Nanotechnology and the treatment of HIV infection

Histomorphometric changes in testis following administration of tenofovir nanoparticles in an animal model

BACKGROUND

Nanoparticle-based drugs are new inventions in the management of the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pandemic, especially resistant forms of the virus in anatomical sanctuary sites and organs such as the testis. However, safety issues must be resolved to attain the optimal potential of newer nano-drug formulations.

AIM

The study investigated the toxicological potential of synthesized Tenofovir Nanoparticles (TDF-N) on testicular indices when used for the prevention and treatment of HIV.

METHODOLOGY

Fifteen male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with weight ranging from 230 g to 250 g were randomly assigned into groups A (control, saline), B (TDF), and C (TDF-N). The testes were removed for sperm analysis and processed for H/E and PAS stains. Cell counts and cellular measurements; the diameter and the area of the testicular seminiferous tubules were measured using ImageJ and Leica software 2.0.

RESULTS

A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in sperm count was noticed in the TDF-N group. Also observed in the TDF and TDF-N groups was a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in sperm motility and in the number of dead sperms compared with the control. Sperm abnormalities such as distorted basement membranes, loss of germ cells, hypocellular interstitium, and loss of spermatogenic series were increased in the TDF and TDF-N groups. There was also a significant reduction (p < 0.05) in the cell count, diameter, and area of seminiferous tubules observed in these groups.

CONCLUSION

TDF and TDF-N may be detrimental to the testis and testicular tissue, leading to significantly reduced sperm counts, motility, and ultimately-male fertility.

Nanoscale Interaction Mechanisms of Antiviral Activity

Nanomaterials have now found applications across all segments of society including but not limited to energy, environment, defense, agriculture, purification, food medicine, diagnostics, and others. The pandemic and the vulnerability of humankind to emerging viruses and other infectious diseases has renewed interest in nanoparticles as a potential new class of antivirals. In fact, a growing body of evidence in the literature suggests nanoparticles may have activity against multiple viruses including HIV, HNV, SARS-CoV-2, HBV, HCV, HSV, RSV, and others. The most described antiviral nanoparticles include copper, alloys, and oxides including zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium oxide, iron oxide, and their composites, nitrides, and other ceramic nanoparticles, as well as gold and silver nanoparticles, and sulfated and nonsulfated polysaccharides and other sulfated polymers including galactan, cellulose, polyethylenimine, chitosan/chitin, and others. Nanoparticles, synthesized via the biological or green method, also have great importance and are under major consideration these days, as their method of synthesis is easy, reliable, cost-effective, efficient, and eco-friendly, and is done using easily available sources such as bacteria, actinomycetes, yeast, fungi, algae, herbs, and plants, in comparison to chemically mediated synthesis. Chemical synthesis is highly expensive and involves toxic solvents, high pressure, energy, and high temperature conversion. Examples of biologically synthesized NPs include iron oxide, Cu and CuO NPs, and platinum and palladium NPs. In contrast to traditional medications, nanomedications have multiple advantages: their small size, increased surface to volume ratio, improved pharmacokinetics, improved biodistribution, and targeted delivery. In terms of antiviral activity, nanoscale interactions represent a unique mode of action. As reviewed here their biomedical application as an antiviral has shown four major mechanisms: (1) direct viral interaction prohibiting the virus from infecting the cell, (2) interaction to receptor or cell surface preventing the virus from entering the host cells, (3) preventing the replication of the virus, or (4) other processing mechanisms which inhibit the spread of virus. Here these pharmacologic mechanisms are reviewed and the challenges for technology translation are discussed in more detail.

Active targeting of CD4+T lymphocytes by PEI-capped, peptide-functionalized gold nanoparticles

Active targeting is a promising approach for the treatment of viral infections. In particular, site-specific formulations for the treatment of HIV infection may overcome challenges associated with current ARV regimens. In this study we explored active targeting by synthesizing a gold nanoparticle construct decorated with an anti-CD4 cyclic peptide. The aim was to demonstrate selectivity of the system for the CD4 receptor and to deliver the RNA payload into T-lymphocytes. Colloidal gold nanoparticles functionalized withN-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio) propionate (SPDP) were formed by a one-pot synthesis method where thiol modified polyethyleneimine (PEI) was mixed with chloroauric acid. PEI-SPDP AuNPs (gold nanoparticles) were conjugated to an anti-CD4 peptide and loaded with RNA. We measured toxicity and uptake using TZM-bl and HeLa cells. Our findings show that the nanoparticles bind selectively to CD4 + cells. UV-vis characterisation of the nanoparticles revealed a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 527 nm, corresponding to a 6 nm diameter. HRTEM of the complete nanoparticles visualised circular shaped particles with average diameter of ∼7 nm. The polydispersity index was calculated to be 0.08, indicating monodispersity of complete NPS in solution. Through the pyridine-2-thione assay each nanoparticle was calculated to carry 1.37 × 10⁵SPDP molecules available for peptide binding. Flow cytometry showed that 13.6% of TZM-bl cells, and 0.14% of HeLa cells retained fluorescence after an overnight incubation, an indication of system binding. No internal RNA delivery was demonstrated. Further work is required to improve internalization.

