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Kutzler J, Polettini AE, Bleicher S, Sauer C, Schultis W, Neukamm MA, Auwärter V. Synthetic cannabinoids in hair-Prevalence of use in abstinence control programs for driver's license regranting in Germany. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:518-531. [PMID: 37731292 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Although the use, structural variety, and prevalence of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) have steadily increased on the drug market, they are rarely analyzed in abstinence control programs for driver's license regranting. The aim of this study was to determine the SC prevalence in these programs by analyzing hair samples collected between March 2020 and March 2021 from various regions in Germany, mainly Bavaria (40%). Specimens were analyzed quantitatively for drugs of abuse and qualitatively for 107 SCs. Hair samples were screened by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and to search for unknown SC analogs, positive samples were additionally screened by liquid chromatography-high resolution time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-qTOF/MS). The analysis of 5097 hair samples resulted in 181 SC detections (3.6%), showing a wide range of 44 SCs, with up to 13 different compounds found in a single sample. The most prevalent compounds were 5F-MDMB-PICA and MDMB-4en-PINACA; furthermore, 10 new substances not initially covered by LC-MS/MS analysis were detected by LC-qTOF/MS. The SC positivity rate was comparable to cocaine (5.4%) and amphetamine (2.6%). Only in 35 cases (0.7%), SC analysis was requested by the clients, highlighting the insufficient coverage of SC consumption in the studied collective. In summary, hair sample analysis proved to be a valuable tool to monitor the use of SCs. In order to keep pace with newly emerging SC analogs, an up-to-date analytical method is essential. Prospectively, SCs should be more routinely screened in hair analysis for abstinence control to avoid cannabis substitution by SCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Kutzler
- Department of Forensic Toxicology & Drug Analysis, SYNLAB MVZ Weiden GmbH, Weiden, Germany
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Postgraduate Course for Toxicology and Environmental Toxicology, Institute for Legal Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Aldo Eliano Polettini
- Department of Forensic Toxicology & Drug Analysis, SYNLAB MVZ Weiden GmbH, Weiden, Germany
- Department of Diagnostics & Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Sergej Bleicher
- Department of Forensic Toxicology & Drug Analysis, SYNLAB MVZ Weiden GmbH, Weiden, Germany
| | - Christoph Sauer
- Department of Forensic Toxicology & Drug Analysis, SYNLAB MVZ Weiden GmbH, Weiden, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Schultis
- Department of Forensic Toxicology & Drug Analysis, SYNLAB MVZ Weiden GmbH, Weiden, Germany
| | - Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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2
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Morales-Noé A, Esteve-Turrillas FA, Armenta S. Metabolism of third generation synthetic cannabinoids using zebrafish larvae. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:594-603. [PMID: 34750997 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are the second largest group of new psychoactive substances reported by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in the last decade and case reports bring attention to its high potency effects and its severe toxicity, including fatalities. Moreover, synthetic cannabinoids are usually entirely metabolized and metabolic pathways for many new generation synthetic cannabinoids are still unknown. In this study, the metabolism of five third generation synthetic cannabinoids was evaluated using zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae as 24-h in vivo model studied within 5 days after fertilization. The studied synthetic cannabinoids were MMB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMCZCA, and NNL-3, and the respective metabolites were identified by liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry. Eleven, six, fourteen, eleven, and four metabolites were identified for MMB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMICA, ADB-CHMINACA, MDMB-CHMCZCA, and NNL-3, respectively, and metabolic pathways have been proposed. The use of zebrafish larvae, with a high degree of physiological and genetic homology to humans, is an emerging tool very useful for the identification of metabolic pathways of psychoactive substances. Results obtained in this study compared well with metabolites obtained previously for the same target molecules or structural analogous after in vitro incubation with human or rat hepatocytes. Thus, potential biomarkers for the evaluated compounds are the O-demethylated metabolite for MMB-CHMICA; the oxidative deamination to hydroxyl metabolite for ADB-CHMICA; hydroxyl metabolites at cyclohexylmethyl, tert-butyl, and indazole moieties for ADB-CHMINACA; hydroxyl metabolites at carbazole core, tert-butyl, or cyclohexylmethyl tail moieties for MDMB-CHMCZCA; and amide hydrolyzed, defluorinated, and dihydroxilated metabolite for NNL-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asunción Morales-Noé
- Cellular Biology, Functional Biology and Physical Anthropology Department, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
| | | | - Sergio Armenta
- Analytical Chemistry Department, Universitat de València, Burjassot, Spain
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3
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Stogner J, Sarvey L, Lowe CC, Hupli A, Miller BL. Sexual Orientation and Synthetic Cannabinoid Use: Examining the Role of Bullying Victimization. J Psychoactive Drugs 2021; 54:368-377. [PMID: 34608853 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2021.1972186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bullying is a common experience among youths with many adverse consequences. Research indicates that those who identify as lesbian, gay, and bisexual experience bullying at greater levels than heterosexuals. Studies also indicate that sexual minorities are more likely to use alcohol and other drugs, including synthetic cannabinoids (SCs). This paper examines whether the relationship between sexual minority status and SC use is mediated by differential exposure to bullying victimization. Data from the 2015 and 2017 Youth Risk Behavior Study were used. Participants include 30,389 adolescents. Supplemental analyses were conducted with state and district data as those collection efforts incorporated additional bullying measures. Ianobucci's zmediation was used to assess the relationships between sexual orientation, bullying victimization, and SC use. Results confirm the higher prevalence of bullying and SC use among LGBQ students. Multiple forms of bullying victimization (e.g., in-person, online, because of weight/appearance) mediate the relationship between sexual orientation and SC use. The greater prevalence of SC use within the LGBQ population is partially attributed to coping as a result bullying victimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Stogner
- Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Logan Sarvey
- Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - C Cory Lowe
- Criminal Justice and Criminology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Aleksi Hupli
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - Bryan Lee Miller
- Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Criminal Justice, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
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4
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Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS). A New Threat for Young Drug Users with Forensic-Toxicological Implications. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11050440. [PMID: 34068903 PMCID: PMC8156937 DOI: 10.3390/life11050440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) represent a severe health risk for drug users. Even though the phenomenon has been growing since the early 2000s, the mechanisms of action of NPS at the receptors and beyond them are still scarcely understood. The aim of the present study was to provide a systematic review of the updated knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying the toxicity of synthetic opioids, cannabinoids, cathinones, and stimulants. The study was conducted on the PubMed database. Study eligibility criteria included relevance to the topic, English language, and time of publication (2010–2020). A combined Mesh and free-text protocols search was performed. Study selection was performed on the title/abstract and, in doubtful cases, on the full texts of papers. Of the 580 records identified through PubMed searching and reference checking, 307 were excluded by title/abstract and 78 additional papers were excluded after full-text reading, leaving a total of 155 included papers. Molecular mechanisms of synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, stimulants, psychedelics, and hallucinogens were reviewed and mostly involved both a receptor-mediated and non-receptor mediated cellular modulation with multiple neurotransmitters interactions. The molecular mechanisms underlying the action of NPS are more complex than expected, with a wide range of overlap among activated receptors and neurotransmitter systems. The peculiar action profile of single compounds does not necessarily reflect that of the structural class to which they belong, accounting for possible unexpected toxic reactions.
