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Krążek M, Wojciechowicz T, Fiedorowicz J, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. Neuronostatin regulates proliferation and differentiation of rat brown primary preadipocytes. FEBS Lett 2024. [PMID: 38794908 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
Neuronostatin suppresses the differentiation of white preadipocytes. However, the role of neuronostatin in brown adipose tissue remains elusive. Therefore, we investigated the impact of neuronostatin on the proliferation and differentiation of isolated rat brown preadipocytes. We report that neuronostatin and its receptor (GPR107) are synthesized in brown preadipocytes and brown adipose tissue. Furthermore, neuronostatin promotes the replication of brown preadipocytes via the AKT pathway. Notably, neuronostatin suppresses the expression of markers associated with brown adipogenesis (PGC-1α, PPARγ, PRDM16, and UCP1) and reduces cellular mitochondria content. Moreover, neuronostatin impedes the differentiation of preadipocytes by activating the JNK signaling pathway. These effects were not mimicked by somatostatin. Our results suggest that neuronostatin is involved in regulating brown adipogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Krążek
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Joanna Fiedorowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
| | - Mathias Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Germany
- Medical Clinic III, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - Krzysztof W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Kalisz, Poland
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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2
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Jussila A, Zhang B, Kirti S, Atit R. Tissue fibrosis associated depletion of lipid-filled cells. Exp Dermatol 2024; 33:e15054. [PMID: 38519432 PMCID: PMC10977660 DOI: 10.1111/exd.15054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Fibrosis is primarily described as the deposition of excessive extracellular matrix, but in many tissues it also involves a loss of lipid or lipid-filled cells. Lipid-filled cells are critical to tissue function and integrity in many tissues including the skin and lungs. Thus, loss or depletion of lipid-filled cells during fibrogenesis, has implications for tissue function. In some contexts, lipid-filled cells can impact ECM composition and stability, highlighting their importance in fibrotic transformation. Recent papers in fibrosis address this newly recognized fibrotic lipodystrophy phenomenon. Even in disparate tissues, common mechanisms are emerging to explain fibrotic lipodystrophy. These findings have implications for fibrosis in tissues composed of fibroblast and lipid-filled cell populations such as skin, lung, and liver. In this review, we will discuss the roles of lipid-containing cells, their reduction/loss during fibrotic transformation, and the mechanisms of that loss in the skin and lungs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Jussila
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Brian Zhang
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Sakin Kirti
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Radhika Atit
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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3
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Wojciechowicz T, Szczepankiewicz D, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. Neuropeptide B promotes differentiation of rodent white preadipocytes into mature adipocytes. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2023; 562:111850. [PMID: 36623583 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2023.111850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neuropeptide B (NPB) modulates energy homeostasis and metabolism through activation of NPBWR1 and NPBWR2 in humans and NPBWR1 in rodents. Recently, we reported that NPB promotes adipogenesis in rat brown preadipocytes. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of NPB on proliferation and differentiation into mature adipocytes of white rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. We found the expression of NPBWR1 and NPB on mRNA and protein level in rat white preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. NPB increased expression of mRNA and protein production of adipogenic genes (PPARγ, C/EBPβ, CEBPα and FABP4) in rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells during the differentiation process. Furthermore, NPB stimulated lipid accumulation in rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. In addition, we found that NPB promotes phosphorylation of p38 kinase in rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. NPB failed to stimulate expression of proadipogenic genes in the presence of p38 inhibitor. NPB failed to modulate viability and proliferation of rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. Taken together, we report that NPB promotes differentiation of rodent preadipocytes via p38-dependent mechanism. NPB does not modulate viability and proliferation of rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
| | - D Szczepankiewicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - M Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, 13353, Berlin, Germany; Medical Clinic III, 15236, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
| | - K W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - M Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
