Chronic liver inflammation: Clinical implications beyond alcoholic liver disease

Longitudinal Magnetic Resonance Imaging with ROS-Responsive Bilirubin Nanoparticles Enables Monitoring of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis Progression to Cirrhosis

Despite the vital importance of monitoring the progression of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its progressive form, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an efficient imaging modality that is readily available at hospitals is currently lacking. Here, a new magnetic-resonance-imaging (MRI)-based imaging modality is presented that allows for efficient and longitudinal monitoring of NAFLD and NASH progression. The imaging modality uses manganese-ion (Mn2+)-chelated bilirubin nanoparticles (Mn@BRNPs) as a reactive-oxygen-species (ROS)-responsive MRI imaging probe. Longitudinal T1-weighted MR imaging of NASH model mice is performed after injecting Mn@BRNPs intravenously. The MR signal enhancement in the liver relative to muscle gradually increases up to 8 weeks of NASH progression, but decreases significantly as NASH progresses to the cirrhosis-like stage at weeks 10 and 12. A new dual input pseudo-three-compartment model is developed to provide information on NASH stage with a single MRI scan. It is also demonstrated that the ROS-responsive Mn@BRNPs can be used to monitor the efficacy of potential anti-NASH drugs with conventional MRI. The findings suggest that the ROS-responsive Mn@BRNPs have the potential to serve as an efficient MRI contrast for monitoring NASH progression and its transition to the cirrhosis-like stage.

Bilobalide attenuates lipopolysaccharide‑induced HepG2 cell injury by inhibiting TLR4‑NF‑κB signaling via the PI3K/Akt pathway

Inflammation is involved in the pathological process underlying a number of liver diseases. Bilobalide (BB) is a natural compound from Ginkgo biloba leaves that was recently demonstrated to exert hepatoprotective effects by inhibiting oxidative stress in the liver cancer cell line HepG2. The anti-inflammatory activity of BB has been reported in recent studies. The major objective of the present study was to investigate whether BB could attenuate inflammation-associated cell damage. HepG2 cells were cultured with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and BB, and cell damage was evaluated by measuring cell viability using MTT assay. The activity of the NF-κB signaling pathway was assessed by measuring the levels of IκBα, NF-κB p65, phosphorylated (p)-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. A toll-like receptor (TLR)4 inhibitor (CLI-095) was used to detect the involvement of TLR4 in cell injury caused by LPS. In addition, the PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 was applied to explore the involvement of the PI3K/Akt axis in mediating the effects of BB. The results demonstrated that LPS induced HepG2 cell injury. LPS also elevated the levels of p-IκBα, p-p65, p65 DNA-binding activity and inflammatory cytokines. However, CLI-095 significantly attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage and inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling. BB also dose-dependently attenuated the LPS-induced cell damage, activation of NF-κB signaling and TLR4 overexpression. Furthermore, it was observed that LY294002 diminished the cytoprotective effects of BB on cell injury, TLR4 expression and NF-κB activation. These findings indicated that BB could attenuate LPS-induced inflammatory injury to HepG2 cells by regulating TLR4-NF-κB signaling.

Amelioration of Acute Alcoholic Liver Injury via Attenuating Oxidative Damage and Modulating Inflammation by Means of Ursodeoxycholic Acid-Zein Nanoparticles

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) has been broadly adopted for the clinical treatment of hepatic and biliary diseases; however, its poor water-solubility becomes an obstacle in wide applications. To overcome these challenges, herein, a two-tier UDCA-embedded system of zein nanoparticles (NPs) along with a polyelectrolyte complex was designed under facile conditions. Both the UDCA-zein NPs and their inclusion microcapsules showed a spherical shape with a uniform size. A typical wall plus capsule/core structure was formed in which UDCA-zein NPs distributed evenly in the interior. The UDCA inclusion microcapsules had an encapsulation rate of 67% and were released in a non-Fickian or anomalous transport manner. The bioavailability and efficacy of UDCA-zein NPs were assessed in vivo through the alcoholic liver disease (ALD) mouse model via intragastric administration. UDCA-zein NPs ameliorated the symptoms of ALD mice remarkably, which were mainly exerted through attenuation of antioxidant stress levels. Meanwhile, it notably upregulated the intestinal tight junction protein expression and improved and maintained the integrity of the mucosal barrier effectively. Collectively, with the improvement of bioavailability, the UDCA-zein NPs prominently alleviated the oxidative damage induced by alcohol, modulating the inflammation so as to restore ALD. It is anticipated that UDCA-zein NPs have great therapeutic potential as sustained-nanovesicles in ALD treatment.

Amelioration of cyclophosphamide-induced DNA damage, oxidative stress, and hepato- and neurotoxicity by Piper longum extract in rats: The role of γH2AX and 8-OHdG

Background: The identification of genoprotectants is a promising strategy for improving human health. Piper longum has drawn scientific attention because of its diverse biological effects and traditional utilization. The current investigation aims to evaluate the genome-stabilizing potential of Piper longum against cyclophosphamide-associated genotoxicity.

Methods: We adopted a funnel screening with a three-tier evaluation approach, where Piper longum was investigated in an acellular medium, peripheral blood lymphocytes, and a rodent model. The genoprotective action of the Piper longum extract was initially performed with plasmid pBluescript SK(-) DNA. Furthermore, the extract and various fractions were screened against cyclophosphamide-induced genotoxicity using a cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay and a chromosomal aberration assay in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The genome-stabilizing action of the extract and potent (hexane) fraction was further confirmed in vivo in Wistar albino rats by evaluating them using mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus tests, DNA fragmentation, oxidative stress markers, 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), γH2AX, and histopathological lesions in the liver and hippocampus. Additionally, acute and sub-acute toxicity studies were conducted following the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines for rats. Furthermore, the extract was quantified and characterized by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy (UPLC-MS), and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Results: The Piper longum ethanol extract was shown to protect plasmid pBluescript SK(-) DNA against H2O2-induced strand breaks. In human lymphocytes, the extract and hexane fraction showed a reduction in micronucleus formation (p < 0.001) and chromosomal aberrations (p < 0.01) against cyclophosphamide. Furthermore, the extract and fraction treatment, when administered at 200 mg/kg for 28 days in Wistar rats, restored cyclophosphamide-induced genomic instability by reducing micronucleus formation and DNA fragmentation; restoring redox homeostasis; decreasing 8-OHdG, a hallmark of oxidative DNA damage; reducing γH2AX, a DNA double-strand break (DSB) marker; and preserving the liver and hippocampus against histopathological lesions. The extract and fraction revealed no signs of systemic toxicity at the used doses. Piperine and piperlongumine are the major alkaloids quantified along with the presence of flavonoids in the ethanol extract and the presence of fatty acids and terpenoids in the hexane fraction of Piper longum.