Use of Nanomaterials for Diagnosis and Treatment: The Advancement of Next-Generation Antiviral Therapy

Globally, viral illness propagation is the leading cause of morbidity and death, causing wreaking havoc on socioeconomic development and health care systems. The rise of infected individuals has outpaced the existing critical care facilities. Early and sophisticated methods are desperately required in this respect to halt the spread of the infection. Therefore, early detection of infectious agents and an early treatment approach may help minimize viral outbreaks. Conventional point-of-care diagnostic techniques such as computed tomography scan, quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), X-ray, and immunoassay are still deemed valuable. However, the labor demanding, low sensitivity, and complex infrastructure needed for these methods preclude their use in distant areas. Nanotechnology has emerged as a potentially transformative technology due to its promise as an effective theranostic platform for diagnosing and treating viral infection, circumventing the limits of traditional techniques. Their unique physical and chemical characteristics make nanoparticles (NPs) advantageous for drug delivery platforms due to their size, encapsulation efficiency, improved bioavailability, effectiveness, immunogenicity, and antiviral response. This study discusses the recent research on nanotechnology-based treatments designed to combat new viruses.

Polymer-hybrid nanosystems for antiviral applications: Current advances

The emergence of many new viruses in recent times has resulted in a significant scientific challenge for discovering drugs and vaccines that effectively treat and prevent viral diseases. Nanotechnology has opened doors to prevent the spread of several diseases, including those caused by viruses. Polymer-hybrid nanodevices are a class of nanotechnology platforms for biomedical applications that present synergistic properties among their components, with improved performance compared to conventional forms of therapy. Considering the growing interest in this emerging field and the promising technological advantages of polymer-hybrid nanodevices, this work presents the current status of these systems in the context of prevention and treatment of viral diseases. A brief description of the different types of polymer-hybrid nanodevices highlighting some peculiar characteristics such as their composition, biodistribution, delivery of antigens, and overall immune responses in systemic tissues are discussed. Finally, the work presents the future trends for new nanotechnological hybrid materials based on polymers and perspectives for clinical use.

Emerging 2D materials for antimicrobial applications in the pre- and post-pandemic era

Infectious diseases caused by viral or bacterial pathogens are one of the most serious threats to humanity. Moreover, they may lead to pandemics, as we have witnessed severely with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Nanotechnology, including technological developments of nano-sized materials, has brought great opportunities to control the spreading of such diseases. In the family of nano-sized materials, two-dimensional (2D) materials with intrinsic physicochemical properties can efficiently favor antimicrobial activity and maintain a safer environment to protect people against pathogens. For this purpose, they can be used alone or combined for the disinfection process of microbes, antiviral or antibacterial surface coatings, air filtering of medical equipment like face masks, or antimicrobial drug delivery systems. At the same time, they are promising candidates to deal with the issues of conventional antimicrobial approaches such as low efficacy and high cost. This review covers the antiviral or antibacterial activities of 2D materials and highlights their current and possible future applications. Considering their intrinsic properties, 2D materials will become part of the leading antimicrobial technologies for combating future pandemics anytime soon.

Carbohydrates-based diagnosis, prophylaxis and treatment of infectious diseases: Special emphasis on COVID-19

COVID-19 pandemic is taking a dangerous turn due to unavailability of approved and effective vaccines and therapy. Currently available diagnostic techniques are time-consuming, expensive, and maybe impacted by the mutations produced in the virus. Therefore, investigation of novel, rapid, and economic diagnosis techniques, prophylactic vaccines and targeted efficacious drug delivery systems as treatment strategy is imperative. Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules which also act as markers in the realization of immune systems. Moreover, they exhibit antiviral, antimicrobial, and antifungal properties. Carbohydrate-based vaccines and therapeutics including stimuli sensitive systems can be developed successfully and used effectively to fight COVID-19. Thus, carbohydrate-based diagnostic, prophylactic and therapeutic alternatives could be promising to defeat COVID-19 propitiously. Morphology of SARS-CoV-2 and its relevance in devising combat strategies has been discussed. Carbohydrate-based approaches for tackling infectious diseases and their importance in the design of various diagnostic and treatment modalities have been reviewed.

Nanoparticles and Its Implications in HIV/AIDS Therapy

The use of Antiretroviral drugs in treating HIV/ AIDS patients has enormously increased their life spans with serious disadvantages. The virus infection still remains a public health problem worldwide with no cure and vaccine for the viral agent until now. The use of nanoparticles (NPs) for the treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS is an emerging technology of the 21st century. NPs are solid and colloid particles with 10 nm to <1000 nm size range; although, less than 200 nm is the recommended size for nanomedical usage. There are NPs with therapeutic capabilities such as liposomes, micelles, dendrimers and nanocapsules. The particle enters the body mainly via oral intake, direct injection and inhalation. It has been proven to have potentials of advancing the prevention and treatment of the viral agent. Certain NPs have been shown to have selftherapeutic activity for the virus in vitro. Strategies that are novel are emerging which can be used to improve nanotechnology, such as genetic treatment and immunotherapy. In this review, nanoparticles, the types and its characteristics in drug delivery were discussed. The light was furthermore shed on its implications in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS.

Lipid Nanocarriers for Anti-HIV Therapeutics: A Focus on Physicochemical Properties and Biotechnological Advances

Since HIV was first identified, and in a relatively short period of time, AIDS has become one of the most devastating infectious diseases of the 21st century. Classical antiretroviral therapies were a major step forward in disease treatment options, significantly improving the survival rates of HIV-infected individuals. Even though these therapies have greatly improved HIV clinical outcomes, antiretrovirals (ARV) feature biopharmaceutic and pharmacokinetic problems such as poor aqueous solubility, short half-life, and poor penetration into HIV reservoir sites, which contribute to the suboptimal efficacy of these regimens. To overcome some of these issues, novel nanotechnology-based strategies for ARV delivery towards HIV viral reservoirs have been proposed. The current review is focused on the benefits of using lipid-based nanocarriers for tuning the physicochemical properties of ARV to overcome biological barriers upon administration. Furthermore, a correlation between these properties and the potential therapeutic outcomes has been established. Biotechnological advancements using lipid nanocarriers for RNA interference (RNAi) delivery for the treatment of HIV infections were also discussed.