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5
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Theunissen EL, Reckweg JT, Hutten NRPW, Kuypers KPC, Toennes SW, Neukamm MA, Halter S, Ramaekers JG. Intoxication by a synthetic cannabinoid (JWH-018) causes cognitive and psychomotor impairment in recreational cannabis users. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 202:173118. [PMID: 33497715 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Smoking mixtures containing synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) have become very popular over the last years but pose a serious risk for public health. Limited knowledge is, however, available regarding the acute effects of SCs on cognition and psychomotor performance. Earlier we demonstrated signs of impairment in healthy volunteers after administering one of the first SCs, JWH-018, even though subjective intoxication was low. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the acute effects of JWH-018 on several cognitive and psychomotor tasks in participants who are demonstrating representative levels of acute intoxication. METHODS 24 healthy cannabis-experienced participants took part in this placebo-controlled, cross-over study. Participants inhaled the vapor of 75 μg JWH-018/kg body weight and were given a booster dose if needed to induce a minimum level of subjective high. They were subsequently monitored for 4 h, during which psychomotor and cognitive performance, vital signs, and subjective experience were measured, and serum concentrations were determined. RESULTS Maximum subjective high (average 64%) was reached 30 min after administration of JWH-018, while the maximum blood concentration was shown after 5 min (8 ng/mL). JWH-018 impaired motor coordination (CTT), attention (DAT and SST), memory (SMT), it lowered speed-accuracy efficiency (MFFT) and slowed down response speed (DAT). CONCLUSION In accordance with our previous studies, we demonstrated acute psychomotor and cognitive effects of a relatively low dose of JWH-018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eef L Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands.
| | - Johannes T Reckweg
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Nadia R P W Hutten
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Kim P C Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, Goethe University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Halter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany; Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Hebelstr. 27, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
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6
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Krotulski AJ, Cannaert A, Stove C, Logan BK. The next generation of synthetic cannabinoids: Detection, activity, and potential toxicity of pent-4en and but-3en analogues including MDMB-4en-PINACA. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:427-438. [PMID: 32997377 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
A new class of synthetic cannabinoids has emerged as new psychoactive substances (NPS). Similar in structure to JWH-022, these substances contain alkene modifications to the tail region of the synthetic cannabinoid core structure, and nomenclature denotes these new analogues as pent-4en or but-3en species. Internationally, two analogues from this new series recently emerged: MDMB-4en-PINACA and MMB-4en-PICA. Previously, data regarding activity and potential toxicity were not available. In vitro assessment of cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) activation via the β-arrestin 2 recruitment was studied for three (3) pent-4en analogues, one (1) but-3en analogue, and one (1) principal metabolite. MDMB-4en-PINACA (2.47 nM, 239%), MDMB-4en-PICA (11.5 nM, 302%), and MDMB-3en-BINACA (14.3 nM, 286%) were highly potent and efficacious (comparison: JWH-018, 25.3 nM, 100%), while the potencies of MMB-4en-PICA and MDMB-4en-PINACA 3,3-dimethylbutanoic acid were markedly lower. Modifications to core and tail structural features (i.e., indole vs. indazole) led to relatively small differences in potency, while changes among the head region led to larger differences. Sample-mining and data-mining conducted on toxicology samples led to the identification of MDMB-4en-PINACA in 25 forensic toxicology cases, including postmortem and impaired driving investigations, with case details and limited histories described herein. Moderate geographical distribution of MDMB-4en-PINACA was noted in the United States with emergence in the Northeast, Midwest, South, and West regions. Results from toxicology testing paired with case history show the potential for MDMB-4en-PINACA to cause or contribute to impairment or death. Forensic scientists, public health and public safety officials, law enforcement, clinicians, medical examiners, and coroners should consider involvement of emergent synthetic cannabinoids in their work and that new analogues containing an alkene tail can retain similar or increased potency and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA.,Toxicology Department, NMS Labs, Horsham, PA, USA
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7
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Comprehensive analysis of synthetic cannabinoids and metabolites in oral fluid by online solid-phase extraction coupled to liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:7937-7953. [PMID: 32914400 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02926-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The class of novel psychoactive substances known as synthetic cannabinoids (SC) includes illicit compounds that are sprayed on plant material and smoked or sold as liquids to be vaporized in e-cigarettes. In toxicological analysis of SC, fast analytical methods are needed for the detection and confirmation of parent drugs and metabolites at very low levels. While various analytical methods have been developed for SC in blood and urine, few are available for alternative matrices such as oral fluid (OF). There are numerous advantages to using OF as a sample matrix for SC analysis, including non-invasive collection, lesser risk of adulteration, and presence of both parent drug and metabolites. Here we report a validated online solid-phase extraction (online SPE) method coupled to LC-QqQ-MS for rapid confirmation and quantitation of 72 structurally diverse SC parent drugs and metabolites in OF with 2.5 min of preconcentration time and a total elution time of < 10 min. The use of online SPE for sample pretreatment facilitates rapid and consistent processing and greatly increases sample throughput. The method was fully validated according to relevant guidelines (ANSI/ASB Standard 036). Bias and precision values were within ± 20% for all compounds in human OF matrix. Method detection and quantitation limits ranged from 0.4 to 3.8 ng/mL and from 1.1 to 11.6 ng/mL, respectively. Recovery, matrix effects, process efficiency, carryover, and stability were also within acceptable limits for the majority of compounds. Successful application of the method was demonstrated using blank human OF fortified with SC in addition to a set of authentic OF specimens previously tested by another laboratory. Graphical abstract.