Conclusion: Our investigation confirms the genoprotective action of Piper longum by reducing cyclophosphamide-associated cytogenotoxicity, oxidative stress, hepato- and neurotoxicity, oxidative DNA damage, and DNA double-strand breaks. The outcomes are critical for mitigating the genotoxic effects of chemotherapy recipients, requiring further attention.

Liver metabolomics identifies bile acid profile changes at early stages of alcoholic liver disease in mice

Alcohol consumption is a global healthcare problem with enormous social, economic, and clinical consequences. The liver sustains the earliest and the greatest degree of tissue injury due to chronic alcohol consumption and it has been estimated that alcoholic liver disease (ALD) accounts for almost 50% of all deaths from cirrhosis in the world. In this study, we used a modified Lieber-DeCarli (LD) diet to treat mice with alcohol and simulate chronic alcohol drinking. Using an untargeted metabolomics approach, our aim was to identify the various metabolites and pathways that are altered in the early stages of ALD. Histopathology showed minimal changes in the liver after 6 weeks of alcohol consumption. However, untargeted metabolomics analyses identified 304 metabolic features that were either up- or down-regulated in the livers of ethanol-consuming mice. Pathway analysis revealed significant alcohol-induced alterations, the most significant of which was in the FXR/RXR activation pathway. Targeted metabolomics focusing on bile acid biosynthesis showed elevated taurine-conjugated cholic acid compounds in ethanol-consuming mice. In summary, we showed that the changes in the liver metabolome manifest very early in the development of ALD, and when minimal changes in liver histopathology have occurred. Although alterations in biochemical pathways indicate a complex pathology in the very early stages of alcohol consumption, bile acid changes may serve as biomarkers of the early onset of ALD.

Novel Anti-inflammatory Treatments in Cirrhosis. A Literature-Based Study

Liver cirrhosis is a disease characterised by multiple complications and a poor prognosis. The prevalence is increasing worldwide. Chronic inflammation is ongoing in liver cirrhosis. No cure for the inflammation is available, and the current treatment of liver cirrhosis is only symptomatic. However, several different medical agents have been suggested as potential healing drugs. The majority are tested in rodents, but few human trials are effectuated. This review focuses on medical agents described in the literature with supposed alleviating and curing effects on liver cirrhosis. Twelve anti-inflammatory, five antioxidative, and three drugs with effects on gut microflora and the LPS pathway were found. Two drugs not categorised by the three former categories were found in addition. In total, 42 rodent studies and seven human trials were found. Promising effects of celecoxib, aspirin, curcumin, kahweol, pentoxifylline, diosmin, statins, emricasan, and silymarin were found in cirrhotic rodent models. Few indices of effects of etanercept, glycyrrhizin arginine salt, and mitoquinone were found. Faecal microbiota transplantation is in increasing searchlight with a supposed potential to alleviate cirrhosis. However, human trials are in demand to verify the findings in this review.

Bmal1 Regulates Macrophage Polarize Through Glycolytic Pathway in Alcoholic Liver Disease

Hepatic macrophages play a critical role in inflammation caused by alcohol feeding. During this process, variation of macrophage phenotypes triggers inflammatory responses in a variety of ways. Moreover, there is increasing evidence that Brain and Muscle Arnt-Like Protein-1 (Bmal1) is regarded as a key regulator of macrophage transformation. In our study, Bmal1 was detected to be low expressed in EtOH-fed mice tissue samples and ethanol-induced RAW264.7 cells. After hepatic specific overexpression of Bmal1, M1 macrophage markers were evidently down-regulated, while M2 markers were on the contrary, showing an upward trend. Furthermore, alcoholic liver lesions were also improved in alcohol feeding mice with overexpressed Bmal1. On this basis, we also found that the glycolytic pathway can regulate macrophage polarization. In vitro, blocking of glycolytic pathway can significantly inhibit M1-type polarization. Importantly, glycolysis levels were also restrained after Bmal1 overexpression. What’s more, Bmal1 exerts a negative regulatory effect on glycolysis by interacting with S100A9 protein. Further studies showed that the alleviation of alcoholic liver disease (ALD) by Bmal1 was associated with glycolytic pathway suppression and M1 macrophage polarization. In summary, we demonstrated that Bmal1 is a gene capable of relieving ALD, and this effect may provide new insights for altering macrophage phenotypes to regulate inflammatory responses in ALD.

Targeted treatment of alcoholic liver disease based on inflammatory signalling pathways

Targeted therapy is an emerging treatment strategy for alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Inflammation plays an important role in the occurrence and development of ALD, and is a key choice for its targeted treatment, and anti-inflammatory treatment has been considered beneficial for liver disease. Surprisingly, immune checkpoint inhibitors have become important therapeutic agents for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Moreover, studies have shown that the combination of inflammatory molecule inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors can exert better effects than either alone in mouse models of HCC. This review discusses the mechanism of hepatic ethanol metabolism and the conditions under which inflammation occurs. In addition, we focus on the potential molecular targets in inflammatory signalling pathways and summarize the potential targeted inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors, providing a theoretical basis for the targeted treatment of ALD and the development of new combination therapy strategies for HCC.

Antagonistic Impact of Acrylamide and Ethanol on Biochemical and Morphological Parameters Consistent with Bone Health in Mice

Simple Summary

Alcohol consumption, the drinking of beverages containing ethanol, represents a growing problem worldwide. Alcohol intake is often combined with an improper diet based on highly processed starch products that are rich in acrylamide. Both acrylamide and alcohol have a harmful impact on bone health. We previously demonstrated that adverse effects of ethanol on cortical bone structure were partly reduced by a relatively high dose of acrylamide in mice after one remodelling cycle. The present research was designated to reveal whether the antagonistic impact of both aforementioned toxins can also be achieved using a lower dose of acrylamide. According to our results, individual administrations of acrylamide and ethanol had adverse impacts on biochemical and morphological parameters consistent with bone health in mice. However, the most detrimental effects of ethanol were again alleviated by acrylamide at the dose used in this study.

