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Dicklin MR, Anthony JC, Winters BL, Maki KC. ω-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Status Testing in Humans: A Narrative Review of Commercially Available Options. J Nutr 2024; 154:1487-1504. [PMID: 38522783 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing body of evidence supporting a link between low intakes of ω-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) and numerous diseases and health conditions. However, few people are achieving the levels of fish/seafood or eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid intake recommended in national and international guidelines. Knowledge of a person's ω-3 LCPUFA status will benefit the interpretation of research results and could be expected to lead to an increased effort to increase intake. Dietary intake survey methods are often used as a surrogate for measuring ω-3 PUFA tissue status and its impact on health and functional outcomes. However, because individuals vary widely in their ability to digest and absorb ω-3 PUFA, analytical testing of biological samples is desirable to accurately evaluate ω-3 PUFA status. Adipose tissue is the reference biospecimen for measuring tissue fatty acids, but less-invasive methods, such as measurements in whole blood or its components (e.g., plasma, serum, red blood cell membranes) or breast milk are often used. Numerous commercial laboratories provide fatty acid testing of blood and breast milk samples by different methods and present their results in a variety of reports such as a full fatty acid profile, ω-3 and ω-6 fatty acid profiles, fatty acid ratios, as well as the Omega-3 Index, the Holman Omega-3 Test, OmegaScore, and OmegaCheck, among others. This narrative review provides information about the different ways to measure ω-3 LCPUFA status (including both dietary assessments and selected commercially available analytical tests of blood and breast milk samples) and discusses evidence linking increased ω-3 LCPUFA intake or status to improved health, focusing on cardiovascular, neurological, pregnancy, and eye health, in support of recommendations to increase ω-3 LCPUFA intake and testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kevin C Maki
- Midwest Biomedical Research, Addison, IL, United States; Indiana University School of Public Health, Bloomington, IN, United States.
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LaBarre JL, Puttabyatappa M, Song PXK, Goodrich JM, Zhou L, Rajendiran TM, Soni T, Domino SE, Treadwell MC, Dolinoy DC, Padmanabhan V, Burant CF. Maternal lipid levels across pregnancy impact the umbilical cord blood lipidome and infant birth weight. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14209. [PMID: 32848180 PMCID: PMC7449968 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71081-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Major alterations in metabolism occur during pregnancy enabling the mother to provide adequate nutrients to support infant development, affecting birth weight (BW) and potentially long-term risk of obesity and cardiometabolic disease. We classified dynamic changes in the maternal lipidome during pregnancy and identified lipids associated with Fenton BW z-score and the umbilical cord blood (CB) lipidome. Lipidomics was performed on first trimester maternal plasma (M1), delivery maternal plasma (M3), and CB plasma in 106 mother-infant dyads. Shifts in the maternal and CB lipidome were consistent with the selective transport of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) as well as lysophosphatidylcholine (LysoPC) and lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LysoPE) species into CB. Partial correlation networks demonstrated fluctuations in correlations between lipid groups at M1, M3, and CB, signifying differences in lipid metabolism. Using linear models, LysoPC and LysoPE groups in CB were positively associated with BW. M1 PUFA containing triglycerides (TG) and phospholipids were correlated with CB LysoPC and LysoPE species and total CB polyunsaturated TGs. These results indicate that early gestational maternal lipid levels influence the CB lipidome and its relationship with BW, suggesting an opportunity to modulate maternal diet and improve long-term offspring cardiometabolic health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L LaBarre
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Peter X K Song
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jaclyn M Goodrich
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Ling Zhou
- Center of Statistical Research, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Thekkelnaycke M Rajendiran
- Michigan Regional Comprehensive Metabolomics Resource Core, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Pathology, Michigan Regional Comprehensive Metabolomics Resource Core, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Tanu Soni
- Michigan Regional Comprehensive Metabolomics Resource Core, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Steven E Domino
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Marjorie C Treadwell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Dana C Dolinoy
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Vasantha Padmanabhan
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.,Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Charles F Burant
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. .,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