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Olaniyi KS, Atuma CL, Sabinari IW, Mahmud H, Saidi AO, Fafure AA, Olatunji LA. Acetate-mediated-obestatin modulation attenuates adipose-hepatic dysmetabolism in high fat diet-induced obese rat model. Endocrine 2022; 76:558-569. [PMID: 35229234 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-022-03023-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Approximately 650 million of world adult population is affected by obesity, which is characterized by adipose and hepatic metabolic dysfunction. Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been linked to improved metabolic profile. However, the effect of SCFAs, particularly acetate on adipose-hepatic dysfunction is unclear. Therefore, the present study investigated the role of acetate on adipose-hepatic metabolic dysfunction and the possible involvement of obestatin in high fat diet-induced obese Wistar rats. METHODS Adult male Wistar rats (160-190 g) were allotted into groups (n = 6/group): Control, acetate-treated, obese and obese + acetate-treated groups received vehicle (distilled water), sodium acetate (200 mg/kg), 40% HFD and 40% HFD plus sodium acetate respectively. The administration lasted for 12 weeks. RESULTS HFD caused increased body weight gain and visceral adiposity, insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and increased pancreatic-β cell function and plasma/hepatic triglyceride and total cholesterol as well as decreased adipose triglyceride and total cholesterol, increased plasma, adipose, and hepatic malondialdehyde, TNF-α, uric acid, lactate production and plasma/adipose but not gamma-glutamyl transferase and decreased plasma, adipose, and hepatic nitric oxide, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), glutathione (GSH) and obestatin concentration compared to the control group. Notwithstanding, treatment with acetate attenuated the alterations. CONCLUSIONS The results demonstrate that high fat diet-induced obesity is characterized with adipose and hepatic lipid dysmetabolism, which is associated with obestatin suppression. Findings also suggest that acetate provide protection against adipose and hepatic metabolic perturbations by restoring obestatin as well as G6PD/GSH-dependent antioxidant system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehinde S Olaniyi
- Cardio/Repro-metabolic and Microbiome Research Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria.
- HOPE Cardiometabolic Research Team & Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria.
| | - Chukwubueze L Atuma
- Cardio/Repro-metabolic and Microbiome Research Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria
| | - Isaiah W Sabinari
- HOPE Cardiometabolic Research Team & Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Hadiza Mahmud
- Cardio/Repro-metabolic and Microbiome Research Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria
| | - Azeezat O Saidi
- Cardio/Repro-metabolic and Microbiome Research Unit, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria
| | - Adedamola A Fafure
- Neuroscience Unit, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, 360101, Nigeria
| | - Lawrence A Olatunji
- HOPE Cardiometabolic Research Team & Department of Physiology, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
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Jasaszwili M, Wojciechowicz T, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. The effects of neuronostatin on proliferation and differentiation of rat primary preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2021; 1866:159018. [PMID: 34332074 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2021.159018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuronostatin is a peptide hormone encoded by the somatostatin gene. Biological effects of neuronostatin are mediated through activation of GPR107. There is evidence indicating that neuronostatin modulates energy homeostasis by suppressing food intake and insulin secretion, while stimulating glucagon secretion. While it was found that neuronostatin receptor is expressed in white adipose tissue, the role of neuronostatin in controlling adipose tissue formation is unknown. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of neuronostatin on proliferation and differentiation of rat primary preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. We found that neuronostatin receptor GPR107 is expressed in rat preadipocytes and 3T3-L1 cells. Neuronostatin promotes proliferation of preadipocytes via AKT activation. Downregulation of GPR107 mRNA expression and protein production results in an attenuation of neuronostatin-induced stimulation of preadipocyte proliferation. Moreover, neuronostatin reduces intracellular lipid content and the expression of adipogenesis-modulating genes C/ebpα, C/ebpβ, Pparγ, and Fabp4. In summary, these results show that neuronostatin, AKT-dependently, stimulates the proliferation of preadipocytes via GPR107. In contrast, neuronostatin inhibits the differentiation of preadipocytes into mature adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariami Jasaszwili
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
| | - Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
| | - Mathias Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, 13353 Berlin, Germany; Department of Internal Medicine-Gastroenterology & Oncology, Park-Klinik Weissensee, 13086 Berlin, Germany
| | - Krzysztof W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-637 Poznan, Poland.