Abstract

The aim of present study was to verify antagonistic effect of acrylamide (AA) and ethanol (Et) on bone quality parameters. Adult mice (n = 20) were segregated into four groups following 2 weeks administration of toxins: group E1, which received AA (20 mg/kg body weight daily); group E2, which received 15% Et (1.7 g 100% Et/kg body weight daily); group E12, which received simultaneously both toxins; and a control group. An insignificant impact of individual applications of AA, Et or their simultaneous supplementation on the total body weight of mice and the length and weight of their femoral bones was identified. In group E1, higher levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), triglyceride (TG), a decreased level of glutathione (GSH) and elevated endocortical bone remodelling were determined. A significantly lower relative volume of cortical bone, bone mineral density (BMD), elevated endocortical bone remodelling and cortical porosity, higher levels of ALT, AST, lower values for total proteins (TP), GSH, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), calcium, and phosphorus were recorded in group E2. In the mice from group E12, the highest endocortical bone remodelling, decreased values for BMD, TP, GSH and ALP and increased levels of ALT and AST were found. Our findings confirmed the antagonistic impact of AA and Et at doses used in this study on biochemical and morphological parameters consistent with bone health in an animal model.

Borderline-High Mean Corpuscular Volume Levels Are Associated with Arterial Stiffness among the Apparently Healthy Korean Individuals

BACKGROUND

High mean corpuscular volume (MCV) has been implicated in various health problems, such as anemia, liver disease, and thyroid disease. However, the clinical significance of borderline-high MCV is poorly understood in the primary care setting. This study aimed to investigate whether borderline-high MCV was related to arterial stiffness in Korean adults as measured by brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity (baPWV).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study comprised 582 participants aged >30 years who underwent routine health examinations. Borderline-high MCV was defined as over 95.0 fl (>90th percentile) after excluding participants with MCV of ≥100 fl or ≤80 fl, and high baPWV was defined as >1,600 cm/s (>90th percentile). The odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for high baPWV according to borderline-high MCV were calculated using multiple logistic regression analyses after adjusting for the confounding variables.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study population was 47.8±11.7 years, and 56.9% of the participants were male. Compared to that in the control group, the OR (95% CI) of high baPWV in those with a borderline-high MCV was 3.68 (1.39-9.74) after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, alcohol intake, smoking status, regular exercise, mean blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, C-reactive protein, γ-glutamyltransferase, uric acid, hypertension medication, and diabetes medication.

CONCLUSION

Borderline-high MCV was independently associated with arterial stiffness among apparently healthy Korean individuals.

Study on the synergistic protective effect of Lycium barbarum L. polysaccharides and zinc sulfate on chronic alcoholic liver injury in rats

Both Lycium barbarum L. polysaccharides (LBP) and zinc have protective effects on liver injuries. In this paper, LBP and ZnSO4 were combined to study the effects on the prevention of alcoholic liver injury. The rats were divided into six groups, the normal group, alcohol group, zinc sulfate group, LBP group, low-dose group of ZnSO4, and high-dose group of ZnSO4 and LBP, used to explore the impact of LBP and ZnSO4 complex on liver lipid metabolism of alcohol, alcohol-metabolizing enzymes, oxidative damage, and inflammation of the liver. The experimental model was established by gavage treatment, observation, and determination of indexes of rats. The results showed that the combination of LBP and ZnSO4 could significantly decrease the levels of triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-ɑ), malondialdehyde (MDA), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and the activity of enzyme subtype 2E1 (CYP2E1). It also significantly increased the activities of total superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), glutathione peptide (GSH), and alcohol dehydrogenase, effectively improved the liver tissue lesion. What is more, the combination of LBP and ZnSO4 had a synergistic effect on the remission of alcoholic fatty liver, and alleviated chronic alcoholic liver injury by promoting lipid metabolism, inhibiting oxidative stress, controlling inflammatory responses, and regulating the expression and activity of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes in rats.

Protective effects of antioxidant egg-chalaza hydrolysates against chronic alcohol consumption-induced liver steatosis in mice

BACKGROUND

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction is highly related to some human chronic diseases. There are approximately 400 metric tons of chalazae produced yearly after the processing of the liquid-egg production, which are disposed of as waste. The objectives of this study were to look for the optimal production condition of antioxidant crude chalaza hydrolysates and evaluate the in vivo antioxidant capacity via a chronic alcohol consumption mouse model.

RESULTS

Antioxidant crude chalaza hydrolysates (CCH-As) could be produced by protease A at 1:100 ratio (w/w) and 0.5 h hydrolytic period. After our analyses, CCH-As were rich in leucine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, lysine and antioxidant dipeptides (anserine and carnosine), and the major molecular masses were lower than 15 kDa. Regarding protective effects of CCH-As against oxidative damage in alcoholic-liquid-diet-fed mice, alcohol-fed mice had lower (P < 0.05) liver antioxidant capacities, and higher (P < 0.05) liver lipid contents, serum lipid/liver damage indices and IL-1β/IL-6 values. CCH-A supplementation reversed (P < 0.05) liver antioxidant capacities and reduced (P < 0.05) serum/liver lipids in alcohol-fed mice, which may result from increased (P < 0.05) fecal lipid output, upregulated (P < 0.05) fatty acid β-oxidation and downregulated (P < 0.05) lipogenesis in the liver.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, this CCH-A should benefit the liquid-egg industry, while also offering consumers a choice of healthy ingredients from animal sources. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Upcoming Aging Society and Men's Health: Focus on Clinical Implications of Exercise and Lifestyle Modification

Recent epidemiological research has indicated that men have increased health risks due to biological and social factors. Research in the area of men's health has been focused on disease events and subsequent disabilities. In future aging societies, more attention should be paid to the importance of men's health because a decreased quality of life and increased social burden are impending unless proper maneuvers are taken to slow the development and progression of morbidity through the use of preventive strategies. The adoption of a healthier lifestyle and the early identification and management of risk factors are very important and can be an initiative for prevention and for slowing the progression of morbidities with related quality of life issues. Males are rather vulnerable in terms of health, and conscious and active efforts are required to promote their health in an aging society. Here, we hope to shed light on the influence of lifestyle modifications and their clinical implications on men's health.

