Effects of fucoidan on proliferation, AMP-activated protein kinase, and downstream metabolism- and cell cycle-associated molecules in poorly differentiated human hepatoma HLF cells

Exploring the Impact of Exercise-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Biology

Cancer remains a major challenge in medicine, prompting exploration of innovative therapies. Recent studies suggest that exercise-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) may offer potential anti-cancer benefits. These small, membrane-bound particles, including exosomes, carry bioactive molecules such as proteins and RNA that mediate intercellular communication. Exercise has been shown to increase EV secretion, influencing physiological processes like tissue repair, inflammation, and metabolism. Notably, preclinical studies have demonstrated that exercise-derived EVs can inhibit tumor growth, reduce metastasis, and enhance treatment response. For instance, in a study using animal models, exercise-derived EVs were shown to suppress tumor proliferation in breast and colon cancers. Another study reported that these EVs reduced metastatic potential by decreasing the migration and invasion of cancer cells. Additionally, exercise-induced EVs have been found to enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy by sensitizing tumor cells to treatment. This review highlights the emerging role of exercise-derived circulating biomolecules, particularly EVs, in cancer biology. It discusses the mechanisms through which EVs impact cancer progression, the challenges in translating preclinical findings to clinical practice, and future research directions. Although research in this area is still limited, current findings suggest that EVs could play a crucial role in spreading molecules that promote better health in cancer patients. Understanding these EV profiles could lead to future therapies, such as exercise mimetics or targeted drugs, to treat cancer.

Recent advances in natural polysaccharides against hepatocellular carcinoma: A review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant tumor of the digestive system that poses a serious threat to human life and health. Chemotherapeutic drugs commonly used in the clinic have limited efficacy and heavy adverse effects. Therefore, it is imperative to find effective and safe alternatives, and natural polysaccharides (NPs) fit the bill. This paper summarizes in detail the anti-HCC activity of NPs in vitro, animal and clinical trials. Furthermore, the addition of NPs can reduce the deleterious effects of chemotherapeutic drugs such as immunotoxicity, bone marrow suppression, oxidative stress, etc. The potential mechanisms are related to induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, block of angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis, stimulation of immune activity and targeting of MircoRNA. And on this basis, we further elucidate that the anti-HCC activity may be related to the monosaccharide composition, molecular weight (Mw), conformational features and structural modifications of NPs. In addition, due to its good physicochemical properties, it is widely used as a drug carrier in the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs and small molecule components. This review provides a favorable theoretical basis for the application of the anti-HCC activity of NPs.

Impacts of Oxidative Stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR on Metabolism and the Future Direction of Investigating Fucoidan-Modulated Metabolism

The critical factors for regulating cancer metabolism are oxidative stress and phosphoinositide-3-kinase/AKT serine-threonine kinase/mechanistic target of the rapamycin kinase (PI3K/AKT/mTOR). However, the metabolic impacts of oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR on individual mechanisms such as glycolysis (Warburg effect), pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), fatty acid synthesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) cycle, glutaminolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) are complicated. Therefore, this review summarizes the individual and interacting functions of oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR on metabolism. Moreover, natural products providing oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR modulating effects have anticancer potential. Using the example of brown algae-derived fucoidan, the roles of oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR were summarized, although their potential functions within diverse metabolisms were rarely investigated. We propose a potential application that fucoidan may regulate oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling to modulate their associated metabolic regulations. This review sheds light on understanding the impacts of oxidative stress and PI3K/AKT/mTOR on metabolism and the future direction of metabolism-based cancer therapy of fucoidan.