Nanobased Platforms for Diagnosis and Treatment of COVID-19: From Benchtop to Bedside

Human respiratory viral infections are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality around the world. Among the various respiratory viruses, coronaviruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2) have created the greatest challenge and most frightening health threat worldwide. Human coronaviruses typically infect the upper respiratory tract, causing illnesses that range from common cold-like symptoms to severe acute respiratory infections. Several promising vaccine formulations have become available since the beginning of 2021. Nevertheless, achievement of herd immunity is still far from being realized. Social distancing remains the only effective measure against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nanobiotechnology enables the design of nanobiosensors. These nanomedical diagnostic devices have opened new vistas for early detection of viral infections. The present review outlines recent research on the effectiveness of nanoplatforms as diagnostic and antiviral tools against coronaviruses. The biological properties of coronavirus and infected host organs are discussed. The challenges and limitations encountered in combating SARS-CoV-2 are highlighted. Potential nanodevices such as nanosensors, nanobased vaccines, and smart nanomedicines are subsequently presented for combating current and future mutated versions of coronaviruses.

SARS-CoV-2 and its new variants: a comprehensive review on nanotechnological application insights into potential approaches

SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) spreads and develops quickly worldwide as a new global crisis which has left deep socio-economic damage and massive human mortality. This virus accounts for the ongoing outbreak and forces an urgent need to improve antiviral therapeutics and targeted diagnosing tools. Researchers have been working to find a new drug to combat the virus since the outbreak started in late 2019, but there are currently no successful drugs to control the SARS-CoV-2, which makes the situation riskier. Very recently, new variant of SARS-CoV-2 is identified in many countries which make the situation very critical. No successful treatment has yet been shown although enormous international commitment to combat this pandemic and the start of different clinical trials. Nanomedicine has outstanding potential to solve several specific health issues, like viruses, which are regarded a significant medical issue. In this review, we presented an up-to-date drug design strategy against SARS-CoV-2, including the development of novel drugs and repurposed product potentials were useful, and successful drugs discovery is a constant requirement. The use of nanomaterials in treatment against SARS-CoV-2 and their use as carriers for the transport of the most frequently used antiviral therapeutics are discussed systematically here. We also addressed the possibilities of practical applications of nanoparticles to give the status of COVID-19 antiviral systems.

Applications of Nanoparticles for Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Treatment

In recent years, the growing studies focused on the immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma and proved the preclinical and clinical promises of host antitumor immune response. However, there were still various obstacles in meeting satisfactory clinic need, such as low response rate, primary resistance and secondary resistance to immunotherapy. Tackling these barriers required a deeper understanding of immune underpinnings and a broader understanding of advanced technology. This review described immune microenvironment of liver and HCC which naturally decided the complexity of immunotherapy, and summarized recent immunotherapy focusing on different points. The ever-growing clues indicated that the instant killing of tumor cell and the subsequent relive of immunosuppressive microenvironment were both indis- pensables. The nanotechnology applied in immunotherapy and the combination with intervention technology was also discussed.

Nanoscale pathogens treated with nanomaterial-like peptides: a platform technology appropriate for future pandemics

Viral infections are historically very difficult to treat. Although imperfect and time-consuming to develop, we do have some conventional vaccine and therapeutic approaches to stop viral spreading. Most importantly, all of this takes significant time while viruses continue to wreak havoc on our healthcare system. Furthermore, viral infections are accompanied by a weakened immune system which is often overlooked in antiviral drug strategies and requires additional drug development. In this review, for the first time, we touch on some promising alternative approaches to treat viral infections, specifically those focused on the use of platform nanomaterials with antiviral peptides. In doing so, this review presents a timely discussion of how we need to change our old way of treating viruses into one that can quickly meet the demands of COVID-19, as well as future pandemic-causing viruses, which will come.

Nanotechnology-based antiviral therapeutics

The host immune system is highly compromised in case of viral infections and relapses are very common. The capacity of the virus to destroy the host cell by liberating its own DNA or RNA and replicating inside the host cell poses challenges in the development of antiviral therapeutics. In recent years, many new technologies have been explored for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of viral infections. Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most promising technologies on account of its ability to deal with viral diseases in an effective manner, addressing the limitations of traditional antiviral medicines. It has not only helped us to overcome problems related to solubility and toxicity of drugs, but also imparted unique properties to drugs, which in turn has increased their potency and selectivity toward viral cells against the host cells. The initial part of the paper focuses on some important proteins of influenza, Ebola, HIV, herpes, Zika, dengue, and corona virus and those of the host cells important for their entry and replication into the host cells. This is followed by different types of nanomaterials which have served as delivery vehicles for the antiviral drugs. It includes various lipid-based, polymer-based, lipid-polymer hybrid-based, carbon-based, inorganic metal-based, surface-modified, and stimuli-sensitive nanomaterials and their application in antiviral therapeutics. The authors also highlight newer promising treatment approaches like nanotraps, nanorobots, nanobubbles, nanofibers, nanodiamonds, nanovaccines, and mathematical modeling for the future. The paper has been updated with the recent developments in nanotechnology-based approaches in view of the ongoing pandemic of COVID-19.Graphical abstract.