Anti-Diarrheal Drug Repositioning in Tumour Cell Cytotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Drug repositioning is becoming an ideal strategy to select new anticancer drugs. In particular, drugs treating the side effects of chemotherapy are the best candidates.

OBJECTIVE

In this present work, we undertook the evaluation of anti-tumour activity of two anti-diarrheal drugs (nifuroxazide and rifaximin).

METHODS

Anti-proliferative effect against breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231, MCF-7 and T47D) was assessed by MTT analysis, the Brdu incorporation, mitochondrial permeability and caspase-3 activity.

RESULTS

Both the drugs displayed cytotoxic effects on MCF-7, T47D and MDA-MB-231 cells. The lowest IC50 values were obtained on MCF-7 cells after 24, 48 and 72 hours of treatment while T47D and MDA-MB-231 were more resistant. The IC50 values on T47D and MDA-MB-231 cells became significantly low after 72 hours of treatment showing a late cytotoxicity effect especially of nifuroxazide but still less important than that of MCF-7 cells. According to the IC50 values, the non-tumour cell line HEK293 seems to be less sensitive to cytotoxicity especially against rifaximin. Both the drugs have shown an accumulation of rhodamine 123 as a function of the rise of their concentrations while the Brdu incorporation decreased. Despite the absence of a significant difference in the cell cycle between the treated and non-treated MCF-7 cells, the caspase-3 activity increased with the drug concentrations rise suggesting an apoptotic effect.

CONCLUSION

Nifuroxazide and rifaximin are used to overcome the diarrheal side effect of anticancer drugs. However, they have shown to be anti-tumour drugs which make them potential dual effective drugs against cancer and the side effects of chemotherapy.

Changes in the microstructure of compact and trabecular bone tissues of mice subchronically exposed to alcohol

BACKGROUND

Alcohol is one of the most commonly consumed neurotoxins by humans. Its negative effect on bone health is known for a long time. However, its impact on qualitative and quantitative 2D characteristics of the compact bone is still unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate in detail the effects of subchronic alcohol exposure on compact and trabecular bone tissues microstructure of laboratory mice using 2D and 3D imaging methods. Ten clinically healthy 12 weeks-old mice (males) were randomly divided into two groups. Animals from experimental group (group E; n = 5) drank a solution composed of 15% ethanol and water (1.7 g 100% ethanol kg-1 b.w. per day) for 8 weeks, while those from control group (group C; n = 5) drank only water.

RESULTS

Subchronic exposure to alcohol leads to several changes in qualitative 2D characteristics of the compact bone such as the presence of primary vascular radial bone tissue in pars anterior of endosteal border and a higher number of resorption lacunae (five times more) in the middle part of substantia compacta. Morphometrical 2D evaluations of the compact bone showed significantly increased sizes of primary osteons' vascular canals (p < 0.05) in mice from the experimental group (E group). Sizes of Haversian canals and secondary osteons were not affected by alcohol consumption. In mice from the E group, significantly lower values for relative bone volume and bone mineral density of the compact bone were observed. In the trabecular bone, decreased values for bone volume, trabecular number, trabecular thickness and bone surface (p < 0.05) were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol decreased not only bone volume and density of the compact bone, but it also reduced trabecular bone volume and leads to trabecular thinning. It caused vasodilation of primary osteons' vascular canals and increased porosity in the compact bone.

Resveratrol Ameliorates Experimental Alcoholic Liver Disease by Modulating Oxidative Stress

The aim of this study was to investigate the hepatoprotective effects of resveratrol in alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Alcohol was administered to healthy female rats starting from 6% (v/v) and gradually increased to 20% (v/v) by the fifth week. After 16 weeks of intervention, liver enzymes (aspartate aminotransferase [AST] and alanine aminotransferase [ALT]) were analyzed using a chemistry analyzer, while hepatic antioxidant enzymes, oxidative stress markers, and caspase 3 activity were assessed using ELISA kits. Furthermore, hepatic CYP2E1 protein levels and mRNA levels of antioxidant and inflammation-related genes were determined using western blotting and RT-PCR, respectively. The results showed that resveratrol significantly attenuated alcohol-induced elevation of liver enzymes and improved hepatic antioxidant enzymes. Resveratrol also attenuated alcohol-induced CYP2E1 increase, oxidative stress, and apoptosis (caspase 3 activity). Moreover, genes associated with oxidative stress and inflammation were regulated by resveratrol supplementation. Taken together, the results suggested that resveratrol alleviated ALD through regulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammation, which was mediated at the transcriptional level. The data suggests that resveratrol is a promising natural therapeutic agent against chronic ALD.

T2* Mapping from Multi-Echo Dixon Sequence on Gadoxetic Acid-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging for the Hepatic Fat Quantification: Can It Be Used for Hepatic Function Assessment?

Objective

To evaluate the diagnostic value of T2^* mapping using 3D multi-echo Dixon gradient echo acquisition on gadoxetic acid-enhanced liver magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as a tool to evaluate hepatic function.

Materials and Methods

This retrospective study was approved by the IRB and the requirement of informed consent was waived. 242 patients who underwent liver MRIs, including 3D multi-echo Dixon fast gradient-recalled echo (GRE) sequence at 3T, before and after administration of gadoxetic acid, were included. Based on clinico-laboratory manifestation, the patients were classified as having normal liver function (NLF, n = 50), mild liver damage (MLD, n = 143), or severe liver damage (SLD, n = 30). The 3D multi-echo Dixon GRE sequence was obtained before, and 10 minutes after, gadoxetic acid administration. Pre- and post-contrast T2^* values, as well as T2^* reduction rates, were measured from T2^* maps, and compared among the three groups.