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B G M, Manjappara UV. Obestatin and Rosiglitazone Differentially Modulate Lipid Metabolism Through Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor-γ (PPARγ) in Pre-adipose and Mature 3T3-L1 Cells. Cell Biochem Biophys 2021; 79:73-85. [PMID: 33432549 DOI: 10.1007/s12013-020-00958-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Obestatin is a 23-residue peptide, obtained after posttranslational modification of preproghrelin. It has been shown, in Swiss albino mice, to upregulate glycerolipid metabolism and PPARγ signaling. It was opined that the by-products of increased glycerolipid metabolism triggered PPARγ signaling. It was hypothesized that obestatin upon co-administration with a full agonist of PPARγ should reveal the comparative significance or possible synergy in PPARγ signaling. We postulated they would act synergistically by obestatin increasing PPARγ expression and rosiglitazone enhancing PPARγ activity. We evaluated the combination in DIO-C57BL/6 mice and observed that obestatin completely reversed the increase in subcutaneous fat brought about by rosiglitazone. To understand their role at the adipocyte level, 3T3-L1 cells were treated with a combination of obestatin and rosiglitazone during (1) initiation of differentiation and (2) after 14 days from initiation of differentiation when the adipocytes were mature. Interestingly, their influence was mainly adipogenic and showed double lipid accumulation when estimated 14 days after initiation of differentiation. There was an upregulation of Pparγ by fourfold, Hsl by eightfold, Glut4 by fourfold, Leptin by 2.7-fold, Atgl by sixfold, Fasn by sixfold, and Fabp4 by sevenfold at the mRNA level, whereas in mature adipocytes there was a significant decrease in fat accumulation by 20%. There was downregulation of Pparγ, Hsl, Lpl, and Fasn by 0.5-fold at the mRNA level. These results show that the combined influence of obestatin and rosiglitazone is significant and the outcome is dependent on the metabolic stage of the adipocyte.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallikarjuna B G
- Department of Lipid Science, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, 570020, India
| | - Uma V Manjappara
- Department of Lipid Science, CSIR-Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, 570020, India.
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Jasaszwili M, Wojciechowicz T, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. Adropin stimulates proliferation but suppresses differentiation in rat primary brown preadipocytes. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 692:108536. [PMID: 32798458 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Adropin is a peptide hormone encoded by Energy Homeostasis Associated (Enho) gene. Adropin modulates glucose and lipid metabolism, and adiposity. Recently, we found that adropin suppresses differentiation of rodent white preadipocytes into mature fat cells. By contrast, the role of adropin in controlling brown adipogenesis is largely unknown. Therefore, in the present study we evaluated the effects of adropin on proliferation and differentiation of adipocyte precursor cells in rats. Brown adipocyte precursor cells were isolated from male Wistar rats. Cell replication was measured by BrdU incorporation. Gene expression was studied using real time PCR. Protein phosphorylation and production was assessed by Western blot. Lipid accumulation was evaluated by Oil Red O staining. Colorimetric kits were used to evaluate glycerol and free fatty acids release. We report here that adropin stimulates proliferation of brown preadipocytes. Moreover, in brown preadipocytes, adropin suppresses mRNA expression of adipogenic genes (C/ebpα, C/ebpβ, Pgc1α, Pparγ and Prdm16) during differentiation process. In addition, adropin suppresses UCP1 protein production in brown adipocytes. Finally, adropin reduces intracellular lipid content in brown adipocytes. These results indicate that adropin stimulates proliferation of brown preadipocytes and suppresses their differentiation into mature adipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariami Jasaszwili
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
| | - Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
| | - Mathias Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, 13353, Berlin, Germany; Department of Internal Medicine-Gastroenterology, Park-Klinik Weissensee, 13086, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Krzysztof W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Biostructure, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