CPT1A-mediated fatty acid oxidation promotes cell proliferation via nucleoside metabolism in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

As the first rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid oxidation (FAO), CPT1 plays a significant role in metabolic adaptation in cancer pathogenesis. FAO provides an alternative energy supply for cancer cells and is required for cancer cell survival. Given the high proliferation rate of cancer cells, nucleotide synthesis gains prominence in rapidly proliferating cells. In the present study, we found that CPT1A is a determining factor for the abnormal activation of FAO in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells. CPT1A is highly expressed in NPC cells and biopsies. CPT1A dramatically affects the malignant phenotypes in NPC, including proliferation, anchorage-independent growth, and tumor formation ability in nude mice. Moreover, an increased level of CPT1A promotes core metabolic pathways to generate ATP, inducing equivalents and the main precursors for nucleotide biosynthesis. Knockdown of CPT1A markedly lowers the fraction of 13C-palmitate-derived carbons into pyrimidine. Periodic activation of CPT1A increases the content of nucleoside metabolic intermediates promoting cell cycle progression in NPC cells. Targeting CPT1A-mediated FAO hinders the cell cycle G1/S transition. Our work verified that CPT1A links FAO to cell cycle progression in NPC cellular proliferation, which supplements additional experimental evidence for developing a therapeutic mechanism based on manipulating lipid metabolism.

Anti-carcinogenic effects of exercise-conditioned human serum: evidence, relevance and opportunities

Regular physical activity reduces the risk of several site-specific cancers in humans and suppresses tumour growth in animal models. The mechanisms through which exercise reduces tumour growth remain incompletely understood, but an intriguing and accumulating body of evidence suggests that the incubation of cancer cells with post-exercise serum can have powerful effects on key hallmarks of cancer cell behaviour in vitro. This suggests that exercise can impact tumour biology through direct changes in circulating proteins, RNA molecules and metabolites. Here, we provide a comprehensive narrative overview of what is known about the effects of exercise-conditioned sera on in vitro cancer cell behaviour. In doing so, we consider the key limitations of the current body of literature, both from the perspective of exercise physiology and cancer biology, and we discuss the potential in vivo physiological relevance of these findings. We propose key opportunities for future research in an area that has the potential to identify key anti-oncogenic protein targets and optimise physical activity recommendations for cancer prevention, treatment and survivorship.

Anti-carcinogenic effects of exercise-conditioned human serum: evidence, relevance and opportunities

Regular physical activity reduces the risk of several site-specific cancers in humans and suppresses tumour growth in animal models. The mechanisms through which exercise reduces tumour growth remain incompletely understood, but an intriguing and accumulating body of evidence suggests that the incubation of cancer cells with post-exercise serum can have powerful effects on key hallmarks of cancer cell behaviour in vitro. This suggests that exercise can impact tumour biology through direct changes in circulating proteins, RNA molecules and metabolites. Here, we provide a comprehensive narrative overview of what is known about the effects of exercise-conditioned sera on in vitro cancer cell behaviour. In doing so, we consider the key limitations of the current body of literature, both from the perspective of exercise physiology and cancer biology, and we discuss the potential in vivo physiological relevance of these findings. We propose key opportunities for future research in an area that has the potential to identify key anti-oncogenic protein targets and optimise physical activity recommendations for cancer prevention, treatment and survivorship.

Potential Anti-Aging Substances Derived from Seaweeds

Aging is a major risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. The exact mechanisms underlying the aging process are not fully elucidated. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that several pathways, such as sirtuin, AMP-activated protein kinase, insulin-like growth factor, autophagy, and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 play critical roles in regulating aging. Furthermore, genetic or dietary interventions of these pathways can extend lifespan by delaying the aging process. Seaweeds are a food source rich in many nutrients, including fibers, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive compounds. The health benefits of seaweeds include, but are not limited to, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obese activities. Interestingly, a body of studies shows that some seaweed-derived extracts or isolated compounds, can modulate these aging-regulating pathways or even extend lifespans of various animal models. However, few such studies have been conducted on higher animals or even humans. In this review, we focused on potential anti-aging bioactive substances in seaweeds that have been studied in cells and animals mainly based on their anti-aging cellular and molecular mechanisms.