Results

There was a significant difference in T2^* reduction rates between the NLF and SLD groups (−0.2 ± 4.9% vs. 5.0 ± 6.9%, p = 0.002), and between the MLD and SLD groups (3.2 ± 6.0% vs. 5.0 ± 6.9%, p = 0.003). However, there was no significant difference in both the pre- and post-contrast T2^* values among different liver function groups (p = 0.735 and 0.131, respectively). A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that the area under the ROC curve for using T2^* reduction rates to differentiate the SLD group from the NLF group was 0.74 (95% confidence interval: 0.63–0.83).

Conclusion

Incorporation of T2^* mapping using 3D multi-echo Dixon GRE sequence in gadoxetic acid-enhanced liver MRI protocol may provide supplemental information for liver function deterioration in patients with SLD.

Chronic exposure to ethanol causes steatosis and inflammation in zebrafish liver

AIM

To evaluate the effects of chronic exposure to ethanol in the liver and the expression of inflammatory genes in zebrafish.

METHODS

Zebrafish (n = 104), wild type, adult, male and female, were divided into two groups: Control and ethanol (0.05 v/v). The ethanol was directly added into water; tanks water were changed every two days and the ethanol replaced. The animals were fed twice a day with fish food until satiety. After two and four weeks of trial, livers were dissected, histological analysis (hematoxilin-eosin and Oil Red staining) and gene expression assessment of adiponectin, adiponectin receptor 2 (adipor2), sirtuin-1 (sirt-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (tnf-a), interleukin-1b (il-1b) and interleukin-10 (il-10) were performed. Ultrastructural evaluations were conducted at fourth week.

RESULTS

Exposing zebrafish to 0.5% ethanol developed intense liver steatosis after four weeks, as demonstrated by oil red staining. In ethanol-treated animals, the main ultrastructural changes were related to cytoplasmic lipid particles and droplets, increased number of rough endoplasmic reticulum cisterns and glycogen particles. Between two and four weeks, hepatic mRNA expression of il-1b, sirt-1 and adipor2 were upregulated, indicating that ethanol triggered signaling molecules which are key elements in both hepatic inflammatory and protective responses. Adiponectin was not detected in the liver of animals exposed and not exposed to ethanol, and il-10 did not show significant difference.

CONCLUSION

Data suggest that inflammatory signaling and ultrastructural alterations play a significant role during hepatic steatosis in zebrafish chronically exposed to ethanol.

Improved hepatic physiology in hepatic cytochrome P450 reductase null (HRN™) mice dosed orally with fenclozic acid

Hepatic NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase null (HRN™) mice exhibit no functional expression of hepatic cytochrome P450 (P450) when compared to wild type (WT) mice, but have normal hepatic and extrahepatic expression of other biotransformation enzymes. We have assessed the utility of HRN™ mice for investigation of the role of metabolic bioactivation in liver toxicity caused by the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) fenclozic acid. In vitro studies revealed significant NADPH-dependent (i.e. P450-mediated) covalent binding of [¹⁴C]-fenclozic acid to liver microsomes from WT mice and HRN™ mice, whereas no in vitro covalent binding was observed in the presence of the UDP-glucuronyltransferase cofactor UDPGA. Oral fenclozic acid administration did not alter the liver histopathology or elevate the plasma liver enzyme activities of WT mice, or affect their hepatic miRNA contents. Livers from HRN™ mice exhibited abnormal liver histopathology (enhanced lipid accumulation, bile duct proliferation, hepatocellular degeneration, necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration) and plasma clinical chemistry (elevated alanine aminotransferase, glutamate dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase activities). Modest apparent improvements in these abnormalities were observed when HRN™ mice were dosed orally with fenclozic acid for 7 days at 100 mg kg^-1 day^-1. Previously we observed more marked effects on liver histopathology and integrity in HRN™ mice dosed orally with the NSAID diclofenac for 7 days at 30 mg kg^-1 day^-1. We conclude that HRN™ mice are valuable for assessing P450-related hepatic drug biotransformation, but not for drug toxicity studies due to underlying liver dysfunction. Nonetheless, HRN™ mice may provide novel insights into the role of inflammation in liver injury, thereby aiding its treatment.

Hepatotoxicity of illegal home-made alcohols

OBJECTIVE AND AIM

Alcohol-related hepatotoxicity is not only caused by excessive alcohol consumption but also caused and even accelerated by hepatotoxic ingredients other than ethanol. Concentrations of hepatotoxic substances might be significantly high, particularly in illegally produced home-made alcohols. In this study we aim to analyze the hepatotoxic effects of a home-made alcohol traditionally called "bogma raki" in Turkey.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Fifty Wistar albino male rats were used. Five groups were randomly formed with ten animals in each. Besides laboratory diets, groups were fed as follows: Group 1 (control group) distilled water; Group 2 bogma raki with distilled water (%44 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day); Group 3 bogma raki with distilled water (%44 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day)+walnut (10 g/kg/day); Group 4 whisky with distilled water (%40 (v/v), 9.2 ml/kg/day); Group 5 distilled water + walnut (10 g/kg/day), for 28 days. The toxicological analysis of The spirits were analyzed using Hewlett-Packard (Palo Alto, CA) GC/MS system with HP 6890 gas chromatograph, an HP 5972 mass selective detector (MSD) and an HP 6890 automatic liquid sampler GC/MS; the pressure of the carrier gas helium was 6.0 bar and the split value with a ratio of 1:100. The injection unit temperature set to 250 °C and MS quadrupole temperature set to 280 °C. The MS quadrupole detector ionization energy set to 70 eV. The initial column temperature was 60 °C (for 4 min) programmed by 6 °C/min to final temperature 160 °C and kept for 8 min at 160 °C. Utilized whisky and bogma raki samples were analyzed for the amounts of trans-anethole, ethanol, methanol, 1-propanolol, butanol, 2-butanol, 2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol) and 3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol). Histopathological changes in liver tissues were graded as follows; normal = 0 (<10%), mild = 1 (10%-40%), moderate = 2 (40%-70%), severe = 3 (above 70%).