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Ortega-Senovilla H, Schaefer-Graf U, Herrera E. Pregnant women with gestational diabetes and with well controlled glucose levels have decreased concentrations of individual fatty acids in maternal and cord serum. Diabetologia 2020; 63:864-874. [PMID: 31832744 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-019-05054-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Both arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA,22:6 n-3), long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), are involved in fetal development and, based on their percentage compositions, appear to be specifically accumulated in fetal circulation in a proposed phenomenon known as biomagnification. Discrepancies exist in the literature concerning the effect of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) on circulating fatty acids. Our objective was to analyse individual fatty acid concentrations in a large cohort of maternal and cord paired serum samples from pregnant women with and without GDM. METHODS Overnight fasted maternal and cord blood paired samples from 84 women with GDM and well controlled blood glucose levels and 90 healthy pregnant women (controls) were drawn at term. Individual fatty acids within total serum lipids were analysed by gas chromatography and expressed both as concentrations of fatty acid (mmol/l) and as a percentage of total fatty acids. RESULTS In the serum of overnight fasted pregnant women with GDM, the concentrations of most fatty acids were lower than in control women, except for AA and DHA, which remained the same. The concentrations of most fatty acids in cord serum were also lower in the GDM group than in the control group, except for α-linolenic acid (ALA,18:3 n-3), which was higher in the GDM group. In both groups, the concentrations of all fatty acids were lower in cord serum than in maternal serum. In GDM participants only, a positive and significant correlation between cord and maternal serum concentration of AA and DHA was observed. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION The expression of fatty acids in molar concentrations reveals that GDM decreases the concentration of most fatty acids in both maternal and cord serum. There is a high fetal dependence on maternal AA and DHA, but our findings do not support the existence of a fetal biomagnification of those two LCPUFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henar Ortega-Senovilla
- Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, Ctra. Boadilla del Monte km 5,3, E-28668, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ute Schaefer-Graf
- Dept. of Obstetrics and Gynecology, St Joseph's Hospital Center for Diabetes in Pregnancy, Berlin, Germany
| | - Emilio Herrera
- Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, Ctra. Boadilla del Monte km 5,3, E-28668, Madrid, Spain
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Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Pregnancy-The Case for a Target Omega-3 Index. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12040898. [PMID: 32224878 PMCID: PMC7230742 DOI: 10.3390/nu12040898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Scientific societies recommend increasing intake of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) by 200 mg/day during pregnancy. However, individually, clinical events correlate quite strongly with levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA in blood, but these levels poorly correlate with amounts ingested. EPA and DHA in erythrocytes (Omega-3 Index) have a low biologic variability. If analyzed with a standardized analytical procedure (HS-Omega-3 Index®), analytical variability is low. Thus, the largest database of any fatty acid analytical method was provided. Pregnant women in Germany had a mean Omega-3 Index below the target range suggested for cardiovascular disease of 8–11%, with large interindividual variation, and quite independent of supplementation with EPA and DHA. In Germany, premature birth is a major health issue. Premature birth and other health issues of pregnant women and their offspring correlate with levels of EPA and DHA in blood and can be reduced by increasing intake of EPA and DHA, according to individual trials and pertinent meta-analyses. Very high intake or levels of EPA and DHA may also produce health issues, like bleeding, prolonged gestation, or even premature birth. While direct evidence remains to be generated, evidence from various scientific approaches supports that the target range for the Omega-3 Index of 8–11% might also pertain to pregnancy and lactation.
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Lewis RM, Childs CE, Calder PC. New perspectives on placental fatty acid transfer. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2018; 138:24-29. [PMID: 30392577 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The human foetus depends on placental transfer for the fatty acids required for its growth and development. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) may specifically influence neurodevelopment. Therefore, it is important to understand the mechanisms of placental transfer of LC-PUFAs. The simple view of placental fatty acid transfer is that it occurs by diffusion down the maternal to foetal gradient, facilitated by membrane transporters. This view has been complicated by studies highlighting the role of placental metabolism in fatty acid transfer. Most fatty acids taken up by the placenta will be esterified and incorporated into lipid rather than diffusing directly across to the foetus. Furthermore, this esterification is likely to mean that placental intracellular "free" fatty acid concentrations are lower than in foetal plasma which would not be conducive to simple diffusion of fatty acids to the foetus. Placental structure poses additional questions, in particular how fatty acids cross the hydrophilic villous stroma separating the trophoblast from the endothelium and how they cross the endothelium itself. The understanding of placental fatty acid transfer needs to evolve to address these questions. The role of the placenta is not simply to mediate solute transfer; it is also a central endocrine organ of pregnancy. Placental-derived lipid mediators, such as prostaglandins, have well-established roles in parturition and, almost certainly, throughout gestation. Metabolic targeting of specific fatty acids to different lipid pools in the placenta may determine their availability as both nutrients and signalling molecules. Placental transfer will determine fatty acid availability within the foetus as well as influencing maternal levels. Fatty acids and their derivatives may also act as signals to the placenta indicating metabolic states in both mother and foetus. Placental uptake and metabolism of LC-PUFAs are important to meet both foetal and placental demands. This paper will review placental fatty acid transfer and metabolism and highlight issues which need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan M Lewis
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, MP 887, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom.