Fucoidan: Biological Activity in Liver Diseases

Fucoidan is a type of polysaccharide rich in sulfuric acid groups and is mainly found in brown algae. Due to its extensive biological activities, such as anticoagulant, antitumor, antithrombotic, antiviral, anti-oxidant and enhancing immune function, fucoidan has gradually become a research hotspot. Under the scientific guidance of modern medical theory, fucoidan and its mechanism in oxidative stress, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, inflammatory response, tumor proliferation, and metastasis have become a new research direction and an important basis as an effective liver protection drug. In this paper, we discuss the important role of fucoidan in viral hepatitis, liver fibrosis, liver cancer, nonalcoholic fatty liver and liver injury induced by drugs and ischemia and briefly discuss its underlying mechanism. We supplement the theoretical basis for its clinical application and provide effective targets for the development of follow-up dominant drugs.

The serological responses to acute exercise in humans reduce cancer cell growth in vitro: A systematic review and meta-analysis

We systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed the effects of acute exercise-conditioned serum on cancer cell growth in vitro. Five literature databases were systematically searched for studies that measured cancer cell growth after exposure to human sera obtained before and immediately after an acute bout of exercise. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled using a three-level random-effects model. Meta-regressions were also performed with participant age and disease status, exercise type, cell line TP53 status, and serum incubation time entered as covariates. Seven studies met the inclusion criteria encompassing a total of 21 effect estimates and 98 participants. Exercise-conditioned serum significantly reduced cancer cell growth compared with preexercise serum (SMD = -1.23, 95% CI: -1.96 to -0.50; p = .002; I2  = 75.1%). The weighted mean reduction as a percentage of preexercise values was 8.6%. The overall treatment effect and magnitude of heterogeneity were not statistically influenced by any covariate. There were concerns regarding the risk of bias within individual studies and Egger's test of the intercept showed evidence of small study effects (β = -3.6, p = .004). These findings provide in vitro evidence that the transient serological responses to acute exercises reduce cancer cell growth, although many questions remain regarding the underlying mechanistic pathways and potential effect modifiers. To strengthen this evidence-base, future studies should seek to reduce the risk of bias by using more rigorous experimental designs, and consider using 3D cell culture models to better replicate in vivo tumor conditions. PROSPERO registration: CRD42020161333.

The Natural Product Fucoidan Inhibits Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis of Human Ovarian Cancer Cells: Focus on the PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVE

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the leading cause of death among gynecological tumors; however, no effective treatment is currently available. Fucoidan, which is extracted from marine algae, has significant anti-cancer effects. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of fucoidan on the proliferation and apoptosis of OC cells through inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

METHODS

Human ovarian normal epithelial cells (IOSE80) and human OC cells (SKOV-3, A2780, OVCAR-3, TOV-112D, and Caov-3) were selected to verify the safety of fucoidan at various doses in SKOV-3 and Caov-3 cells as well as a xenograft mouse model using various molecular biology techniques.

RESULTS

Fucoidan had no significant effect on normal ovarian epithelial cells, but had significantly inhibited the proliferation of OC cells, induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase, increased the proportion of apoptotic cells and expression of pro-apoptotic proteins, and inhibited the expression of PI3K and phosphorylation of Akt, which could be partly rescued by IGF-1.

CONCLUSION

Fucoidan had anti-tumor effects both in vivo and in vitro via a mechanism that is related to the inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Effects of canagliflozin on growth and metabolic reprograming in hepatocellular carcinoma cells: Multi-omics analysis of metabolomics and absolute quantification proteomics (iMPAQT)

Aim

Metabolic reprograming is crucial in the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Canagliflozin (CANA), a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor, affects various metabolisms. We investigated the effects of CANA on proliferation and metabolic reprograming of HCC cell lines using multi-omics analysis of metabolomics and absolute quantification proteomics (iMPAQT).