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8
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Norman K, Ciesielski AL, Wagner JR. Identification and associated hazards of clandestine drug laboratories. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/wfs2.1393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Norman
- School of Defence and Security Cranfield University Bedford UK
| | - Austin L. Ciesielski
- School of Forensic Sciences Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences Tulsa Oklahoma USA
| | - Jarrad R. Wagner
- School of Forensic Sciences Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences Tulsa Oklahoma USA
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9
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Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this work is to establish if there are any problems in precise quantitation of methyl 2-[1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamido]-3,3-dimethylbutanoate (5F-ADB) in human urine by QuEChERS extraction coupled with gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS).
Methods
To establish the method for quantifying 5F-ADB in human urine samples, QuEChERS extraction coupled with GC–MS/MS was applied. To elucidate 5F-ADB degradation products, liquid chromatography coupled with linear trap quadrupole-orbitrap hybrid MS (LC–MS) was used.
Results
The applied QuEChERS GC–MS/MS procedure appeared to be satisfactory for 5F-ADB estimation in acidic and alkaline urine samples. Its validation parameters were the following: good linearity (R2 = 0.9988), high detection (limit of detection = 0.33 ng/mL) and quantitation (limit of quantitation = 1.1 ng/mL) sensitivities and satisfactory inter- and intraday precisions (% relative standard deviation below 5.6%). 5F-ADB recovery from acidic urine by QuEChERS procedure was slightly lower than that from urine sample with neutral pH; however, the difference in the recovery was not statistically significant. The recovery of the drug from alkaline urine is extremely low. LC–MS analysis proved the presence of 5F-ADB hydrolysis products in alkaline urine and in alkaline solution of the drug.
Conclusions
The presented studies indicate that the validated QuEChERS technique can be successfully used in routine analyses of 5F-ADB in urine. Yet, due to hydrolytical instability of 5F-ADB, the medical diagnosis of the health condition of the patient suspected of 5F-ADB abuse on the basis of the drug concentration in his/her urine may be incorrect, especially when the urine is alkaline.
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10
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Alves VL, Gonçalves JL, Aguiar J, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. The synthetic cannabinoids phenomenon: from structure to toxicological properties. A review. Crit Rev Toxicol 2020; 50:359-382. [PMID: 32530350 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2020.1762539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The word "cannabinoid" refers to every chemical substance, regardless of structure or origin, that joins the cannabinoid receptors of the body and brain and that have similar effects to those produced by the Cannabis plant and based on their source of production, cannabinoids can be classified into endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids represent the largest class of drugs detected through the EU Early Warning System with a total of 190 substances notified from 2008 to 2018 and about 280 have been reported worldwide to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Sprayed on natural herb mixtures with the aim to mimic the euphoria effect of cannabis and sold as "herbal smoking blends" or "herbal incense" under brand names like "Spice" or "K2", synthetic cannabinoids are available from websites for the combination with herbal materials or more recently, for the use in e-cigarettes. Currently labeled as "not for human consumption" to circumvent legislation, their legal status varies by country with many government institutions currently pushing for their control. However, due to the emergence of new substances, it requires a constant update of the list of controlled drugs. Little is known about how these substances work and their toxic effects in humans and the same product could vary not only in the amount and in the type of substance added. In the last years, synthetic cannabinoids have been associated with deaths and acute intoxications in Europe and, despite a range of new measures introduced in this area, continue to represent a challenge to current drug policy models. These synthetic substances are much more potent than natural cannabis, as well as displayed greater efficacy, acting as full agonists at the cannabinoid receptors. It is possible that, along with being highly potent, some may also have long half-lives, potentially leading to a prolonged psychoactive effect. The present work provides a review on existing literature about the development of synthetic cannabinoids as substances of abuse, current patterns of abuse and their legal status, chemical classification, and some pharmacological and toxicological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera L Alves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - João L Gonçalves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra, Portugal.,Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.,Faculdade de Ciências Exactas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
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11
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Ferreira C, Almeida C, Tenreiro S, Quintas A. Neuroprotection or Neurotoxicity of Illicit Drugs on Parkinson's Disease. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10060086. [PMID: 32545328 PMCID: PMC7344445 DOI: 10.3390/life10060086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's Disease (PD) is currently the most rapid growing neurodegenerative disease and over the past generation, its global burden has more than doubled. The onset of PD can arise due to environmental, sporadic or genetic factors. Nevertheless, most PD cases have an unknown etiology. Chemicals, such as the anthropogenic pollutant 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and amphetamine-type stimulants, have been associated with the onset of PD. Conversely, cannabinoids have been associated with the treatment of the symptoms'. PD and medical cannabis is currently under the spotlight, and research to find its benefits on PD is on-going worldwide. However, the described clinical applications and safety of pharmacotherapy with cannabis products are yet to be fully supported by scientific evidence. Furthermore, the novel psychoactive substances are currently a popular alternative to classical drugs of abuse, representing an unknown health hazard for young adults who may develop PD later in their lifetime. This review addresses the neurotoxic and neuroprotective impact of illicit substance consumption in PD, presenting clinical evidence and molecular and cellular mechanisms of this association. This research area is utterly important for contemporary society since illicit drugs' legalization is under discussion which may have consequences both for the onset of PD and for the treatment of its symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Ferreira
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (C.F.); (C.A.)
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário–Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine of Porto University, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, P-4200–319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Almeida
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (C.F.); (C.A.)
| | - Sandra Tenreiro
- CEDOC–Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, P-1150-082 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Alexandre Quintas
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal; (C.F.); (C.A.)