RESULTS

Chemical composition of illegally produced raki sample (%v/v) was as follows: trans-anethole %1.93, ethanol %95.70, 2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol) %0.19, asetic acid %0.25, 3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol) %0.77, and others %1.16. Chemical composition of commercial whisky sample (%v/v) was as follows: ethanol %97.72, 2-methyl-1-propanolol (isobutanol) %0.57, asetic acid %0.23, 3-methylbutanol (isoamyl alcohol) %1.28, and others %0.2. No traces of trans-anethole were detected in whisky. Normal liver morphology was recorded in control and walnut groups. However, bogma raki caused significant congestion and inflammatory cell infiltration compared to control and walnut group. On the other hand, whisky administration caused mild degeneration including inflammation in a limited area.

CONCLUSION

Obtained findings suggest that trans-anethole containing alcoholic beverages are more hepatotoxic compared to commercial alcoholic beverages.

Dietary supplementation in patients with alcoholic liver disease: a review on current evidence

BACKGROUND

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is one of the main causes of liver disease worldwide. Although the pathogenesis of ALD has not yet been well elucidated, the oxidative metabolites of ethanol such as acetaldehyde and reactive oxygen species play a pivotal role in the clinical and pathological spectrum of the disease. This review summarizes the existing evidences on dietary supplements considered to have antioxidant, and/or anti-inflammatory properties, and their role in the management of ALD and the proposed mechanisms.

DATA SOURCES

The present study reviewed all studies published in PubMed, ScienceDirect and Scopus, from 1959 to 2015, indicating the role of different dietary supplementation in attenuation of many pathophysiological processes involved in development and progression of ALD. Full-texts of citations were used except for those that were published in languages other than English.

RESULTS

Significant progress has been made to understand the key events and molecular players for the onset and progression of ALD from both experimental and clinical studies; however, there is no successful treatment currently available. The present review discussed the role of a variety of dietary supplements (e.g. vitamin A, carotenoids, vitamins B3, C and E, in addition to antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents) in treating ALD. It has been shown that supplementation with some carotenoids, vitamin B3, vitamin C, silymarin, curcumin, probiotics, zinc, S-adenosylmethionine and garlic may have potential beneficial effects in animal models of ALD; however, the number of clinical studies is very limited. In addition, supplementation should be accompanied with alcohol cessation.

CONCLUSIONS

Since oxidative stress and inflammation are involved in the pathogenesis of ALD, dietary supplements that can modulate these pathologies could be useful in the treatment of ALD. In addition to alcohol cessation, these supplements have shown beneficial effects on animal models of ALD. Clinical trials are needed to validate the beneficiary role of these supplements in patients with ALD.

Alcoholic liver disease: focus on prodromal gut health

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is implicated in gut disturbances, both functionally and structurally. It has been noticed that the gut-liver interaction is an important feature in the prevention of systemic inflammation as well as liver health. The optimal functioning of the gut-liver axis depends on gut health. Therefore, gut problems may be important for estimating liver inflammation, while our knowledge of ALD could also provide an insight into gut health. Gut problems accompanied by ALD include gut motility and absorption problems, mucosal damage and the dysbiosis of gut microbiota and gastrointestinal carcinogenesis. Moreover, there is emerging evidence that besides direct inflammatory injury caused by alcohol, gut problems related to ALD play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and immunological disorders. In this regard, we should consider ALD in relation to both gut health and chronic systemic low-grade inflammation. Accordingly, integrative therapeutic strategies are warranted for treating and preventing ALD and systemic inflammation as well as alcohol-related gut problems.

Alcohol Vapor Inhalation as a Model of Alcohol-Induced Organ Disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic intermittent ethanol vapor (CIEV) exposure has been used extensively to produce rodent models of alcohol dependence, but unlike other models of alcohol abuse, CIEV has not been assessed as a model of end-organ damage. The purpose of this study was to characterize the effects of CIEV on peripheral organ systems affected by alcohol abuse, including the liver, lungs, and cardiovascular system.

METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to daily CIEV for a period of 8 weeks (14HR ON/10HR OFF), producing blood alcohol levels of ~200 mg/dl. Controls were exposed to room air. After 8 weeks, echocardiography was performed to assess cardiac function. Indices of liver injury (alanine and aspartate aminotransferases [ALT and AST]; cytochrome p450 2E1 [CYP2E1]; alcohol dehydrogenase [ADH]; Oil Red O and triglyceride content; lipid peroxidation; inflammatory cytokine expression; and macrophage infiltration), and lung inflammatory cell count, proinflammatory cytokine expression, and lipid peroxidation were measured.

RESULTS

Left ventricular posterior wall thickness was significantly decreased, and systolic blood pressure was significantly elevated by CIEV compared with air controls. CIEV led to a significant increase in plasma ALT and triglycerides compared with room air controls. CIEV did not affect liver triglyceride content, lipid staining or peroxidation, but increased CYP2E1 and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) protein expression, while decreasing ADH expression. CIEV significantly increased numbers of both polymorphonuclear neutrophils and lymphocytes in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, indicative of pulmonary inflammation. However, CIEV did not produce significant changes in lung mass, pulmonary lipid peroxidation, inflammatory cytokine expression, or edema.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that CIEV produces hepatic, pulmonary, and cardiovascular effects in rats similar to those found in other models of chronic alcohol administration. Alcohol vapor administration is a novel method of alcohol-induced tissue injury with high potential for widespread use in alcohol toxicology research.

Bone health and vitamin D status in alcoholic liver disease

Alcohol consumption is harmful to many organs and tissues, including bones, and it leads to osteoporosis. Hepatic osteodystrophy is abnormal bone metabolism that has been defined in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD), including osteopenia, osteoporosis, and osteomalacia. Decreased bone density in patients with CLD results from decreased bone formation or increased bone resorption. The prevalence of osteopenia in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) patients is between 34 % and 48 %, and the prevalence of osteoporosis is between 11 % and 36 %. Cirrhosis is also a risk factor for osteoporosis. The liver has an important role in vitamin D metabolism. Ninety percent of patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis have vitamin D inadequacy (<80 nmol/L). The lowest serum vitamin D levels were observed in patients with Child-Pugh class C. Bone densitometry is used for the definitive diagnosis of osteoporosis in ALD. There are no specific controlled clinical studies on the treatment of osteoporosis in patients with ALD. Alcohol cessation and abstinence are principal for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in ALD patients, and the progression of osteopenia can be stopped in this way. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation is recommended, and associated nutritional deficiencies should also be corrected. The treatment recommendations of osteoporosis in CLD tend to be extended to ALD. Bisphosphonates have been proven to be effective in increasing bone mineral density (BMD) in chronic cholestatic disease and post-transplant patients, and they can be used in ALD patients. Randomized studies assessing the management of CLD-associated osteoporosis and the development of new drugs for osteoporosis may change the future. Here, we will discuss bone quality, vitamin D status, mechanism of bone effects, and diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis in ALD.