Methods

The cells were counted 72 hours after treatment with CANA (10 μM; n = 5) or dimethyl sulfoxide (control [CON]; n = 5) in Hep3B and Huh7 cells. In Hep3B cells, metabolomics and iMPAQT were used to evaluate the levels of metabolites and metabolic enzymes in the CANA and CON groups (each n = 5) 48 hours after treatment.

Results

Seventy-two hours after treatment, the number of cells in the CANA group was significantly decreased compared to that in the CON group in Hep3B and Huh7 cells. On multi-omics analysis, there was a significant difference in the levels of 85 metabolites and 68 metabolic enzymes between the CANA and CON groups. For instance, CANA significantly downregulated ATP synthase F1 subunit alpha, a mitochondrial electron transport system protein (CON 297.28±20.63 vs. CANA 251.83±22.83 fmol/10 μg protein; P = 0.0183). CANA also significantly upregulated 3-hydroxybutyrate, a beta-oxidation metabolite (CON 530±14 vs. CANA 854±68 arbitrary units; P<0.001). Moreover, CANA significantly downregulated nucleoside diphosphate kinase 1 (CON 110.30±11.37 vs. CANA 89.14±8.39 fmol/10 μg protein; P = 0.0172).

Conclusions

We found that CANA suppressed the proliferation of HCC cells through alterations in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and purine and pyrimidine metabolism. Thus, CANA may suppress the proliferation of HCC by regulating metabolic reprograming.

Fucoidan Induces Apoptosis and Inhibits Proliferation of Hepatocellular Carcinoma via the p38 MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt Signal Pathways

Purpose

Fucoidan is a natural bioactive product with broad therapeutic applications. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common malignancy of the liver associated with a relatively high mortality rate; thus, effective treatments are urgently needed. Here, the effects of fucoidan on HCC and the underlying mechanism were explored.

Methods

The proliferation and apoptosis of two HCC cell lines (BEL-7402 and LM3) treated with different concentrations of fucoidan or saline were assessed. The levels of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and CCK8 assay were used to determine proliferative capabilities of BEL-7402 and LM3 cells. Apoptosis of LM3 cells was assessed by Hoechst 33342 staining, Western blotting and flow cytometry. The capability of fucoidan to inhibit the growth of LM3 cells was investigated by monitoring of the p38 MAPK/ERK pathways and the upstream kinases, PI3K/Akt. LM3 xenograft tumors were used for in vivo verification.

Results

Cell proliferation and apoptosis assays consistently showed that fucoidan has an inhibitory effect on cell growth. Fucoidan significantly promoted apoptosis of LM3 cells through a mechanism involving activation of caspases 8, 9, and 3 accompanied by changes in B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), as well as changes in the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and ERK. Fucoidan also altered the phosphorylation of its upstream kinase, Akt. Fucoidan treatment markedly reduced the growth of LM3 xenograft tumors, consistent with the in vitro results.

Conclusion

Fucoidan conveys antitumor effects and, thus, should be further explored as a potential treatment option for HCC.

The Role of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase as a Potential Target of Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most frequent cancer worldwide with a very high recurrence rate and very dismal prognosis. Diagnosis and treatment in HCC remain difficult, and the identification of new therapeutic targets is necessary for a better outcome of HCC treatment. AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) is an essential intracellular energy sensor that plays multiple roles in cellular physiology and the pathological development of chronic diseases. Recent studies have highlighted the important regulation of AMPK in HCC. This review aims to comprehensively and critically summarize the role of AMPK in HCC. Methods: Original studies were retrieved from NCBI database with keywords including AMPK and HCC, which were analyzed with extensive reading. Results: Dysregulation of the kinase activity and expression of AMPK was observed in HCC, which was correlated with survival of the patients. Loss of AMPK in HCC cells may proceed cell cycle progression, proliferation, survival, migration, and invasion through different oncogenic molecules and pathways. Conclusions: We identified several AMPK activators which may possess potential anti-HCC function, and discussed the clinical perspective on the use of AMPK activators for HCC therapy.