- Laboratório de Ciências Forenses e Psicológicas Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário–Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, P-2825-084 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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12
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Gamage TF, Barrus DG, Kevin RC, Finlay DB, Lefever TW, Patel PR, Grabenauer MA, Glass M, McGregor IS, Wiley JL, Thomas BF. In vitro and in vivo pharmacological evaluation of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist EG-018. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020. [PMID: 32247816 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172918.in] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) possess high abuse liability and complex toxicological profiles, making them serious threats to public health. EG-018 is a SCRA that has been detected in both illicit products and human samples, but it has received little attention to date. The current studies investigated EG-018 at human CB1 and CB2 receptors expressed in HEK293 cells in [3H]CP55,940 competition binding, [35S]GTPγS binding and forskolin-stimulated cAMP production. EG-018 was also tested in vivo for its ability to produce cannabimimetic and abuse-related effects in the cannabinoid tetrad and THC drug discrimination, respectively. EG-018 exhibited high affinity at CB1 (21 nM) and at CB2 (7 nM), but in contrast to typical SCRAs, behaved as a weak partial agonist in [35S]GTPγS binding, exhibiting lower efficacy but greater potency, than that of THC at CB1 and similar potency and efficacy at CB2. EG-018 inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP with similar efficacy but lower potency, compared to THC, which was likely due to high receptor density facilitating saturation of this signaling pathway. In mice, EG-018 (100 mg/kg, 30 min) administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) did not produce effects in the tetrad or drug discrimination nor did it shift THC's ED50 value in drug discrimination when administered before THC, suggesting EG-018 has negligible occupancy of brain CB1 receptors following i.p. administration. Following intravenous (i.v.) administration, EG-018 (56 mg/kg) produced hypomotility, catalepsy, and hypothermia, but only catalepsy was blocked by the selective CB1 antagonist rimonabant (3 mg/kg, i.v.). Additional studies of EG-018 and its structural analogues could provide further insight into how cannabinoids exert efficacy through the cannabinoid receptors.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Body Temperature/drug effects
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/pharmacokinetics
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/pharmacology
- Carbazoles/pharmacokinetics
- Carbazoles/pharmacology
- Cyclic AMP/metabolism
- Dronabinol/pharmacology
- HEK293 Cells
- Humans
- Liver/cytology
- Locomotion/drug effects
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred ICR
- Microsomes/drug effects
- Naphthalenes/pharmacokinetics
- Naphthalenes/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Long-Evans
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/agonists
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/agonists
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Synthetic Drugs/metabolism
- Synthetic Drugs/pharmacokinetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Gamage
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Daniel G Barrus
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Richard C Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia; Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - David B Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Purvi R Patel
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Megan A Grabenauer
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Iain S McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia; Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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13
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Gamage TF, Barrus DG, Kevin RC, Finlay DB, Lefever TW, Patel PR, Grabenauer MA, Glass M, McGregor IS, Wiley JL, Thomas BF. In vitro and in vivo pharmacological evaluation of the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist EG-018. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 193:172918. [PMID: 32247816 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) possess high abuse liability and complex toxicological profiles, making them serious threats to public health. EG-018 is a SCRA that has been detected in both illicit products and human samples, but it has received little attention to date. The current studies investigated EG-018 at human CB1 and CB2 receptors expressed in HEK293 cells in [3H]CP55,940 competition binding, [35S]GTPγS binding and forskolin-stimulated cAMP production. EG-018 was also tested in vivo for its ability to produce cannabimimetic and abuse-related effects in the cannabinoid tetrad and THC drug discrimination, respectively. EG-018 exhibited high affinity at CB1 (21 nM) and at CB2 (7 nM), but in contrast to typical SCRAs, behaved as a weak partial agonist in [35S]GTPγS binding, exhibiting lower efficacy but greater potency, than that of THC at CB1 and similar potency and efficacy at CB2. EG-018 inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP with similar efficacy but lower potency, compared to THC, which was likely due to high receptor density facilitating saturation of this signaling pathway. In mice, EG-018 (100 mg/kg, 30 min) administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) did not produce effects in the tetrad or drug discrimination nor did it shift THC's ED50 value in drug discrimination when administered before THC, suggesting EG-018 has negligible occupancy of brain CB1 receptors following i.p. administration. Following intravenous (i.v.) administration, EG-018 (56 mg/kg) produced hypomotility, catalepsy, and hypothermia, but only catalepsy was blocked by the selective CB1 antagonist rimonabant (3 mg/kg, i.v.). Additional studies of EG-018 and its structural analogues could provide further insight into how cannabinoids exert efficacy through the cannabinoid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Gamage
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Daniel G Barrus
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Richard C Kevin
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia; Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - David B Finlay
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Purvi R Patel
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Megan A Grabenauer
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Iain S McGregor
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia; Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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14
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Tkachenko V, Farafonov V, Tokarev V, Tkachenko I. Study of the effectiveness of various cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) agonists using molecular docking and molecular dynamics modeling. FRENCH-UKRAINIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.17721/fujcv8i1p76-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The binding of a series of small organic molecules, acting as agonists of the cannabinoid receptor CB1, was investigated by means of three methods of computational chemistry. Binding modes were predicted by means of molecular docking, and binding free energy was estimated via docking, molecular-mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area method, and multistate Bennett acceptance ratio. No evident correlation was observed for the molecules between the experimental characteristics of affinity and three computed binding free energy estimates. The reasons for the discrepancy were discussed.
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15
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Worob A, Wenthur C. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Synthetic Cannabinoids (Spice/K2). ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 11:3881-3892. [PMID: 31799831 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This Review covers the background, pharmacology, adverse effects, synthesis, pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and history of synthetic cannabinoid compounds. Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of novel psychoactive substances that act as agonists at cannabinoid receptors. This class of compounds is structurally diverse and rapidly changing, with multiple generations of molecules having been developed in the past decade. The structural diversity of synthetic cannabinoids is supported by the breadth of chemical space available for exploitation by clandestine chemists and incentivized by attempts to remain ahead of legal pressures. As a class, synthetic cannabinoid products have a more serious adverse effect profile than that of traditional phytocannabinoids, including notable risks of lethality, as well as a history of dangerous adulteration. Most synthetic cannabinoids are rapidly metabolized to active species with prolonged residence times and peripheral tissue distribution, and analytical confirmation of use of these compounds remains challenging. Overall, the emergence of synthetic cannabinoids serves as a noteworthy example of the pressing public health challenges associated with the increasing development of easily synthesized, structurally flexible, highly potent, psychoactive drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Worob
- Divisions of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Cody Wenthur
- Divisions of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
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16
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Gamage TF, Farquhar CE, McKinnie RJ, Kevin RC, McGregor IS, Trudell ML, Wiley JL, Thomas BF. Synthetic Cannabinoid Hydroxypentyl Metabolites Retain Efficacy at Human Cannabinoid Receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2019; 368:414-422. [PMID: 30552295 PMCID: PMC6374541 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.118.254425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are novel psychoactive substances that are easily acquired, widely abused as a substitute for cannabis, and associated with cardiotoxicity and seizures. Although the structural bases of these compounds are scaffolds with known affinity and efficacy at the human cannabinoid type-1 receptor (hCB1), upon ingestion or inhalation they can be metabolized to multiple chemical entities of unknown pharmacological activity. A large proportion of these metabolites are hydroxylated on the pentyl chain, a key substituent that determines receptor affinity and selectivity. Thus, the pharmacology of SC metabolites may be an important component in understanding the in vivo effects of SCs. We examined nine SCs (AB-PINACA, 5F-AB-PINACA, ADB/MDMB-PINACA, 5F-ADB, 5F-CUMYL-PINACA, AMB-PINACA, 5F-AMB, APINACA, and 5F-APINACA) and their hydroxypentyl (either 4-OH or 5-OH) metabolites in [3H]CP55,940 receptor binding and the [35S]GTPγS functional assay to determine the extent to which these metabolites retain activity at cannabinoid receptors. All of the SCs tested exhibited high affinity (<10 nM) and efficacy for hCB1 and hCB2 The majority of the hydroxypentyl metabolites retained full efficacy at hCB1 and hCB2, albeit with reduced affinity and potency, and exhibited greater binding selectivity for hCB2 These data suggest that phase I metabolites may be contributing to the in vivo pharmacology and toxicology of abused SCs. Considering this and previous reports demonstrating that metabolites retain efficacy at the hCB1 receptor, the full pharmacokinetic profiles of the parent compounds and their metabolites need to be considered in terms of the pharmacological effects and time course associated with these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas F Gamage
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Charlotte E Farquhar
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Ryan J McKinnie
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Richard C Kevin
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Iain S McGregor
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Mark L Trudell
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (T.F.G., C.E.F., J.L.W., B.F.T.); Department of Chemistry, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana (R.J.M., M.L.T.); and School of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (R.C.K., I.S.M.)