| | - Caroline E Childs
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, MP 887, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom
| | - Philip C Calder
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, MP 887, Southampton General Hospital, Tremona Road, Southampton SO16 6YD, United Kingdom; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust and University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
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Kawabata T, Kagawa Y, Kimura F, Miyazawa T, Saito S, Arima T, Nakai K, Yaegashi N. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Levels in Maternal Erythrocytes of Japanese Women during Pregnancy and after Childbirth. Nutrients 2017; 9:nu9030245. [PMID: 28272345 PMCID: PMC5372908 DOI: 10.3390/nu9030245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The transport of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), to the fetus from maternal stores increases depending on the fetal requirements for PUFA during the last trimester of pregnancy. Therefore, maternal blood PUFA changes physiologically with gestational age. However, the changes in PUFA levels in maternal blood erythrocytes during pregnancy and after childbirth have not been fully investigated in a fish-eating population. Objective: To examine the changes of ARA and DHA levels in maternal erythrocytes with the progress of pregnancy and the relationship between maternal and umbilical cord erythrocyte PUFA levels in pregnant Japanese women who habitually eat fish and shellfish. Design: This study was performed as a part of the adjunct study of the Japan Environment and Children’s Study (JECS). The participants were 74 pregnant women. The maternal blood samples were collected at 27, 30, and 36 weeks of pregnancy, and 2 days and 1 month after delivery, and umbilical cord blood was collected at delivery. The fatty acid levels of erythrocytes in these blood samples were determined. Results: ARA and DHA levels in maternal erythrocytes tended to decrease with the progress of pregnancy. While the DHA level decreased further after delivery, the ARA level returned to the value at 27 weeks of pregnancy within 1 month after delivery. The n-3 and n-6 PUFA levels in maternal erythrocytes at 27, 30, and 36 weeks of pregnancy were significantly positively correlated with the corresponding fatty acid levels in umbilical cord erythrocytes. Conclusion: The present findings showed a significant change in erythrocyte PUFA levels during pregnancy and after childbirth in a fish-eating population. The PUFA levels of maternal blood after the second trimester may be a reliable marker for predicting PUFA levels in infants’ circulating blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terue Kawabata
- Faculty of Nutrition, Kagawa Nutrition University, 3-9-21 Chiyoda, Sakado, Saitama 350-0288, Japan.
| | - Yasuo Kagawa
- Faculty of Nutrition, Kagawa Nutrition University, 3-9-21 Chiyoda, Sakado, Saitama 350-0288, Japan.
| | - Fumiko Kimura
- Faculty of Comprehensive Human Sciences, Shokei Gakuin University, 4-10-1 Yurigaoka, Natori, Miyagi 981-1295, Japan.
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory, Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, 468-1 aza-Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan.
| | - Teruo Miyazawa
- Food and Biodynamic Chemistry Laboratory, Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, 468-1 aza-Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-0845, Japan.
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center (NICHe), Tohoku University, 6-6-10 aza-Aoba, Aramaki, Aobaku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Shoji Saito
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryomachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yamagata Prefectural Central Hospital, 1800 Ooaza-Aoyagi, Yamagata-shi, Yamagata 990-2292, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Arima
- Department of Informative Genetics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Kunihiko Nakai
- Department of Development and Environmental Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.
| | - Nobuo Yaegashi
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1 Seiryomachi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8575, Japan.