Nanoparticle delivery system, highly active antiretroviral therapy, and testicular morphology: The role of stereology

The conjugation of nanoparticles (NPs) with antiretroviral drugs is a drug delivery approach with great potential for managing HIV infections. Despite their promise, recent studies have highlighted the toxic effects of nanoparticles on testicular tissue and their impact on sperm morphology. This review explores the role of stereological techniques in assessing the testicular morphology in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) when a nanoparticle drug delivery system is used. Also, NPs penetration and pharmacokinetics concerning the testicular tissue and blood-testis barrier form the vital part of this review. More so, various classes of NPs employed in biomedical and clinical research to deliver antiretroviral drugs were thoroughly discussed. In addition, considerations for minimizing nanoparticle-drugs toxicity, ensuring enhanced permeability of nanoparticles, maximizing drug efficacy, ensuring adequate bioavailability, and formulation of HAART-NPs fabrication are well discussed.

Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles Against Viral Infections

Viral infections, in addition to damaging host cells, can compromise the host immune system, leading to frequent relapse or long-term persistence. Viruses have the capacity to destroy the host cell while liberating their own RNA or DNA in order to replicate within additional host cells. The viral life cycle makes it challenging to develop anti-viral drugs. Nanotechnology-based approaches have been suggested to deal effectively with viral diseases, and overcome some limitations of anti-viral drugs. Nanotechnology has enabled scientists to overcome the challenges of solubility and toxicity of anti-viral drugs, and can enhance their selectivity towards viruses and virally infected cells, while preserving healthy host cells. Chitosan is a naturally occurring polymer that has been used to construct nanoparticles (NPs), which are biocompatible, biodegradable, less toxic, easy to prepare, and can function as effective drug delivery systems (DDSs). Furthermore, chitosan is Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA). Chitosan NPs have been used in drug delivery by the oral, ocular, pulmonary, nasal, mucosal, buccal, or vaginal routes. They have also been studied for gene delivery, vaccine delivery, and advanced cancer therapy. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that chitosan NPs could be used as new therapeutic tools against viral infections. In this review we summarize reports concerning the therapeutic potential of chitosan NPs against various viral infections.

Nanomedicine for COVID-19: the role of nanotechnology in the treatment and diagnosis of COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the recent outbreak of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Although nearly two decades have passed since the emergence of pandemics such as SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), no effective drug against the CoV family has yet been approved, so there is a need to find newer therapeutic targets. Currently, simultaneous research across the globe is being performed to discover efficient vaccines or drugs, including both conventional therapies used to treat previous similar diseases and emerging therapies like nanomedicine. Nanomedicine has already proven its value through its application drug delivery and nanosensors in other diseases. Nanomedicine and its components can play an important role in various stages of prevention, diagnosis, treatment, vaccination, and research related to COVID-19. Nano-based antimicrobial technology can be integrated into personal equipment for the greater safety of healthcare workers and people. Various nanomaterials such as quantum dots can be used as biosensors to diagnose COVID-19. Nanotechnology offers benefits from the use of nanosystems, such as liposomes, polymeric and lipid nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, and micelles, for drug encapsulation, and facilitates the improvement of pharmacological drug properties. Antiviral functions for nanoparticles can target the binding, entry, replication, and budding of COVID-19. The toxicity-related inorganic nanoparticles are one of the limiting factors of its use that should be further investigated and modified. In this review, we are going to discuss nanomedicine options for COVID-19 management, similar applications for related viral diseases, and their gap of knowledge.

An in-depth analysis of novel combinatorial drug therapy via nanocarriers against HIV/AIDS infection and their clinical perspectives: a systematic review

Introduction: Conventional antiretroviral therapy against HIV infections is threatening to become outdated due to the low chemical, physical, biological, and pharmacokinetic characteristics of therapeutic molecules, followed by the high chance of emergence of drug resistance. Considering the co-encapsulation of multi-infection agents in a single nanocarrier is emerging to offer various benefits such as synergistic action, improved therapeutic efficacy, reduced drug resistance development, patient compliance, and economical therapy.Areas covered: A systematic review of nano-based combinatorial drug therapy was performed using various databases including Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct between 2000 and 2020. The search set was screened as per the inclusion and exclusion criteria, followed by 46 scientific articles and seven clinical studies selected for in-depth analysis.Expert opinion: There has been an immense effort to analyze the mechanism of HIV infection to develop a promising therapeutic approach, although the aim of complete prevention has not been succeeded yet. The key finding is to overcome the challenges associated with conventional therapy by the combinatorial drug in a single nanoformulation, which holds great potential for impact in the management of HIV infection.

Smart and Sustainable Nanotechnological Solutions in a Battle against COVID-19 and Beyond: A Critical Review

The variety of available biocidal features make nanomaterials promising for fighting infections. To effectively battle COVID-19, categorized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO), materials scientists and biotechnologists need to combine their knowledge to develop efficient antiviral nanomaterials. By design, nanostructured materials (spherical, two-dimensional, hybrid) can express a diverse bioactivity and unique combination of specific, nonspecific, and mixed mechanisms of antiviral action. It can be related to the material's specific features and their multiple functionalization strategies. This is a complex guiding approach in which an interaction target is constantly moving and quickly changing. On the other hand, in such a rush, sustainability may be put aside. Therefore, to elucidate the most promising nanotechnological solutions, we critically review available data within the frame of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and other types of viruses. We highlight solutions that are, or could be, more sustainable and less toxic. In this regard, reduction of the number of synthetic routes, organic solvents, byproducts, and residues is highly recommended. Such efficient, green solutions may be further used for the prevention of virion-host interactions, treatment of the already developed infection, reducing inflammation, and finally, protecting healthcare professionals with masks, fabrics, equipment, and in other associated areas. Further translation into the market needs putting on the fast track with respect to principles of green chemistry, feasibility, safety, and the environment.

Potentialities of selenium nanoparticles in biomedical science

Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) have revolutionized biomedical domain and are still developing rapidly. Hence, this perspective elaborates SeNPs properties, synthesis, and biomedical applications, together with their potential for management of SARS-CoV-2.