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17
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The ongoing challenge of novel psychoactive drugs of abuse. Part I. Synthetic cannabinoids (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2017-0605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In the past decade, the world has experienced a large increase in the number of novel compounds appearing on the illicit drug market for recreational purposes. Such substances are designed to circumvent governmental regulations; the illegal drug manufacturers take a known psychoactive compound reported in the scientific literature and slightly modify its chemical structure in order to produce analogues that will mimic the pharmacological activity of the original substance. Many of these novel substances are sold via the Internet. Among the various chemical classes, synthetic cannabinoid receptor modulators, commonly referred to as “synthetic cannabinoids” have been at the forefront, as demonstrated by the frequency of drug seizures, numerous severe toxic effects, and fatalities associated with some of these substances. This review presents the chemical structures of relevant synthetic cannabinoids and describes their mechanism of action, pharmacological features, metabolic pathways, and structure-activity relationships. It illustrates the approaches used in forensic testing, both for bulk analysis (drug seizures) and for analytical toxicology (biological matrices) and discusses aspects of regulation surrounding this drug class. This report is intended to provide pertinent information for the purposes of informing scientific, medical, social, and governmental bodies about this ever-evolving recreational drug class and the challenges it poses worldwide.
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18
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Gamage TF, Farquhar CE, Lefever TW, Marusich JA, Kevin RC, McGregor IS, Wiley JL, Thomas BF. Molecular and Behavioral Pharmacological Characterization of Abused Synthetic Cannabinoids MMB- and MDMB-FUBINACA, MN-18, NNEI, CUMYL-PICA, and 5-Fluoro-CUMYL-PICA. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2018; 365:437-446. [PMID: 29549157 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.117.246983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are a class of novel psychoactive substances that exhibit high affinity at the cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptor and produce effects similar to those of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis. Illicit drug manufacturers are continually circumventing laws banning the sale of synthetic cannabinoids by synthesizing novel structures and doing so with little regard for the potential impact on pharmacological and toxicological effects. Synthetic cannabinoids produce a wide range of effects that include cardiotoxicity, seizure activity, and kidney damage, and they can cause death. Six synthetic cannabinoids, recently detected in illicit preparations, MMB-FUBINACA, MDMB-FUBINACA, CUMYL-PICA, 5F-CUMYL-PICA, NNEI, and MN-18 were assessed for: 1) receptor binding affinity at the human CB1 and human CB2 receptors, 2) function in [35S]GTPγS and cAMP signaling, and 3) THC-like effects in a mouse drug discrimination assay. All six synthetic cannabinoids exhibited high affinity for human cannabinoid receptors type-1 and type-2 and produced greater maximal effects than THC in [35S]GTPγS and cAMP signaling. Additionally, all six synthetic cannabinoids substituted for THC in drug discrimination, suggesting they probably possess subjective effects similar to those of cannabis. Notably, MDMB-FUBINACA, a methylated analog of MMB-FUBINACA, had higher affinity for CB1 than the parent, showing that minor structural modifications being introduced can have a large impact on the pharmacological properties of these drugs. This study demonstrates that novel structures being sold and used illicitly as substitutes for cannabis are retaining high affinity at the CB1 receptor, exhibiting greater efficacy than THC, and producing THC-like effects in models relevant to subjective effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina;
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19
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Wiley JL, Owens RA, Lichtman AH. Discriminative Stimulus Properties of Phytocannabinoids, Endocannabinoids, and Synthetic Cannabinoids. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2018; 39:153-173. [PMID: 27278640 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Psychoactive cannabinoids from the marijuana plant (phytocannabinoids), from the body (endocannabinoids), and from the research lab (synthetic cannabinoids) produce their discriminative stimulus effects by stimulation of CB1 receptors in the brain. Early discrimination work with phytocannabinoids confirmed that Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) is the primary psychoactive constituent of the marijuana plant, with more recent work focusing on characterization of the contribution of the major endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), to Δ9-THC-like internal states. Collectively, these latter studies suggest that endogenous increases in both anandamide and 2-AG seem to be optimal for mimicking Δ9-THC's discriminative stimulus effects, although suprathreshold concentrations of anandamide also appear to be Δ9-THC-like in discrimination assays. Recently, increased abuse of synthetic cannabinoids (e.g., "fake marijuana") has spurred discrimination studies to inform regulatory authorities by predicting which of the many synthetic compounds on the illicit market are most likely to share Δ9-THC's abuse liability. In the absence of a reliable model of cannabinoid self-administration (specifically, Δ9-THC self-administration), cannabinoid discrimination represents the most validated and pharmacologically selective animal model of an abuse-related property of cannabinoids - i.e., marijuana's subjective effects. The influx of recent papers in which cannabinoid discrimination is highlighted attests to its continued relevance as a valuable method for scientific study of cannabinoid use and abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - R Allen Owens
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Box 980613, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Aron H Lichtman
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Box 980613, Richmond, VA, USA
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20
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Fatal Mesenteric Ischemia Induced by Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Case Report and Literature Review. Case Rep Emerg Med 2017; 2017:6964078. [PMID: 29403666 PMCID: PMC5748310 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6964078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Worldwide use of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) is rapidly increasing, in part due to the generation of numerous new compounds, sidestepping legal restrictions. Their detection using standard toxicology panels is difficult, due to their vast heterogeneity and lack of structural resemblance to cannabinoids. Sympathetic overactivity and arterial spasm play a role in some of the life-threatening reactions to SCs, such as coronary or cerebral vasoconstriction. Here we report a patient with repeated consumption of SCs that led to mesenteric ischemia and death. A 29-year-old man was frequently evaluated in the Emergency Medicine Department for recurrent transient crampy abdominal pain, associated with the use of the SCs colloquially known as “Mr. Nice Guy.” He was finally hospitalized with a protracted attack, associated with diarrhea and leukocytosis. Initial evaluation including computed tomography was unremarkable. Diarrhea and leukocytosis gradually resolved, but bouts of hypertension and abdominal pain occurred in association with repeated consumption of the SCs. On the fifth hospital day, the patient developed abrupt abdominal pain, associated with profound shock and signs of peritoneal irritation and succumbed within an hour. Postmortem CT scan was consistent with intestinal perforation most probably due to a nonobstructive mesenteric infarction. There was no evidence of a single vessel infarction.