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Zhu R, Wei J, Liu H, Liu C, Wang L, Chen B, Li L, Jia Q, Tian Y, Li R, Zhao D, Mo F, Li Y, Gao S, Wang XD, Zhang D. Lycopene attenuates body weight gain through induction of browning via regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. J Nutr Biochem 2020; 78:108335. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2019.108335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Jasaszwili M, Wojciechowicz T, Billert M, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. Effects of adropin on proliferation and differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells and rat primary preadipocytes. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 496:110532. [PMID: 31400396 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2019.110532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Adropin is a protein encoded by Energy Homeostasis Associated (Enho) gene which is expressed mainly in the liver and brain. There is evidence that biological effects of adropin are mediated via GPR19 activation. Animal studies showed that adropin modulates adiposity as well as lipid and glucose homeostasis. Adropin deficient animals have a phenotype closely resembling that of human metabolic syndrome with are obesity dyslipidemia and impaired glucose production. Animals treated with exogenous adropin lose weight, in addition to having reduced expression of lipogenic genes in the liver and fat tissue. While it was shown that adropin may contribute to energy homeostasis and body weight regulation, the role of this protein in controlling fat tissue formation is largely unknown. Thus, in the present study we investigated the effects of adropin on adipogenesis using 3T3-L1 cells and rat primary preadipocytes. We found a low Enho mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 cells and rat primary preadipocytes. Adropin stimulated proliferation of 3T3-L1 cells and rat primary preadipocytes. Stimulation of 3T3-L1 cell proliferation was mediated via ERK1/2 and AKT. Adropin reduced lipid accumulation as well as expression of proadipogenic genes in 3T3-L1 cells and rat preadipocytes, suggesting that this protein attenuates differentiation of preadipocytes into mature fat cells. In summary, these results show that adropin modulates proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariami Jasaszwili
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - Maria Billert
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - Mathias Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, 13353, Germany; Department of Internal Medicine-Gastroenterology, Park-Klinik Weissensee, 13086, Berlin, Germany
| | - Krzysztof W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, 60-637, Poznań, Poland.
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10
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Chain length of dietary fatty acids determines gastrointestinal motility and visceromotor function in mice in a fatty acid binding protein 4-dependent manner. Eur J Nutr 2019; 59:2481-2496. [PMID: 31562532 PMCID: PMC7413912 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-019-02094-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Purpose We hypothesize that different types of dietary fatty acids (FAs) affect gastrointestinal (GI) motility and visceromotor function and that this effect can be regulated by the fatty acid binding protein 4 (FABP4). Methods Mice were fed for 60 days with standard diet (STD), STD with 7% (by weight) coconut oil, rich in medium-chain FAs (MCFAs) (COCO), or with 7% evening primrose oil, rich in long-chain FAs (LCFAs) (EPO). In each group, half of the mice received FABP4 inhibitor, BMS309403 (1 mg/kg; i.p.) twice a week. Body weight (BW) and food intake were measured; well-established tests were performed to characterize the changes in GI motility and visceral pain. White adipose tissue and colonic samples were collected for cell culturing and molecular studies. Results COCO significantly increased GI transit, but not colonic motility. COCO and EPO delayed the onset of diarrhea, but none affected the effect of loperamide. EPO reduced BW and increased the visceromotor response (VMR) to colorectal distension (CRD). COCO and EPO reduced differentiation of preadipocytes. Treatment with BMS309403: (1) reversed the effects induced by COCO in physiological conditions and in mouse models of diarrhea; (2) prevented the effects of EPO on BW, VMR to CRD and castor oil-induced diarrhea; (3) affected proliferation of preadipocytes; (4) changed the expression of Fabp4 in colonic and adipocyte samples from COCO and EPO. Conclusion Modifying dietary intake of MCFAs and LCFAs may be used to control GI motility or visceral pain and thus modulate the symptoms of functional GI disorders. The effect is dependent on the expression of FABP4. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00394-019-02094-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Spexin: A novel regulator of adipogenesis and fat tissue metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:1228-1236. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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12