Monoolein-based nanoparticles containing indinavir: a taste-masked drug delivery system

OBJECTIVE

This study developed a novel child-friendly drug delivery system for pediatric HIV treatment: a liquid, taste-masked, and solvent-free monoolein-based nanoparticles formulation containing indinavir (0.1%).

SIGNIFICANCE

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy by pediatric patients is difficult because of the lack of dosage forms adequate for children.

METHODS

Monoolein-based nanoparticles were developed. The particle size, zeta potential, pH, drug content, small angle X-ray scattering, stability, in vitro drug release profile, biocompatibility, toxicity, and taste-masking properties were evaluated.

RESULTS

Monoolein-based formulations containing indinavir had nanosized particles with 155 ± 7 nm, unimodal particle size distribution, and polydispersity index of 0.16 ± 0.03. The zeta potential was negative (-31.3 ± 0.3 mV) and pH was neutral (7.78 ± 0.01). A 96% drug incorporation efficiency was achieved, and the indinavir concentration remained constant for 30 days. Polarized light microscopy revealed isotropic characteristics. Transmission electron microscopy images showed spherical shaped morphology. Small-angle X-ray scattering displayed a form factor broad peak. Indinavir had a sustained release from the nanoparticles. The system was nonirritant and was able to mask drug bitter taste.

CONCLUSIONS

Monoolein-based nanoparticles represent a suitable therapeutic strategy for antiretroviral treatment with the potential to reduce the frequency of drug administration and promote pediatric adherence.

Targeting arachidonic acid-related metabolites in COVID-19 patients: potential use of drug-loaded nanoparticles

In March 2020, The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is characterized as a global pandemic. As of September 2020, infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread to 213 countries and territories around the world, affected more than 31.5 million people, and caused more than 970,000 deaths worldwide. Although COVID-19 is a respiratory illness that mainly targets the lungs, it is currently well established that it is a multifactorial disease that affects other extra-pulmonary systems and strongly associated with a detrimental inflammatory response. Evidence has shown that SARS-CoV-2 causes perturbation in the arachidonic acid (AA) metabolic pathways; this disruption could lead to an imbalance between the pro-inflammatory metabolites of AA including mid-chain HETEs and terminal HETE (20-HETE) and the anti-inflammatory metabolites such as EETs and subterminal HETEs. Therefore, we propose novel therapeutic strategies to modulate the level of endogenous anti-inflammatory metabolites of AA and induce the patient's endogenous resolution mechanisms that will ameliorate the virus-associated systemic inflammation and enhance the primary outcomes in COVID-19 patients. Also, we propose that using nanoencapsulation of AA and its associated metabolites will contribute to the development of safer and more efficacious treatments for the management of COVID-19.

Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology-Associated Innovations against Viral Infections with a Focus on Coronaviruses

Viral infections have recently emerged not only as a health threat to people but rapidly became the cause of universal fatality on a large scale. Nanomaterials comprising functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) and quantum dots and nanotechnology-associated innovative detection methods, vaccine design, and nanodrug production have shown immense promise for interfacing with pathogenic viruses and restricting their entrance into cells. These viruses have been scrutinized using rapid diagnostic detection and therapeutic interventional options against the caused infections including vaccine development for prevention and control. Coronaviruses, namely SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2, have endangered human life, and the COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) outbreak has become a perilous challenge to public health globally with huge accompanying morbidity rates. Thus, it is imperative to expedite the drug and vaccine development efforts that would help mitigate this pandemic. In this regard, smart and innovative nano-based technologies and approaches encompassing applications of green nanomedicine, bio-inspired methods, multifunctional bioengineered nanomaterials, and biomimetic drug delivery systems/carriers can help resolve the critical issues regarding detection, prevention, and treatment of viral infections. This perspective review expounds recent nanoscience advancements for the detection and treatment of viral infections with focus on coronaviruses and encompasses nano-based formulations and delivery platforms, nanovaccines, and promising methods for clinical diagnosis, especially regarding SARS-CoV-2.

Nanomaterials Designed for Antiviral Drug Delivery Transport across Biological Barriers

Viral infections are a major global health problem, representing a significant cause of mortality with an unfavorable continuously amplified socio-economic impact. The increased drug resistance and constant viral replication have been the trigger for important studies regarding the use of nanotechnology in antiviral therapies. Nanomaterials offer unique physico-chemical properties that have linked benefits for drug delivery as ideal tools for viral treatment. Currently, different types of nanomaterials namely nanoparticles, liposomes, nanospheres, nanogels, nanosuspensions and nanoemulsions were studied either in vitro or in vivo for drug delivery of antiviral agents with prospects to be translated in clinical practice. This review highlights the drug delivery nanosystems incorporating the major antiviral classes and their transport across specific barriers at cellular and intracellular level. Important reflections on nanomedicines currently approved or undergoing investigations for the treatment of viral infections are also discussed. Finally, the authors present an overview on the requirements for the design of antiviral nanotherapeutics.

Silver nanoparticles for delivery purposes

The synthesis of nanostructured materials can be considered a research field of high importance, especially in the recent past, due to the unique properties that make these materials applicable in different fields of science and technology. Metallic nanoparticles gained significant interest due to the possibility to obtain them through biological means, among other techniques. Silver nanoparticles are some of the most investigated metallic nanoparticles, due to their recognized anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral potential. This chapter aims to summarize the emerging efforts to address current challenges and solutions in the treatment of infectious diseases, particularly through the use of silver nanoparticles biosynthesized via microbes and plants pathways.