Overexpression of CMTM7 inhibits cell growth and migration in liver cancer

Chemokine-like factor (CKLF)-like, MAL and related proteins for vesicle trafficking and membrane link (MARVEL) transmembrane domain-containing family proteins (CMTMs) have significant roles in the immune system, in male reproduction, as well as in tumorigenesis. Previous studies have shown that CMTM family member 7 (CMTM7) was broadly expressed in various normal tissues, but not in lung, gastric, esophageal, pancreas, and cervix cancers. To explore its relationship with liver cancer, we examined the expression of CMTM7 in liver cancers and its correlation with clinical and pathological conditions. We found that CMTM7 expression was markedly reduced in liver cancer tissues, and negatively correlated with TNM staging and tumor metastasis. In vitro studies showed that enforced expression of CMTM7 inhibited the cell growth and migration of liver cancer cells. Further analysis revealed that CMTM7 suppressed AKT signaling and induced cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase in the liver cancer cells, likely as the consequent of decreased levels of cyclin D1, cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4), and CDK6, and increased p27 expression. Thus, CMTM7 functions as a tumor suppressor in liver cancer through suppressing cell cycle progression.

AMPK/TSC2/mTOR pathway regulates replicative senescence of human vascular smooth muscle cells

Age-associated diseases, including vascular diseases, are on the rise with the increase in the aging population. However, the mechanisms of aging and age-associated vascular dysfunction remain to be fully elucidated. Replicative senescence of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contributes to aging as well as age-associated vascular diseases. Rapamycin may delay aging-associated diseases via inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), but its role in VSMC aging has remained elusive. The present study investigated the involvement of mTOR signaling in replicative senescence of VSMCs. Replicative senescence was induced in human VSMCs by extended passages and identified by assessing the cell morphology, senescence-associated β-galactosidase activity, and p53 and p21 protein expression. Protein expression and phosphorylation were determined by western blot analysis. Significant senescence of VSMCs was observed in cells subjected to extended passaging (until passage 15). Significant decreases in adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) phosphorylation, but significant increases in mTOR/ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) phosphorylation, were observed in cells with replicative senescence compared with those in young cells. Pre-treatment of VSMCs with AMPK activator and mTOR inhibitor delayed replicative senescence and reversed changes in AMPKα, TSC2, mTOR and S6K1 phosphorylation in senescent VSMCs. The AMPK/TSC2/mTOR/S6K1 signaling axis was found to have an important role in regulating replicative senescence of human VSMCs.

From Marine Origin to Therapeutics: The Antitumor Potential of Marine Algae-Derived Compounds

Marine environment has demonstrated to be an interesting source of compounds with uncommon and unique chemical features on which the molecular modeling and chemical synthesis of new drugs can be based with greater efficacy and specificity for the therapeutics. Cancer is a growing public health threat, and despite the advances in biomedical research and technology, there is an urgent need for the development of new anticancer drugs. In this field, it is estimated that more than 60% of commercially available anticancer drugs are natural biomimetic inspired. Among the marine organisms, algae have revealed to be one of the major sources of new compounds of marine origin, including those exhibiting antitumor and cytotoxic potential. These compounds demonstrated ability to mediate specific inhibitory activities on a number of key cellular processes, including apoptosis pathways, angiogenesis, migration and invasion, in both in vitro and in vivo models, revealing their potential to be used as anticancer drugs. This review will focus on the bioactive molecules from algae with antitumor potential, from their origin to their potential uses, with special emphasis to the alga Sphaerococcus coronopifolius as a producer of cytotoxic compounds.