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Phoenixin-14 stimulates differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes via cAMP/Epac-dependent mechanism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2018; 1863:1449-1457. [PMID: 30251651 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Phoenixin-14 (PNX) is a newly discovered peptide produced by proteolytic cleavage of the small integral membrane protein 20 (Smim20). Previous studies showed that PNX is involved in controlling reproduction, pain, anxiety and memory. Furthermore, in humans, PNX positively correlates with BMI suggesting a potential role of PNX in controlling fat accumulation in obesity. Since the influence of PNX on adipose tissue formation has not been so far demonstrated, we investigated the effects of PNX on proliferation and differentiation of preadipocytes using 3T3-L1 and rat primary preadipocytes. We detected Smim20 and Gpr173 mRNA in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes as well as in rat primary preadipocytes. Furthermore, we found that PNX peptide is produced and secreted from 3T3-L1 and rat primary adipocytes. PNX increased 3T3-L1 preadipocytes proliferation and viability. PNX stimulated the expression of adipogenic genes (Pparγ, C/ebpβ and Fabp4) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. 3T3-L1 preadipocytes differentiated in the presence of PNX had increased lipid content. Stimulation of cell proliferation and differentiation by PNX was also confirmed in rat preadipocytes. PNX failed to induce AKT phosphorylation, however, PNX increased cAMP levels in 3T3-L1 cells. Suppression of Epac signalling attenuated PNX-induced Pparγ expression without affecting cell proliferation. Our data show that PNX stimulates differentiation of 3T3-L1 and rat primary preadipocytes into mature adipocytes via cAMP/Epac-dependent pathway. In conclusion our data shows that phoenixin promotes white adipogenesis, thereby may be involved in controlling body mass regulation.
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Wojciechowicz T, Czubiński J, Billert M, Półciennik A, Nowak KW, Skrzypski M. Suppressive effects of γ-conglutin on differentiation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Int J Food Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.13860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 60-637 Poznań Poland
| | - Jarosław Czubiński
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Analysis; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 28 Wojska Polskiego 60-637 Poznań Poland
| | - Maria Billert
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 60-637 Poznań Poland
| | - Artur Półciennik
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 60-637 Poznań Poland
| | - Krzysztof W. Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 60-637 Poznań Poland
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry; Poznań University of Life Sciences; 60-637 Poznań Poland
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14
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Szentpéteri A, Lőrincz H, Somodi S, Varga VE, Paragh G, Seres I, Paragh G, Harangi M. Serum obestatin level strongly correlates with lipoprotein subfractions in non-diabetic obese patients. Lipids Health Dis 2018; 17:39. [PMID: 29506551 PMCID: PMC5838862 DOI: 10.1186/s12944-018-0691-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obestatin is a ghrelin-associated peptide, derived from preproghrelin. Although many of its effects are unclear, accumulating evidence supports positive actions on both metabolism and cardiovascular function. To date, level of obestatin and its correlations to the lipid subfractions in non-diabetic obese (NDO) patients have not been investigated. METHODS Fifty NDO patients (BMI: 41.96 ± 8.6 kg/m2) and thirty-two normal-weight, age- and gender-matched healthy controls (BMI: 24.16 ± 3.3 kg/m2) were enrolled into our study. Obestatin level was measured by ELISA. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) subfractions, intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels and mean LDL size were detected by nongradient polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (Lipoprint). RESULTS Serum level of obestatin was significantly lower in NDO patients compared to controls (3.01 ± 0.5 vs. 3.29 ± 0.6 μg/ml, p < 0.05). We found significant negative correlations between the level of obestatin and BMI (r = - 0.33; p < 0.001), level of serum glucose (r = - 0.27, p < 0.05), HbA1c (r = - 0.38; p < 0.001) and insulin (r = - 0.34; p < 0.05). Significant positive correlation was found between obestatin level and the levels of ApoA1 (r = 0.25; p < 0.05), large HDL subfraction ratio and level (r = 0.23; p < 0.05 and r = 0.24; p < 0.05), IDL (r = 0.25 p < 0.05) and mean LDL size (r = 0.25; p < 0.05). Serum VLDL ratio and level negatively correlated with obestatin (r = - 0.32; p < 0.01 and r = - 0.21; p = 0.05). In multiple regression analysis obestatin was predicted only by VLDL level. CONCLUSIONS Based on our data, measurement of obestatin level in obesity may contribute to understand the interplay between gastrointestinal hormone secretion and metabolic alterations in obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Szentpéteri