Optimal Timing for Venous Systemic Oxygen Persufflation Supplemented with Nitric Oxide Gas in Cold-Stored, Warm Ischemia-Damaged Experimental Liver Grafts

Background/Aim: Worldwide shortage of donor organs has increased the use of donation after cardiac death (DCD). The aim of this study was to analyze the best time point for venous systemic oxygen persufflation (VSOP) supplemented with nitric oxide (NO) gas during the 1st and 24th hour of cold storage (CS) in warm ischemia (WI)-damaged experimental liver grafts. Materials and Methods: Liver grafts (n = 5) were retrieved after 30 min of WI induced by cardiac arrest and CS in histidine-tryptophan-ketoglutarate solution at 4°C. The 1st hour group was immediately persufflated with a VSOP plus NO (VSOP+NO) mixture for 1 h followed by 23 h of static CS (DCD+NO 1st hour). The 24th hour group entailed CS for 23 h followed by 1 h of VSOP+NO persufflation (DCD+NO 24th hour). CS livers without WI but with VSOP served as controls. CS livers with WI represented the fourth group (DCD). Viability of the liver grafts was assessed by normothermic isolated reperfusion for 45 min with oxygenated Krebs-Henseleit buffer. Results: Data are presented as mean ± SEM (control vs. DCD vs. DCD+NO 1st hour vs. DCD+NO 24th hour). After 45 min of reperfusion, the DCD+NO 1st hour group showed significantly lower aspartate aminotransferase (13.4 ± 5.3, 63.2 ± 17.3, 25.6 ± 3.9, and 82.8 ± 27.3 U/l) and lactate dehydrogenase levels (289.4 ± 41.2, 2,139.4 ± 542.7, 577.2 ± 117.2, and 2,429 ± 221.6 U/l). Malondialdehyde levels were significantly abrogated (1.0 ± 0.3, 2.7 ± 1, 1.0 ± 0, and 3.9 ± 1.2 nmol/ml). Significantly higher levels of portal venous pressure were recorded in the DCD+NO 24th hour group (12.0 ± 1, 21.2 ± 3.1, 16.1 ± 1, and 23.2 ± 3.5 mm Hg). NO levels were recorded after 5 min of reperfusion (1.42 ± 0.17, 1.8 ± 0.2, 2.7 ± 0.2, and 2.6 ± 0.1 μmol/l). Bile production levels showed no statistical significance (23.2 ± 3.8, 27.3 ± 1.8, 43.5 ± 18, and 31 ± 2.5 μl/45 min). Conclusion: Our results present the beneficial effects of NO combined with VSOP during the 1st hour of CS of WI-damaged experimental liver grafts.

Assessment of diet and recognition of nutritional deficiencies in paleopathological studies: A review

An essential part of paleopathology is the study of diet and nutrition as well as inferring aspects of diet and nutrition from the skeletal pathology. Interpretation of nutritional and metabolic disease-related pathologies often provides additional insight into the daily social and cultural practices of people. However, precise diagnoses of specific vitamin-related deficiencies in archaeological skeletal remains are still quite problematic and specific diagnoses are rarely possible. This partly stems from the fact that many nutritional or metabolic diseases do not necessarily result in an osteological response and when they do, the comorbidity and analogous osteological responses to vitamin deficiencies may hamper the definite diagnosis of nutrition-related disease. Clin. Anat. 29:862-869, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Liver cell injury caused by bad habits

Apoptosis and necrosis of liver cells induced by environmental or genetic factors are the main features of liver injury. Liver injury is usually caused by apoptosis of liver cells, which is controlled by a complex regulatory system involved in liver damage and secondary inflammation. This article aims to review liver injury caused by bad habits and the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Role of pentoxifylline in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice

AIM: To study pentoxifylline effects in liver and adipose tissue inflammation in obese mice induced by high-fat diet (HFD).

METHODS: Male swiss mice (6-wk old) were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 60% kcal from fat) or AIN-93 (control diet; 15% kcal from fat) for 12 wk and received pentoxifylline intraperitoneally (100 mg/kg per day) for the last 14 d. Glucose homeostasis was evaluated by measurements of basal glucose blood levels and insulin tolerance test two days before the end of the protocol. Final body weight was assessed. Epididymal adipose tissue was collected and weighted for adiposity evaluation. Liver and adipose tissue biopsies were homogenized in solubilization buffer and cytokines were measured in supernatant by enzyme immunoassay or multiplex kit, respectively. Hepatic histopathologic analyses were performed in sections of paraformaldehyde-fixed, paraffin-embedded liver specimens stained with hematoxylin-eosin by an independent pathologist. Steatosis (macrovesicular and microvesicular), ballooning degeneration and inflammation were histopathologically determined. Triglycerides measurements were performed after lipid extraction in liver tissue.

RESULTS: Pentoxifylline treatment reduced microsteatosis and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in liver (156.3 ± 17.2 and 62.6 ± 7.6 pg/mL of TNF-α for non-treated and treated obese mice, respectively; P < 0.05). Serum aspartate aminotransferase levels were also reduced (23.2 ± 6.9 and 12.1 ± 1.6 U/L for non-treated and treated obese mice, respectively; P < 0.05) but had no effect on glucose homeostasis. In obese adipose tissue, pentoxifylline reduced TNF-α (106.1 ± 17.6 and 51.1 ± 9.6 pg/mL for non-treated and treated obese mice, respectively; P < 0.05) and interleukin-6 (340.8 ± 51.3 and 166.6 ± 22.5 pg/mL for non-treated and treated obese mice, respectively; P < 0.05) levels; however, leptin (8.1 ± 0.7 and 23.1 ± 2.9 ng/mL for non-treated and treated lean mice, respectively; P < 0.05) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (600.2 ± 32.3 and 1508.6 ± 210.4 pg/mL for non-treated and treated lean mice, respectively; P < 0.05) levels increased in lean adipose tissue. TNF-α level in the liver of lean mice also increased (29.6 ± 6.6 and 75.4 ± 12.6 pg/mL for non-treated and treated lean mice, respectively; P < 0.05) while triglycerides presented a tendency to reduction.