Fucoidan Does Not Exert Anti-Tumorigenic Effects on Uveal Melanoma Cell Lines

Background. The polysaccharide fucoidan is widely investigated as an anti-cancer agent. Here, we tested the effect of fucoidan on uveal melanoma cell lines. Methods. The effect of 100 µM fucoidan was investigated on five cell lines (92.1, Mel270 OMM1, OMM2.3, OMM2.5) and of 1 µg/mL–1 mg/mL fucoidan in two cell lines (OMM1, OMM2.3). Cell proliferation and viability were investigated with a WST-1 assay, migration in a wound healing (scratch) assay. Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) was measured in ELISA. Angiogenesis was evaluated in co-cultures with endothelial cells. Cell toxicity was induced by hydrogen-peroxide. Protein expression (Akt, ERK1/2, Bcl-2, Bax) was investigated in Western blot. Results. Fucoidan increased proliferation in two and reduced it in one cell line. Migration was reduced in three cell lines. The effect of fucoidan on VEGF was cell type and concentration dependent. In endothelial co-culture with 92.1, fucoidan significantly increased tubular structures. Moreover, fucoidan significantly protected all tested uveal melanoma cell lines from hydrogen-peroxide induced cell death. Under oxidative stress, fucoidan did not alter the expression of Bcl-2, Bax or ERK1/2, while inducing Akt expression in 92.1 cells but not in any other cell line. Conclusion. Fucoidan did not show anti-tumorigenic effects but displayed protective and pro-angiogenic properties, rendering fucoidan unsuitable as a potential new drug for the treatment of uveal melanoma.

Knockdown of AMPKα2 Promotes Pulmonary Arterial Smooth Muscle Cells Proliferation via mTOR/Skp2/p27(Kip1) Signaling Pathway

It has been shown that activation of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) suppresses proliferation of a variety of tumor cells as well as nonmalignant cells. In this study, we used post-transcriptional gene silencing with small interfering RNA (siRNA) to specifically examine the effect of AMPK on pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) proliferation and to further elucidate its underlying molecular mechanisms. Our results showed that knockdown of AMPKα2 promoted primary cultured PASMCs proliferation; this was accompanied with the elevation of phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (Skp2) protein level and reduction of p27(Kip1). Importantly, prior silencing of mTOR with siRNA abolished AMPKα2 knockdown-induced Skp2 upregulation, p27(Kip1) reduction as well as PASMCs proliferation. Furthermore, pre-depletion of Skp2 by siRNA also eliminated p27(Kip1) downregulation and PASMCs proliferation caused by AMPKα2 knockdown. Taken together, our study indicates that AMPKα2 isoform plays an important role in regulation of PASMCs proliferation by modulating mTOR/Skp2/p27(Kip1) axis, and suggests that activation of AMPKα2 might have potential value in the prevention and treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase by natural and synthetic activators

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy status that is almost universally expressed in eukaryotic cells. While it appears to have evolved in single-celled eukaryotes to regulate energy balance in a cell-autonomous manner, during the evolution of multicellular animals its role has become adapted so that it also regulates energy balance at the whole body level, by responding to hormones that act primarily on the hypothalamus. AMPK monitors energy balance at the cellular level by sensing the ratios of AMP/ATP and ADP/ATP, and recent structural analyses of the AMPK heterotrimer that have provided insight into the complex mechanisms for these effects will be discussed. Given the central importance of energy balance in diseases that are major causes of morbidity or death in humans, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and inflammatory disorders, there has been a major drive to develop pharmacological activators of AMPK. Many such activators have been described, and the various mechanisms by which these activate AMPK will be discussed. A particularly large class of AMPK activators are natural products of plants derived from traditional herbal medicines. While the mechanism by which most of these activate AMPK has not yet been addressed, I will argue that many of them may be defensive compounds produced by plants to deter infection by pathogens or grazing by insects or herbivores, and that many of them will turn out to be inhibitors of mitochondrial function.

Therapies from Fucoidan: An Update

Fucoidans are a class of sulfated fucose-rich polysaccharides found in brown marine algae and echinoderms. Fucoidans have an attractive array of bioactivities and potential applications including immune modulation, cancer inhibition, and pathogen inhibition. Research into fucoidan has continued to gain pace over the last few years and point towards potential therapeutic or adjunct roles. The source, extraction, characterization and detection of fucoidan is discussed.