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - Hajnalka Lőrincz
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - Sándor Somodi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - Viktória Evelin Varga
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - György Paragh
- Department of Cell Stress Biology, Department of Dermatology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ildikó Seres
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - György Paragh
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary
| | - Mariann Harangi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Nagyerdei krt. 98, Debrecen, H-4032, Hungary.
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15
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Green BD, Grieve DJ. Biochemical properties and biological actions of obestatin and its relevence in type 2 diabetes. Peptides 2018; 100:249-259. [PMID: 29412827 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Obestatin was initially discovered in rat stomach extract, and although it is principally produced in the gastric mucosa, it can be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract. This 23-amino acid C-terminally amidated peptide is derived from preproghrelin and has been ascribed a wide range of metabolic effects relevant to type 2 diabetes. Obestatin reportedly inhibits gastrointestinal motility, reduces food intake and lowers body weight and improves lipid metabolism. Furthermore, it appears to exert actions on the pancreatic β-cell, most notably increasing β-cell mass and upregulating genes associated with insulin production and β-cell regeneration, with relevance to type 2 diabetes. It is becoming evident that obestatin also exerts pleiotropic effects on the cardiovascular system, possibly modulating blood pressure, endothelial function and triggering cardioprotective mechanisms, which may be important in determining cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, it seems that like other gut peptides obestatin has neuroprotective properties. This review examines the biochemical properties of the obestatin peptide (its structure, sequence, stability and distribution) and the candidate receptors through which it may act. It provides a balanced examination of the reported pancreatic and extrapancreatic actions of obestatin and evaluates its potential relevance with respect to diabetes therapy, together with discussion of direct evidence linking alterations in obestatin signalling with obesity/diabetes and other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Green
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 5BN, UK.
| | - David J Grieve
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, BT9 7AE, UK
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16
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Carpéné C, Les F, Estève D, Galitzky J. Short-term effects of obestatin on hexose uptake and triacylglycerol breakdown in human subcutaneous adipocytes. World J Diabetes 2018; 9:25-32. [PMID: 29359026 PMCID: PMC5763037 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v9.i1.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To study complete dose-dependent effects of obestatin on lipolytic and glucose transport activities in human adipocyte preparations highly responsive to insulin.
METHODS Adipocytes were prepared by liberase digestion from subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue obtained from overweight subjects undergoing plastic surgery. The index of lipolytic activity was the glycerol released in the incubation medium, while glucose transport was assessed by [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake assay.
RESULTS When tested from 0.1 nmol/L to 1 μmol/L, obestatin did not stimulate glycerol release; it did not inhibit the lipolytic effect of isoprenaline and did not alter the insulin antilipolytic effect. Obestatin hardly activated glucose transport at 1 μmol/L only. Moreover, the obestatin stimulation effect was clearly lower than the threefold increase induced by insulin 100 nmol/L.