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21
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Theunissen EL, Hutten NRPW, Mason NL, Toennes SW, Kuypers KPC, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Ramaekers JG. Neurocognition and subjective experience following acute doses of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018: a phase 1, placebo-controlled, pilot study. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 175:18-28. [PMID: 29164599 DOI: 10.1111/bph.14066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Synthetic cannabinoids (often sold as Spice or K2) have become a very popular alternative to cannabis due to their easy access and portrayed safety. Controlled studies on the behavioural effects of synthetic cannabinoids are currently lacking, which hampers risk assessments of these compounds. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH This is a first attempt to assess the influence of a synthetic cannabinoid, JWH-018, on neurocognition and subjective experience in humans after controlled administration. JWH-018, 2 and 3 mg, was administered to six healthy cannabis-experienced volunteers in a placebo-controlled, cross-over study following an escalating dosing schedule. Participants were monitored for 12 h after drug administration, and several neurocognitive measures and subjective questionnaires were taken. KEY RESULTS Serum concentrations of JWH-018 were highest after the 2 mg dose but generally low after administration of both doses. Both doses of JWH-018 were well tolerated, and no serious side effects were reported. Participants reported feeling more 'high' at 1 and 2 h after administration, particularly after the 2 mg dose. Behavioural impairments also emerged despite the low serum concentrations of JWH-018. The low dose of JWH-018 impaired performance on the tracking, divided attention and stop signal task. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS JWH-018 dosing in the present study resulted in drug concentrations that were generally low and not fully representative of common use. Yet initial impairments of neurocognitive function and subjective feelings of high did emerge despite low levels of JWH-018 in serum. Higher doses are needed to obtain a more representative risk profile of JWH-018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eef L Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Nadia R P W Hutten
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Legal Medicine, Goethe University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Kim P C Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Eliza B de Sousa Fernandes Perna
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Phillips
- In New York, N.Y., Jeffrey Phillips is an RN in the ED at NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital/Weill-Cornell Medical Center and the assistant director of the ED nurse residency program, Fidelindo Lim is faculty at New York University College of Nursing, and Richard Hsu is a graduate of New York University's global public health program
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23
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Järbe TUC, Raghav JG. Tripping with Synthetic Cannabinoids ("Spice"): Anecdotal and Experimental Observations in Animals and Man. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:263-281. [PMID: 27753006 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The phenomenon of consuming synthetic cannabinoids ("Spice") for recreational purposes is a fairly recent trend. However, consumption of cannabis dates back millennia, with numerous accounts written on the experience of its consumption, and thousands of scientific reports published on the effects of its constituents in laboratory animals and humans. Here, we focus on consolidating the scientific literature on the effects of "Spice" compounds in various behavioral assays, including assessing abuse liability, tolerance, dependence, withdrawal, and potential toxicity. In most cases, the behavioral effects of "Spice" compounds are compared with those of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Methodological aspects, such as modes of administration and other logistical issues, are also discussed. As the original "Spice" molecules never were intended for human consumption, scientifically based information about potential toxicity and short- and long-term behavioral effects are very limited. Consequently, preclinical behavioral studies with "Spice" compounds are still in a nascent stage. Research is needed to address the addiction potential and other effects, including propensity for producing tissue/organ toxicity, of these synthetic cannabimimetic "Spice" compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn U C Järbe
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery (CDD), Northeastern University, 116 Mugar Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Jimit Girish Raghav
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Drug Discovery (CDD), Northeastern University, 116 Mugar Hall, 360 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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24
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Wiley JL, Marusich JA, Thomas BF. Combination Chemistry: Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel Psychoactive Cannabinoids. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:231-248. [PMID: 27753007 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Originally developed as research tools for use in structure-activity relationship studies, synthetic cannabinoids contributed to significant scientific advances in the cannabinoid field. Unfortunately, a subset of these compounds was diverted for recreational use beginning in the early 2000s. As these compounds were banned, they were replaced with additional synthetic cannabinoids with increasingly diverse chemical structures. This chapter focuses on integration of recent results with those covered in previous reviews. Whereas most of the early compounds were derived from the prototypic naphthoylindole JWH-018, currently popular synthetic cannabinoids include tetramethylcyclopropyl ketones and indazole-derived cannabinoids (e.g., AB-PINACA, AB-CHMINACA). Despite their structural differences, psychoactive synthetic cannabinoids bind with high affinity to CB1 receptors in the brain and, when tested, have been shown to activate these receptors and to produce a characteristic profile of effects, including suppression of locomotor activity, antinociception, hypothermia, and catalepsy, as well as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-like discriminative stimulus effects in mice. When they have been tested, synthetic cannabinoids are often found to be more efficacious at activation of the CB1 receptor and more potent in vivo. Further, their chemical alteration by thermolysis during use and their uncertain stability and purity may result in exposure to degradants that differ from the parent compound contained in the original product. Consequently, while their intoxicant effects may be similar to those of THC, use of synthetic cannabinoids may be accompanied by unpredicted, and sometimes harmful, effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA.