Recent advances in siRNA delivery mediated by lipid-based nanoparticles

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) has been expected to be a unique pharmaceutic for the treatment of broad-spectrum intractable diseases. However, its unfavorable properties such as easy degradation in the blood and negative-charge density are still a formidable barrier for clinical use. For disruption of this barrier, siRNA delivery technology has been significantly advanced in the past two decades. The approval of Patisiran (ONPATTRO™) for the treatment of transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis, the first approved siRNA drug, is a most important milestone. Since lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) are used in Patisiran, LNP-based siRNA delivery is now of significant interest for the development of the next siRNA formulation. In this review, we describe the design of LNPs for the improvement of siRNA properties, bioavailability, and pharmacokinetics. Recently, a number of siRNA-encapsulated LNPs were reported for the treatment of intractable diseases such as cancer, viral infection, inflammatory neurological disorder, and genetic diseases. We believe that these contributions address and will promote the development of an effective LNP-based siRNA delivery system and siRNA formulation.

Nanotechnology approaches for delivery of cytochrome P450 substrates in HIV treatment

Introduction: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has led to a significant reduction in HIV-1 morbidity and mortality. Many antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) are metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) pathway, and the majority of these drugs are also either CYP inhibitors or inducers and few possess both activities. These CYP substrates, when used for HIV treatment in the conventional dosage form, have limitations such as low systemic bioavailability, potential drug-drug interactions, and short half-lives. Thus, an alternative mode of delivery is needed in contrast to conventional ARVs. Areas covered: In this review, we summarized the limitations of conventional ARVs in HIV treatment, especially for ARVs which are CYP substrates. We also discussed the preclinical and clinical studies using the nanotechnology strategy to overcome the limitations of these CYP substrates. The preclinical studies and clinical studies published from 2000 to February 2019 were discussed. Expert opinion: Since preclinical and clinical studies for prevention and treatment of HIV using nanotechnology approaches have shown considerable promise in recent years, nanotechnology could become an alternative strategy for daily oral therapy as a future treatment.

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors Nanosystems Designed for Drug Stability and Controlled Delivery

An in-depth analysis of nanotechnology applications for the improvement of solubility, distribution, bioavailability and stability of reverse transcriptase inhibitors is reported. Current clinically used nucleoside and non-nucleoside agents, included in combination therapies, were examined in the present survey, as drugs belonging to these classes are the major component of highly active antiretroviral treatments. The inclusion of such agents into supramolecular vesicular systems, such as liposomes, niosomes and lipid solid NPs, overcomes several drawbacks related to the action of these drugs, including drug instability and unfavorable pharmacokinetics. Overall results reported in the literature show that the performances of these drugs could be significantly improved by inclusion into nanosystems.

Pharmacokinetic stability of macrocyclic peptide triazole HIV-1 inactivators alone and in liposomes

Previously, we reported the discovery of macrocyclic peptide triazoles (cPTs) that bind to HIV-1 Env gp120, inhibit virus cell infection with nanomolar potencies, and cause irreversible virion inactivation. Given the appealing virus-killing activity of cPTs and resistance to protease cleavage observed in vitro, we here investigated in vivo pharmacokinetics of the cPT AAR029b. AAR029b was investigated both alone and encapsulated in a PEGylated liposome formulation that was designed to slowly release inhibitor. Pharmacokinetic analysis in rats showed that the half-life of FITC-AAR029b was substantial both alone and liposome-encapsulated, 2.92 and 8.87 hours, respectively. Importantly, liposome-encapsulated FITC-AAR029b exhibited a 15-fold reduced clearance rate from serum compared with the free FITC-cPT. This work thus demonstrated both the in vivo stability of cPT alone and the extent of pharmacokinetic enhancement via liposome encapsulation. The results obtained open the way to further develop cPTs as long-acting HIV-1 inactivators against HIV-1 infection.

Nanoformulations: A Valuable Tool in the Therapy of Viral Diseases Attacking Humans and Animals

Various viruses can be considered as one of the most frequent causes of human diseases, from mild illnesses to really serious sicknesses that end fatally. Numerous viruses are also pathogenic to animals and plants, and many of them, mutating, become pathogenic also to humans. Several cases of affecting humans by originally animal viruses have been confirmed. Viral infections cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans, the increase of which is caused by general immunosuppression of the world population, changes in climate, and overall globalization. In spite of the fact that the pharmaceutical industry pays great attention to human viral infections, many of clinically used antivirals demonstrate also increased toxicity against human cells, limited bioavailability, and thus, not entirely suitable therapeutic profile. In addition, due to resistance, a combination of antivirals is needed for life-threatening infections. Thus, the development of new antiviral agents is of great importance for the control of virus spread. On the other hand, the discovery and development of structurally new antivirals represent risks. Therefore, another strategy is being developed, namely the reformulation of existing antivirals into nanoformulations and investigation of various metal and metalloid nanoparticles with respect to their diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic antiviral applications. This chapter is focused on nanoscale materials/formulations with the potential to be used for the treatment or inhibition of the spread of viral diseases caused by human immunodeficiency virus, influenza A viruses (subtypes H3N2 and H1N1), avian influenza and swine influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, Ebola and Marburg viruses, Newcastle disease virus, dengue and Zika viruses, and pseudorabies virus. Effective antiviral long-lasting and target-selective nanoformulations developed for oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intranasal, intrarectal, intravaginal, and intradermal applications are discussed. Benefits of nanoparticle-based vaccination formulations with the potential to secure cross protection against divergent viruses are outlined as well.