CONCLUSION Low doses of obestatin cannot directly influence lipolysis and glucose uptake in human fat cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Carpéné
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Francisco Les
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad San Jorge, Villanueva de Gállego 50830, Spain
| | - David Estève
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 31432, France
| | - Jean Galitzky
- Institut des Maladies Métaboliques et Cardiovasculaires, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse 31432, France
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17
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Hassouna R, Labarthe A, Tolle V. Hypothalamic regulation of body growth and appetite by ghrelin-derived peptides during balanced nutrition or undernutrition. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2016; 438:42-51. [PMID: 27693419 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 09/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Among the gastrointestinal hormones that regulate food intake and energy homeostasis, ghrelin plays a unique role as the first one identified to increases appetite and stimulate GH secretion. This review highlights the latest mechanism by which ghrelin modulates body growth, appetite and energy metabolism by exploring pharmacological actions of the hormone and consequences of genetic or pharmacological blockade of the ghrelin/GHS-R (Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor) system on physiological responses in specific nutritional situations. Within the hypothalamus, novel mechanisms of action of this hormone involve its interaction with other ghrelin-derived peptides, such as desacyl ghrelin and obestatin, which are thought to act as functional ghrelin antagonists, and possible modulation of the GHS-R with other G-protein coupled receptors. During chronic undernutrition such as anorexia nervosa, variations of ghrelin-derived peptides may be an adaptative metabolic response to maintain normal glycemic control. Interestingly, some of ghrelin's metabolic actions are thought to be relayed through modulation of GH, an anabolic and hyperglycemic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rim Hassouna
- UMR-S 894 INSERM, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 2 ter rue d'Alésia, 75014, Paris, France; Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Alexandra Labarthe
- UMR-S 894 INSERM, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 2 ter rue d'Alésia, 75014, Paris, France
| | - Virginie Tolle
- UMR-S 894 INSERM, Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 2 ter rue d'Alésia, 75014, Paris, France.
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18
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Cowan E, Burch KJ, Green BD, Grieve DJ. Obestatin as a key regulator of metabolism and cardiovascular function with emerging therapeutic potential for diabetes. Br J Pharmacol 2016; 173:2165-81. [PMID: 27111465 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Obestatin is a 23-amino acid C-terminally amidated gastrointestinal peptide derived from preproghrelin and which forms an α helix. Although obestatin has a short biological half-life and is rapidly degraded, it is proposed to exert wide-ranging pathophysiological actions. Whilst the precise nature of many of its effects is unclear, accumulating evidence supports positive actions on both metabolism and cardiovascular function. For example, obestatin has been reported to inhibit food and water intake, body weight gain and gastrointestinal motility and also to mediate promotion of cell survival and prevention of apoptosis. Obestatin-induced increases in beta cell mass, enhanced adipogenesis and improved lipid metabolism have been noted along with up-regulation of genes associated with beta cell regeneration, insulin production and adipogenesis. Furthermore, human circulating obestatin levels generally demonstrate an inverse association with obesity and diabetes, whilst the peptide has been shown to confer protective metabolic effects in experimental diabetes, suggesting that it may hold therapeutic potential in this setting. Obestatin also appears to be involved in blood pressure regulation and to exert beneficial effects on endothelial function, with experimental studies indicating that it may also promote cardioprotective actions against, for example, ischaemia-reperfusion injury. This review will present a critical appraisal of the expanding obestatin research area and discuss the emerging therapeutic potential of this peptide for both metabolic and cardiovascular complications of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Cowan
- Queen's University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Belfast, UK
| | - Kerry J Burch
- Queen's University Belfast, Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Belfast, UK
| | - Brian D Green
- Queen's University Belfast, Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Belfast, UK
| | - David J Grieve
- Queen's University Belfast, Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Belfast, UK