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA
| | - Brian F Thomas
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709-2194, USA
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25
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Tai S, Fantegrossi WE. Pharmacological and Toxicological Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids and Their Metabolites. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2017; 32:249-262. [PMID: 28012093 PMCID: PMC5392241 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2016_60] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Commercial preparations containing synthetic cannabinoids (SCBs) are rapidly emerging as drugs of abuse. Although often assumed to be "safe" and "legal" alternatives to cannabis, reports indicate that SCBs induce toxicity not often associated with the primary psychoactive component of marijuana, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). This chapter will summarize the evidence that use of SCBs poses greater health risks relative to marijuana and suggest that distinct pharmacological properties and metabolism of SCBs relative to Δ9-THC may contribute to this increased toxicity. Studies reviewed will indicate that in contrast to partial agonist properties of Δ9-THC typically observed in vitro, SCBs act as full CB1 and CB2 receptor agonists both in cellular assays and animal studies. Furthermore, unlike Δ9-THC metabolism, several SCB metabolites retain high affinity for and exhibit a range of intrinsic activities at CB1 and CB2 receptors. Finally, the potential for SCBs to cause adverse drug-drug interactions with other drugs of abuse, as well as with common therapeutic agents, will be discussed. Collectively, the evidence provided in this chapter indicates that SCBs should not be considered safe and legal alternatives to marijuana. Instead, the enhanced toxicity of SCBs relative to marijuana, perhaps resulting from the combined actions of a complex mixture of different SCBs present and their active metabolites that retain high affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors, highlights the inherent danger that may accompany use of these substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherrica Tai
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences College of Medicine, Mail Slot 638, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, AR, 72207, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan Medical School, 2301 MSRB III, 1150 W. Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences College of Medicine, Mail Slot 638, 4301 West Markham Street, Little Rock, AR, 72207, USA.
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Abouchedid R, Ho JH, Hudson S, Dines A, Archer JRH, Wood DM, Dargan PI. Acute Toxicity Associated with Use of 5F-Derivations of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists with Analytical Confirmation. J Med Toxicol 2016; 12:396-401. [PMID: 27456262 DOI: 10.1007/s13181-016-0571-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 06/25/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists (SCRAs) are the largest group of new psychoactive substances reported to the European Warning System and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime to date. The heterogeneous nature and speed of diversification of these compounds make it challenging to accurately characterise and predict harms of these compounds in pre-clinical studies, ahead of their appearance. CASE REPORT We report the case of a 19-year-old female who purchased three products from a headshop: two new psychoactive substances (sachets of "cannabis tea" and "mushroom tea") as well as two LSD blotters. After the "cannabis tea" was smoked and the two LSD blotters and "mushroom tea" were ingested, the patient became tachycardic (HR 128), developed seizures, agitation, visual hallucinations as well as suspected serotonergic toxicity (sustained ankle clonus 20-30 beats) 1-2 hours after use. She was treated with 1 mg of intravenous midazolam. Symptoms/signs resolved within 13 hours. No further supportive care was required. Plasma, blood, and urine samples confirmed the presence of two SCRAs: 5FAKB-48 and 5F-PB-22. The patient also reported therapeutic use of both fluoxetine and citalopram for depression. DISCUSSION To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case report of non-fatal intoxication with 5F-AKB-48 with analytical confirmation and exposure times. It also highlights the difficulties in understanding the pattern of toxicity of certain SCRAs in the context of psychotropic medications/co-morbid mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachelle Abouchedid
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.
- Emergency Department, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK.
| | - James H Ho
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
- Emergency Department, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | | | - Alison Dines
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - John R H Archer
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - David M Wood
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Paul I Dargan
- Department of Clinical Toxicology, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's Health Partners, London, UK
- Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK
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Baggaley K. Drugs by design: Corrupt chemists tweak compounds faster than law enforcement can call them illegal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/scin.2015.187010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Stogner JM. Predictions instead of panics: the framework and utility of systematic forecasting of novel psychoactive drug trends. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2015; 41:519-26. [PMID: 25774440 DOI: 10.3109/00952990.2014.998367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Countless novel psychoactive substances have been sensationally described in the last 15 years by the media and academia. Though some become significant issues, most fail to become a substantial threat. The diversity and breadth of these potential problem substances has led policymakers, law enforcement officers, and healthcare providers alike to feel overwhelmed and underprepared for dealing with novel drugs. OBJECTIVE Inadequacies in training and preparation may be remedied by a response that is more selective and more proactive. The current manuscript seeks to clarify how to most efficiently forecast the "success" of each newly introduced novel psychoactive substance in order to allow for more efficient decision making and proactive resource allocation. METHODS A review of literature, published case reports, and legal studies was used to determine which factors were most closely linked to use of a novel drug spreading. Following the development of a forecasting framework, examples of its use are provided. RESULTS The resulting five-step forecast method relies on assessments of the availability of a potential user base, the costs--legal and otherwise--of the drug relative to existent analogues, the subjective experience, the substance's dependence potential and that of any existent analogue, and ease of acquisition. These five factors should serve to forecast the prevalence of novel drug use, but reaction should be conditioned by the potential for harm. CONCLUSIONS The five-step forecast method predicts that use of acetyl fentanyl, kratom, Leonotis leonurus, and e-cigarettes will grow, but that use of dragonfly and similar substances will not. While this forecasting approach should not be used as a replacement for monitoring, the use of the five-step method will allow policymakers, law enforcement and practitioners to quickly begin targeted evaluative, intervention, and treatment initiatives only for those drugs with predicted harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Stogner
- a Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology , University of North Carolina at Charlotte , Charlotte , NC , USA
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Metabolite profiling of RCS-4, a novel synthetic cannabinoid designer drug, using human hepatocyte metabolism and TOF-MS. Bioanalysis 2015; 6:1471-85. [PMID: 25046048 DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since 2009, scheduling legislation of synthetic cannabinoids prompted new compound emergence to circumvent legal restrictions. 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-(1-pentyl-indol-3-yl)methanone (RCS-4) is a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist sold in herbal smoking blends. Absence of parent synthetic cannabinoids in urine suggests the importance of metabolite identification for detecting RCS-4 consumption in clinical and forensic investigations. Materials & methods & Results: With 1 h human hepatocyte incubation and TOF high-resolution MS, we identified 18 RCS-4 metabolites, many not yet reported. Most metabolites were hydroxylated with or without demethylation, carboxylation and dealkylation followed by glucuronidation. One additional sulfated metabolite was also observed. O-demethylation was the most common biotransformation and generated the major metabolite. CONCLUSION For the first time, we present a metabolic scheme of RCS-4 obtained from human hepatocytes, including Phase I and II metabolites. Metabolite structural information and associated high-resolution mass spectra can be employed for developing clinical and forensic laboratory RCS-4 urine screening methods.