Investigating Organ Toxicity Profile of Tenofovir and Tenofovir Nanoparticle on the Liver and Kidney: Experimental Animal Study

Tenofovir nanoparticles are novel therapeutic intervention in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection reaching the virus in their sanctuary sites. However, there has been no systemic toxicity testing of this formulation despite global concerns on the safety of nano drugs. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the toxicity of Tenofovir nanoparticle (NTDF) on the liver and kidney using an animal model. Fifteen adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats maintained at the animal house of the biomedical resources unit of the University of KwaZulu-Natal were weighed and divided into three groups. Control animals (A) were administered with normal saline (NS). The therapeutic doses of Tenofovir (TDF) and nanoparticles of Tenofovir (NTDF) were administered to group B and C and observed for signs of stress for four weeks after which animals were weighed and sacrificed. Liver and kidney were removed and fixed in formal saline, processed and stained using H/E, PAS and MT stains for light microscopy. Serum was obtained for renal function test (RFT) and liver function test (LFT). Cellular measurements and capturing were done using ImageJ and Leica software 2.0. Data were analysed using graph pad 6, p values < 0.05 were significant. We observed no signs of behavioural toxicity and no mortality during this study, however, in the kidneys, we reported mild morphological perturbations widening of Bowman's space, and vacuolations in glomerulus and tubules of TDF and NTDF animals. Also, there was a significant elevation of glycogen deposition in NTDF and TDF animals when compared with control. In the liver, there were mild histological changes with widening of sinusoidal spaces, vacuolations in hepatocytes and elevation of glycogen deposition in TDF and NTDF administered animals. In addition to this, there were no significant differences in stereological measurements and cell count, LFT, RFT, weight changes and organo-somatic index between treatment groups and control. In conclusion, NTDF and TDF in therapeutic doses can lead to mild hepatic and renal histological damage. Further studies are needed to understand the precise genetic mechanism.

Nano-ART and NeuroAIDS

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a neurotropic virus that enters the central nervous system (CNS) early in the course of infection. Although highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has resulted in remarkable decline in the morbidity and mortality in AIDS patients, controlling HIV infections still remains a global health priority. HIV access to the CNS serves as the natural viral preserve because most antiretroviral (ARV) drugs possess inadequate or zero delivery across the brain barriers. The structure of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the presence of efflux pumps, and the expression of metabolic enzymes pose hurdles for ARV drug-brain entry. Thus, development of target-specific, effective, safe, and controllable drug delivery approach is an important health priority for global elimination of AIDS progression. Nanoformulations can circumvent the BBB to improve CNS-directed drug delivery by affecting such pumps and enzymes. Alternatively, they can be optimized to affect their size, shape, and protein and lipid coatings to facilitate drug uptake, release, and ingress across the barrier. Improved drug delivery to the CNS would affect pharmacokinetic and drug biodistribution properties. This review focuses on how nanotechnology can serve to improve the delivery of antiretroviral medicines, termed NanoART, across the BBB and affect the biodistribution and clinical benefit for NeuroAIDS.

Potential applications and human biosafety of nanomaterials used in nanomedicine

With the rapid development of nanotechnology, potential applications of nanomaterials in medicine have been widely researched in recent years. Nanomaterials themselves can be used as image agents or therapeutic drugs, and for drug and gene delivery, biological devices, nanoelectronic biosensors or molecular nanotechnology. As the composition, morphology, chemical properties, implant sites as well as potential applications become more and more complex, human biosafety of nanomaterials for clinical use has become a major concern. If nanoparticles accumulate in the human body or interact with the body molecules or chemical components, health risks may also occur. Accordingly, the unique chemical and physical properties, potential applications in medical fields, as well as human biosafety in clinical trials are reviewed in this study. Finally, this article tries to give some suggestions for future work in nanomedicine research. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The role of nanotechnology in the treatment of viral infections

Infectious diseases are the leading cause of mortality worldwide, with viruses in particular making global impact on healthcare and socioeconomic development. In addition, the rapid development of drug resistance to currently available therapies and adverse side effects due to prolonged use is a serious public health concern. The development of novel treatment strategies is therefore required. The interaction of nanostructures with microorganisms is fast-revolutionizing the biomedical field by offering advantages in both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Nanoparticles offer unique physical properties that have associated benefits for drug delivery. These are predominantly due to the particle size (which affects bioavailability and circulation time), large surface area to volume ratio (enhanced solubility compared to larger particles), tunable surface charge of the particle with the possibility of encapsulation, and large drug payloads that can be accommodated. These properties, which are unlike bulk materials of the same compositions, make nanoparticulate drug delivery systems ideal candidates to explore in order to achieve and/or improve therapeutic effects. This review presents a broad overview of the application of nanosized materials for the treatment of common viral infections.

HIV Persistence in Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissues: Pharmacological Challenges and Opportunities

An increasing amount of evidence suggests that HIV replication persists in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), despite treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Residual replication in this compartment may propagate infection at other sites in the body and contribute to sustained immune dysregulation and delayed immune recovery. Therefore, it is important to focus efforts on eliminating residual replication at this site. There are several challenges to accomplishing this goal, including low antiretroviral (ARV) exposure at specific tissue locations within GALT, which might be overcome by using the tools of clinical pharmacology. Here, we summarize the evidence for GALT as a site of residual HIV replication, highlight the consequences of persistent infection in tissues, identify current pharmacologic knowledge of drug exposure in GALT, define the challenges that hinder eradication from this site, and propose several avenues for pharmacologic intervention.

