William G Dundon
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Animal Production and Health Section, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Joint FAO/IAEA Division, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria.
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4
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Khalil AM, Esaki M, Okuya K, Ozawa M. Stability of the Virucidal Activity of Commercial Disinfectants against Avian Influenza Viruses under Different Environmental Conditions. Pathogens 2023; 12:1382. [PMID: 38133267 PMCID: PMC10745779 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12121382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) have caused outbreaks in both domestic and wild birds during the winter seasons in several countries in the Northern Hemisphere, most likely because virus-infected wild ducks overwinter and serve as the primary source of infection for other birds in these countries. Several chemical disinfectants are available to deactivate these viruses outside a living organism. However, their virucidal activity is known to be compromised by various factors, including temperature and contamination with organic matter. Hence, the effectiveness of virucidal activity under winter field conditions is crucial for managing HPAIV outbreaks. To investigate the impact of the winter field conditions on the virucidal activity of disinfectants against AIVs, we assessed the stability of the virucidal activity of seven representative disinfectants that are commercially available for poultry farms in Japan against both LPAIVs and HPAIVs under cold and/or organic contamination conditions. Of the seven disinfectants examined, the ortho-dichlorobenzene/cresol-based disinfectant exhibited the most consistent virucidal activity under winter field conditions, regardless of the virus pathogenicity or subtype tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Department of Pathogenetic and Preventive Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; (A.M.K.); (M.E.); (K.O.)
- United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - Mana Esaki
- Department of Pathogenetic and Preventive Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; (A.M.K.); (M.E.); (K.O.)
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Kosuke Okuya
- Department of Pathogenetic and Preventive Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; (A.M.K.); (M.E.); (K.O.)
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
| | - Makoto Ozawa
- Department of Pathogenetic and Preventive Veterinary Science, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan; (A.M.K.); (M.E.); (K.O.)
- United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi 753-8515, Japan
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Research Center, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan
- Kagoshima Crane Conservation Committee, Izumi 899-0208, Japan
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Abolnik C, Phiri T, Peyrot B, de Beer R, Snyman A, Roberts D, Ludynia K, Jordaan F, Maartens M, Ismail Z, Strydom C, van der Zel G, Anthony J, Daniell N, De Boni L, Grewar J, Olivier A, Roberts L. The Molecular Epidemiology of Clade 2.3.4.4B H5N1 High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza in Southern Africa, 2021-2022. Viruses 2023; 15:1383. [PMID: 37376682 DOI: 10.3390/v15061383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In southern Africa, clade 2.3.4.4B H5N1 high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) was first detected in South African (SA) poultry in April 2021, followed by outbreaks in poultry or wild birds in Lesotho and Botswana. In this study, the complete or partial genomes of 117 viruses from the SA outbreaks in 2021-2022 were analyzed to decipher the sub-regional spread of the disease. Our analysis showed that seven H5N1 sub-genotypes were associated with the initial outbreaks, but by late 2022 only two sub-genotypes still circulated. Furthermore, SA poultry was not the source of Lesotho's outbreaks, and the latter was most likely an introduction from wild birds. Similarly, SA and Botswana's outbreaks in 2021 were unrelated, but viruses of Botswana's unique sub-genotype were introduced into SA later in 2022 causing an outbreak in ostriches. At least 83% of SA's commercial poultry cases in 2021-2022 were point introductions from wild birds. Like H5N8 HPAI in 2017-2018, a coastal seabird-restricted sub-lineage of H5N1 viruses emerged in the Western Cape province in 2021 and spread to Namibia, causing mortalities in Cape Cormorants. In SA ~24,000 of this endangered species died, and the loss of >300 endangered African penguins further threatens biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Abolnik
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Thandeka Phiri
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Belinda Peyrot
- Provincial Veterinary Laboratory, Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Renee de Beer
- Provincial Veterinary Laboratory, Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Albert Snyman
- Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB), Cape Town 7441, South Africa
| | - David Roberts
- Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB), Cape Town 7441, South Africa
| | - Katrin Ludynia
- Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB), Cape Town 7441, South Africa
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | | | | | - Zehaad Ismail
- SMT Veterinary Laboratory, Irene, Pretoria 0178, South Africa
| | - Christine Strydom
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
- SMT Veterinary Laboratory, Irene, Pretoria 0178, South Africa
| | - Gerbrand van der Zel
- Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
| | - Jade Anthony
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Nadine Daniell
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Liesl De Boni
- Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
| | - John Grewar
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
- jDATA (Pty) Ltd., Sandbaai 7200, South Africa
| | - Adriaan Olivier
- South African Ostrich Business Chamber, Oudtshoorn 6620, South Africa
| | - Laura Roberts
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
- Department of Agriculture, Western Cape Government, Elsenburg 7607, South Africa
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