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Abstract
The abuse of synthetic psychoactive substances known as "designer drugs," or "new psychoactive substances" (NPS), is increasing at an alarming rate. NPS are purchased as alternatives to traditional illicit drugs of abuse and are manufactured to circumvent laws regulating the sale and use of controlled substances. Synthetic cathinones (i.e., "bath salts") and synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., "spice") are two types of NPS that have received substantial media attention. Although low recreational doses of bath salts or spice compounds can produce desirable effects, high doses or chronic exposure often leads to dangerous medical consequences, including psychosis, violent behaviors, tachycardia, hyperthermia, and even death. Despite the popularity of NPS, there is a paucity of scientific data about these drugs. Here we provide a brief up-to-date review describing the mechanisms of action and neurobiological effects of synthetic cathinones and cannabinoids.
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Wiley JL, Lefever TW, Cortes RA, Marusich JA. Cross-substitution of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and JWH-018 in drug discrimination in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:123-8. [PMID: 24887450 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic indole-derived cannabinoids, originally developed to probe cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, have become widely abused for their marijuana-like intoxicating properties. The present study examined the effects of indole-derived cannabinoids in rats trained to discriminate Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) from vehicle. In addition, the effects of Δ(9)-THC in rats trained to discriminate JWH-018 from vehicle were assessed. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to discriminate 3mg/kg Δ(9)-THC or 0.3mg/kg JWH-018 from vehicle. JWH-018, JWH-073, and JWH-210 fully substituted in Δ(9)-THC-trained rats and Δ(9)-THC substituted in JWH-018-trained rats. In contrast, JWH-320, an indole-derived cannabinoid without affinity for CB1 receptors, failed to substitute for Δ(9)-THC. Pre-treatment with 1mg/kg rimonabant significantly reduced responding on the JWH-018-associated lever in JWH-018-trained rats. These results support the conclusion that the interoceptive effects of Δ(9)-THC and synthetic indole-derived cannabinoids show a large degree of overlap, which is predictive of their use for their marijuana-like intoxicating properties. Characterization of the extent of pharmacological differences among structural classes of cannabinoids, and determination of their mechanisms remain important goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny L Wiley
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Timothy W Lefever
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Ricardo A Cortes
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Julie A Marusich
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Järbe TUC, Gifford RS. "Herbal incense": designer drug blends as cannabimimetics and their assessment by drug discrimination and other in vivo bioassays. Life Sci 2013; 97:64-71. [PMID: 23891559 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2013.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Revised: 06/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Recently, synthetic cannabinoids originally designed for testing in the laboratory only have found use recreationally in designer herbal blends, originally called "Spice". The myriad of compounds found are for the most part potent full agonists of the cannabinoid receptor 1, producing effects similar to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and marijuana. Drug discrimination of these compounds offers a specific behavioral test that can help determine whether these new synthetic compounds share a similar "subjective high" with the effects of marijuana/THC. By utilization of drug discrimination and other behavioral techniques, a better understanding of these new "designer" cannabinoids may be reached to assist in treating both the acute and chronic effects of these drugs. The paper provides a brief exposé of modern cannabinoid research as a backdrop to the recreational use of designer herbal blend cannabimimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torbjörn U C Järbe
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Roger S Gifford
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Marusich JA, Lefever TW, Novak SP, Blough BE, Wiley JL. Prediction and Prevention of Prescription Drug Abuse: Role of Preclinical Assessment of Substance Abuse Liability. METHODS REPORT (RTI PRESS) 2013:1-14. [PMID: 24008590 PMCID: PMC3759972 DOI: 10.3768/rtipress.2013.op.0014.1307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In 2011, the prevalence of prescription drug abuse exceeded that of any other illicit drug except marijuana. Consequently, efforts to curtail abuse of new medications should begin during the drug development process, where abuse liability can be identified and addressed before a candidate medication has widespread use. The first step in this process is scheduling with the Drug Enforcement Agency so that legal access is appropriately restricted, dependent upon levels of abuse risk and medical benefit. To facilitate scheduling, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has published guidance for industry that describes assessment of abuse liability. The purpose of this paper is to review methods that may be used to satisfy the FDA's regulatory requirements for animal behavioral and dependence pharmacology. Methods include psychomotor activity, self-administration (an animal model of the rewarding effects of a drug), drug discrimination (an animal model of the subjective effects of a drug), and evaluation of tolerance and dependence. Data from tests conducted at RTI with known drugs of abuse illustrate typical results, and demonstrate that RTI is capable of performing these tests. While using preclinical data to predict abuse liability is an imperfect process, it has substantial predictive validity. The ultimate goal is to increase consumer safety through appropriate scheduling of new medications.
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Psychoyos D, Vinod KY. Marijuana, Spice 'herbal high', and early neural development: implications for rescheduling and legalization. Drug Test Anal 2012; 5:27-45. [PMID: 22887867 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug by pregnant women in the world. In utero exposure to Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), a major psychoactive component of marijuana, is associated with an increased risk for anencephaly and neurobehavioural deficiencies in the offspring, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, and memory impairment. Recent studies demonstrate that the developing central nervous system (CNS) is susceptible to the effects of Δ⁹-THC and other cannabimimetics, including the psychoactive ingredients of the branded product 'Spice' branded products. These exocannabinoids interfere with the function of an endocannabinoid (eCB) system, present in the developing CNS from E12.5 (week 5 of gestation in humans), and required for proliferation, migration, and differentiation of neurons. Until recently, it was not known whether the eCB system is also present in the developing CNS during the initial stages of its ontogeny, i.e. from E7.0 onwards (week 2 of gestation in humans), and if so, whether this system is also susceptible to the action of exocannabinoids. Here, we review current data, in which the presence of an eCB system during the initial stage of development of the CNS is demonstrated. Furthermore, we focus on recent advances on the effect of canabimimetics on early gestation. The relevance of these findings and potential adverse developmental consequences of in utero exposure to 'high potency' marijuana, Spice branded products and/or cannabinoid research chemicals during this period is discussed. Finally, we address the implication of these findings in terms of the potential dangers of synthetic cannabinoid use during pregnancy, and the ongoing debate over legalization of marijuana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Psychoyos
- Center for Environmental and Genetic Medicine, Institute of Biosciences and Technology, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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