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Wojciechowicz T, Skrzypski M, Szczepankiewicz D, Hertig I, Kołodziejski PA, Billert M, Strowski MZ, Nowak KW. Original Research: Orexins A and B stimulate proliferation and differentiation of porcine preadipocytes. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 241:1786-95. [PMID: 27190275 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216649261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Orexin A (OXA) and B (OXB) are neuropeptides which regulate appetite, energy expenditure, and arousal via G-protein coupled receptors termed as OXR1 and OXR2. The aim of this study was to characterize the effects of OXA and OXB on proliferation and differentiation of porcine preadipocytes. Porcine preadipocytes express both OXRs. OXA and OXB enhance porcine preadipocyte proliferation by 54.8% or 63.2 %, respectively. OXA and OXB potentiate differentiation of porcine preadipocytes, as judged by the increased lipid accumulation and expression of proadipogenic genes. Cellular lipid content after exposure of preadipocytes for six days to 100 nM OXA or OXB increased by 82.2% or 59.2%, respectively. OXA and OXB suppressed glycerol release by 23.9% or 24.9% in preadipocytes differentiated for six days. OXA (100 nM) increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) expression in cells differentiated for 24 h by 100.5%. PPARγ expression was also stimulated in preadipocytes differentiated in the presence of 10 nM (58.3%) or 100 nM OXA (50.6%) for three days. OXB potentiated PPARγ mRNA expression at 1 nM (59%), 10 nM (53.2%), and 100 nM (73.9%) in cells differentiated for three days. OXA increased CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha expression in preadipocytes differentiated for six days by 65%. OXB stimulated CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta expression in preadipocytes differentiated for three days at 10 nM (149.5%) as well as 100 nM (207.2%). Lipoprotein lipase mRNA expression increased in cells treated with 10 nM OXA by 152.6% and 100 nM OXA by 162%. Lipoprotein lipase expression increased by 134% at 100 nM OXB. Furthermore, OXA (100 nM) and OXB (100 nM) increased leptin mRNA expression in preadipocytes differentiated for three days by 49.9% or 71.3%, respectively. These data indicate that orexin receptors may be relevant in the context of white adipose tissue formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Wojciechowicz
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Marek Skrzypski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Dawid Szczepankiewicz
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Iwona Hertig
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Paweł A Kołodziejski
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Maria Billert
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
| | - Mathias Z Strowski
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology and Interdisciplinary Centre of Metabolism: Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Charite-University Medicine Berlin, Berlin 13353, Germany Department of Gastroenterology, Medical Clinic, Elblandklinik, Meissen 01662, Germany
| | - Krzysztof W Nowak
- Department of Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań 60-637, Poland
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20
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Saravanan M, Pandikumar P, Ignacimuthu S. Effect of active sub-fraction of Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. in the management of obesity. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2016; 177:117-125. [PMID: 26602455 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Revised: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) is used by the traditional healers in India to treat diabetes and hyperlipidemia.This work aims to study the antiobesity effect of the active sub-fraction obtained from the leaves of this plant using in vitro and in vivo models. METHODOLOGY Active sub-fraction (Sfr3) isolated by column chromatography was analyzed using Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Adipogenesis and apoptosis were detected by oil red O and Hoechst-33342 staining, respectively, in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Expression of specific marker genes involved in lipid metabolism was detected by Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and adipose tissues of C57 BL/6J mice, fed with high fat diet (HFD) and treated with Sfr3 and fenofibrate for 45 days. RESULTS The treatment with Sfr3 decreased lipid accumulation and caused apoptosis in adipocytes. In the HFD induced obese animals, serum and liver lipid levels were decreased and a significant decrease in body weight gain was observed dose dependently in 45 days treatment. Histopathological examination showed decrease in adipose mass and liver lipid accumulation. The effect of Sfr3 on the marker genes of adipocytes was significantly regulated at the treated doses both in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSION Sfr3 of Ichnocarpus frutescens is effective in the management of obesity through adipocyte apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saravanan
- Division of Ethnopharmacology, Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600034, India
| | - P Pandikumar
- Division of Ethnopharmacology, Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600034, India
| | - S Ignacimuthu
- Division of Ethnopharmacology, Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600034, India; Visiting Professor Programme, Deanship of Scientific Research, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.
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