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Perazzolo S, Hirschmugl B, Wadsack C, Desoye G, Lewis RM, Sengers BG. The influence of placental metabolism on fatty acid transfer to the fetus. J Lipid Res 2017; 58:443-454. [PMID: 27913585 PMCID: PMC5282960 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.p072355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The factors determining fatty acid transfer across the placenta are not fully understood. This study used a combined experimental and computational modeling approach to explore placental transfer of nonesterified fatty acids and identify the rate-determining processes. Isolated perfused human placenta was used to study the uptake and transfer of 13C-fatty acids and the release of endogenous fatty acids. Only 6.2 ± 0.8% of the maternal 13C-fatty acids taken up by the placenta was delivered to the fetal circulation. Of the unlabeled fatty acids released from endogenous lipid pools, 78 ± 5% was recovered in the maternal circulation and 22 ± 5% in the fetal circulation. Computational modeling indicated that fatty acid metabolism was necessary to explain the discrepancy between uptake and delivery of 13C-fatty acids. Without metabolism, the model overpredicts the fetal delivery of 13C-fatty acids 15-fold. Metabolic rate was predicted to be the main determinant of uptake from the maternal circulation. The microvillous membrane had a greater fatty acid transport capacity than the basal membrane. This study suggests that incorporation of fatty acids into placental lipid pools may modulate their transfer to the fetus. Future work needs to focus on the factors regulating fatty acid incorporation into lipid pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Perazzolo
- Faculty of Engineering and Environment, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
- Institute for Life Sciences Southampton, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Birgit Hirschmugl
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Christian Wadsack
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Gernot Desoye
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of Graz, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Rohan M Lewis
- Institute for Life Sciences Southampton, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
- Bioengineering Research Group, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Bram G Sengers
- Faculty of Engineering and Environment, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
- Institute for Life Sciences Southampton, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
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Taschereau-Charron A, Da Silva MS, Bilodeau JF, Morisset AS, Julien P, Rudkowska I. Alterations of fatty acid profiles in gestational diabetes and influence of the diet. Maturitas 2017; 99:98-104. [PMID: 28364876 DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a pregnancy-induced complication with increased prevalence, especially in overweight women. Fatty acid (FA) composition in tissues can reflect dietary fat intake, especially essential FA intake. Moreover, it has been shown that FA profiles in blood lipid fractions are altered in diabetic patients. Consequently, women with GDM may also have a distinctive FA profile. The objective of this review is compare FA profiles in different blood lipid fractions and the influence of dietary fat intake in women with GDM or normoglycemic pregnancies. Results show that women with GDM have more saturated and less polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) in their red blood cell (RBC) membranes than normoglycemic pregnant women. Moreover, some studies reported that women with GDM have a greater energy intake from total fat and saturated FA, along with a lower energy intake from PUFA, when compared to normoglycemic pregnancies. Clinical trials showed that omega-3 PUFA levels in RBC membranes of GDM women can be restored by a dietary intervention. Further research is required to determine whether FA profiles are altered prior to the diagnosis of GDM and can be prevented by diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andréa Taschereau-Charron
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Marine S Da Silva
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Jean-François Bilodeau
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Anne-Sophie Morisset
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Pierre Julien
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Iwona Rudkowska
- Endocrinology and Nephrology Unit, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada.
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Influence of Maternal Obesity and Gestational Weight Gain on Maternal and Foetal Lipid Profile. Nutrients 2016; 8:nu8060368. [PMID: 27314385 PMCID: PMC4924209 DOI: 10.3390/nu8060368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acids (FAs) are fundamental for a foetus’s growth, serving as an energy source, structural constituents of cellular membranes and precursors of bioactive molecules, as well as being essential for cell signalling. Long-chain polyunsaturated FAs (LC-PUFAs) are pivotal in brain and visual development. It is of interest to investigate whether and how specific pregnancy conditions, which alter fatty acid metabolism (excessive pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) or gestational weight gain (GWG)), affect lipid supply to the foetus. For this purpose, we evaluated the erythrocyte FAs of mothers and offspring (cord-blood) at birth, in relation to pre-pregnancy BMI and GWG. A total of 435 mothers and their offspring (237 males, 51%) were included in the study. Distribution of linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA), and their metabolites, arachidonic acid, dihomogamma linoleic (DGLA) and ecosapentanoic acid, was significantly different in maternal and foetal erythrocytes. Pre-pregnancy BMI was significantly associated with maternal percentage of MUFAs (Coeff: −0.112; p = 0.021), LA (Coeff: −0.033; p = 0.044) and DHA (Coeff. = 0.055; p = 0.0016); inadequate GWG with DPA (Coeff: 0.637; p = 0.001); excessive GWG with docosaexahenoic acid (DHA) (Coeff. = −0.714; p = 0.004). Moreover, pre-pregnancy BMI was associated with foetus percentage of PUFAs (Coeff: −0.172; p = 0.009), omega 6 (Coeff: −0.098; p = 0.015) and DHA (Coeff: −0.0285; p = 0.036), even after adjusting for maternal lipids. Our findings show that maternal GWG affects maternal but not foetal lipid profile, differently from pre-pregnancy BMI, which influences both.
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