CONCLUSION: Pentoxifylline was beneficial in obese mice improving liver and adipose tissue inflammation. Unexpectedly, pentoxifylline increased pro-inflammatory markers in the liver and adipose tissue of lean mice.

Prevalence and risk factors of coronary artery disease in patients with chronic viral hepatitis

OBJECTIVES

Patients with chronic viral hepatitis usually present metabolic abnormalities and hemodynamic changes, which are known factors associated with the development of coronary artery disease (CAD). This study aims to determine the risk factors of incident CAD in these patients.

METHODS

We identified 193 patients who subsequently developed CAD amongst 37,840 cases diagnosed as chronic viral hepatitis from January 2007 through December 2013.

RESULTS

In these patients, 141 had hepatitis B virus infections and 52 had hepatitis C virus infections. There was a male preponderance (65.9%). The median age at the diagnosis of hepatitis was 51 years. In the univariate analysis, patients aged ≥ 51 years had shorter median periods from the diagnosis of hepatitis to the onset of CAD than patients aged < 51 years (50 versus 96 months, p < 0.001), and patients with hypertension had shorter median durations compared to those without hypertension (48 versus 96 months, p < 0.001). Statistical significance also existed between patients with different etiologies (p = 0.004). In the multivariate analysis by Cox regression, age at the diagnosis of hepatitis (p < 0.001; hazard ratio (HR), 1.041; 95% CI, 1.027-1.056) and hypertension (with versus without, p < 0.001; HR, 1.925; 95% CI, 1.419-2.611) were revealed.

CONCLUSIONS

Age at diagnosis of hepatitis and hypertension appeared to be independent risk factors of incident CAD in these patients. This topic deserves further studies.

Clinical therapeutic effects of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells transplantation in the treatment of end-stage liver disease

We aimed to evaluate clinical therapeutic effects of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell (UCMSC) transplantation in the treatment of end-stage liver diseases. The human UCMSCs were cultured and prepared, and then transplanted into the hepatic tissues of 50 patients with decompensated cirrhosis. The liver function, thrombin function, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score, and hemodynamic index value were detected during a 24-week follow-up period, with the addition of hepatoprotective, antiviral, and other conventional treatments. No complications or serious side effects were observed. In the first 2-3 weeks after surgery, symptoms including abdominal distension, oliguria, edema, and others decreased significantly, with increased appetite compared with before surgery. In the 24-week follow-up period, the levels of serum albumin and prealbumin increased significantly compared with the preoperative levels; the decrease of coagulation indicators was not significant. The MELD scores were also markedly increased. Alpha-fetoprotein levels increased without significance after treatment. There was no significant difference in the hemodynamic changes in the portal and splenic veins according to ultrasound. Moreover, no significant differences in the liver and thrombin functions between the hepatitis B virus group and the other-etiology group were observed.

Review article: Alcohol and gut microbiota - the possible role of gut microbiota modulation in the treatment of alcoholic liver disease

BACKGROUND

Alcohol abuse represents the most common cause of liver disease in the Western countries. Pre-clinical and clinical studies showed that alcohol consumption affects amount and composition of gut microbiota. Moreover, gut flora plays an important role in the pathogenesis of alcoholic liver injury.

AIM

To review the relationship between alcohol administration and changes on gut microbiota, its involvement in the pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease, and how gut microbiota modulation could be a target for the treatment of alcoholic liver disease.

METHODS

Articles were identified using the PubMed database with the search terms 'Alcohol', 'Gut Microbiota', 'Alcoholic liver disease', 'Probiotic', 'Prebiotic', 'Symbiotic' and 'Antibiotic'. English-language articles were screened for relevance. Full review of publications for the relevant studies was conducted, including additional publications that were identified from individual article reference lists.

RESULTS

Alcohol abuse induces changes in the composition of gut microbiota, although the exact mechanism for this alteration is not well known. The translocation of bacterial products into the portal blood appears to play a key role in alcohol-induced liver damage. Several studies show that the modulation of gut microbiota seem to be a promising strategy to reduce alcohol-induced liver injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Further studies are needed to better understand the relationship between alcohol administration and changes in gut microbiota, and its involvement in alcoholic liver disease. Moreover larger studies are needed to confirm the preliminary results on the therapeutic effects of gut microbiota modulation.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory liver injury in mice

The intraperitoneal application of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) alone or in combination with other hepatotoxins is an experimental model for inducing systemic and hepatic inflammation in rodents applied worldwide. The endotoxin is recognized by the LPS-binding protein. This complex binds together with the lymphocyte antigen 96 (MD2) and the pattern-recognition receptor CD14 to members of the toll-like receptor family. The activated receptor complex in turn transduces signals to well characterized intracellular cascades that result in a multifaceted network of intracellular responses ending in inflammation. The most prominent among these is the activation of the NF-κB pathway and the production of a multitude of inflammatory cytokines. Although the application of LPS is in general easy to perform, unintended variations in preparation of the injection solution or in handling of the animals might affect the reproducibility or the outcome of a specific experiment. Here, we present a well-standardized protocol that allows for an induction of highly reproducible acute hepatic inflammation in mice. Furthermore, examples of appropriate readouts for the resulting inflammatory response are given.

Alcohol and inflammatory responses: summary of the 2013 Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting

Loyola University Chicago, Health Sciences Campus in Maywood, Illinois hosted the 18th annual Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting on November 22, 2013. This year's meeting emphasized alcohol's effect on inflammatory responses in diverse disease states and injury conditions. The meeting consisted of three plenary sessions demonstrating the adverse effects of alcohol, specifically, liver inflammation, adverse systemic effects, and alcohol's role in infection and immunology. Researchers also presented insight on modulation of microRNAs and stress proteins following alcohol consumption. Additionally, researchers revealed sex- and concentration-dependent differences in alcohol-mediated pathologies.