New drug candidates for liposomal delivery identified by computer modeling of liposomes' remote loading and leakage

Remote drug loading into nano-liposomes is in most cases the best method for achieving high concentrations of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) per nano-liposome that enable therapeutically viable API-loaded nano-liposomes, referred to as nano-drugs. This approach also enables controlled drug release. Recently, we constructed computational models to identify APIs that can achieve the desired high concentrations in nano-liposomes by remote loading. While those previous models included a broad spectrum of experimental conditions and dealt only with loading, here we reduced the scope to the molecular characteristics alone. We model and predict API suitability for nano-liposomal delivery by fixing the main experimental conditions: liposome lipid composition and size to be similar to those of Doxil® liposomes. On that basis, we add a prediction of drug leakage from the nano-liposomes during storage. The latter is critical for having pharmaceutically viable nano-drugs. The "load and leak" models were used to screen two large molecular databases in search of candidate APIs for delivery by nano-liposomes. The distribution of positive instances in both loading and leakage models was similar in the two databases screened. The screening process identified 667 molecules that were positives by both loading and leakage models (i.e., both high-loading and stable). Among them, 318 molecules received a high score in both properties and of these, 67 are FDA-approved drugs. This group of molecules, having diverse pharmacological activities, may be the basis for future liposomal drug development.

Nanoparticles in Antiviral Therapy

In addition to general unavailability of specific antiviral therapeutics for a variety of viral diseases, usage of most antiviral drugs is linked to their limited solubility in aqueous media, short half-life time, and inadequate penetration to specified anatomic compartments. Accordingly, there is continuous effort to improve physicochemical characteristics of existing antiviral drugs. Since nanomaterials display remarkable physical and chemical properties, high surface area to volume ratio, and increased reactivity, new approaches for antiviral therapies include combinations of nanomaterials and current antiviral agents. Multivalent nanostructures, polymers, dendrimers, and liposomes can establish multivalent binding interactions with many biological systems and thus can target pathogenic interactions. There are reports about anitiviral activities of different metal nanoparticles, especially silver nanoparticles and their potential for treatment, prophylaxis, and control of viral infections. Integration of classic antiviral drugs, in the form of multiple ligands, onto nanostructures provides the advantages by creating a high local concentration of active molecules. This article will summarize the antiviral activity of different nanoparticle-based approaches currently available for the treatment of viral infections, and it will discuss metal nanoparticles as possible future antiviral drugs.

Antimicrobial Nanostructures for Neurodegenerative Infections

Nanostructures have been widely involved in changes in the drug delivery system. Nanoparticles have unique physicochemical properties, e.g., ultrasmall size, large surface area, and the ability to target specific actions. Various nanomaterials, like Ag, ZnO, Cu/CuO, and Al₂O₃, have antimicrobial activity. Basically, six mechanisms are involved in the production of antimicrobial activity, i.e., (1) destruction of the peptidoglycan layer, (2) release of toxic metal ions, (3) alteration of cellular pH via proton efflux pumps, (4) generation of reactive oxygen species, (5) damage of nuclear materials, and (6) loss of ATP production. Nanomedicine contributes to various pharmaceutical applications, like diagnosis and treatment of various ailments including microbial diseases. Furthermore, nanostructured antimicrobial agents are also involved in the treatment of the neuroinfections associated with neurodegenerative disorders. This chapter focuses on the nanostructure and nanomedicine of antimicrobial agents and their prospects for the possible management of infections associated with neurodegenerative disorders.

Nanoformulation strategies for the enhanced oral bioavailability of antiretroviral therapeutics

The oral delivery of drugs with poor aqueous solubility is challenging and often results in poor bioavailability. Various nanoformulation platforms have demonstrated improved oral bioavailability of a range of drugs for different indications. The focus of this review is to provide an overview of the application of nanomedicine to oral antiretroviral therapy and outline how the current short-falls of this life-long therapy may be resolved using nanotechnology. As well as highlighting the rationale for a nanomedicine-based approach, the review focuses on the various strategies used to enhance oral bioavailability and describes the mechanisms of particle absorption across the GI tract. The recent advances in the development of long-acting formulations for both HIV treatment and pre-exposure prophylaxis are also discussed.

Getting into the brain: Potential of nanotechnology in the management of NeuroAIDS

In spite of significant advances in antiretroviral (ARV) therapy, the elimination of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reservoirs from the periphery and the central nervous system (CNS) remains a formidable task. The incapability of ARV to go across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) after systemic administration makes the brain one of the dominant HIV reservoirs. Thus, screening, monitoring, and elimination of HIV reservoirs from the brain remain a clinically daunting and key task. The practice and investigation of nanomedicine possesses potentials for therapeutics against neuroAIDS. This review highlights the advancements in nanoscience and nanotechnology to design and develop specific size therapeutic cargo for efficient navigation across BBB so as to recognize and eradicate HIV brain reservoirs. Different navigation and drug release strategies, their biocompatibility and efficacy with related challenges and future prospects are also discussed. This review would be an excellent platform to understand nano-enable multidisciplinary research to formulate efficient nanomedicine for the management of neuroAIDS.

Current applications of nanoparticles in infectious diseases

For decades infections have been treated easily with drugs. However, in the 21st century, they may become lethal again owing to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Pathogens can become resistant by means of different mechanisms, such as increasing the time they spend in the intracellular environment, where drugs are unable to reach therapeutic levels. Moreover, drugs are also subject to certain problems that decrease their efficacy. This requires the use of high doses, and frequent administrations must be implemented, causing adverse side effects or toxicity. The use of nanoparticle systems can help to overcome such problems and increase drug efficacy. Accordingly, there is considerable current interest in their use as antimicrobial agents against different pathogens like bacteria, virus, fungi or parasites, multidrug-resistant strains and biofilms; as targeting vectors towards specific tissues; as vaccines and as theranostic systems. This review begins with an overview of the different types and characteristics of nanoparticles used to deliver drugs to the target, followed by a review of current research and clinical trials addressing the use of nanoparticles within the field of infectious diseases.