Rapid recruitment and activation of macrophages by anti-Gal/α-Gal liposome interaction accelerates wound healing

Self-Tumor Antigens in Solid Tumors Turned into Vaccines by α-gal Micelle Immunotherapy

A major reason for the failure of the immune system to detect tumor antigens (TAs) is the insufficient uptake, processing, and presentation of TAs by antigen-presenting cells (APCs). The immunogenicity of TAs in the individual patient can be markedly increased by the in situ targeting of tumor cells for robust uptake by APCs, without the need to identify and characterize the TAs. This is feasible by the intra-tumoral injection of α-gal micelles comprised of glycolipids presenting the carbohydrate-antigen "α-gal epitope" (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R). Humans produce a natural antibody called "anti-Gal" (constituting ~1% of immunoglobulins), which binds to α-gal epitopes. Tumor-injected α-gal micelles spontaneously insert into tumor cell membranes, so that multiple α-gal epitopes are presented on tumor cells. Anti-Gal binding to these epitopes activates the complement system, resulting in the killing of tumor cells, and the recruitment of multiple APCs (dendritic cells and macrophages) into treated tumors by the chemotactic complement cleavage peptides C5a and C3a. In this process of converting the treated tumor into a personalized TA vaccine, the recruited APC phagocytose anti-Gal opsonized tumor cells and cell membranes, process the internalized TAs and transport them to regional lymph-nodes. TA peptides presented on APCs activate TA-specific T cells to proliferate and destroy the metastatic tumor cells presenting the TAs. Studies in anti-Gal-producing mice demonstrated the induction of effective protection against distant metastases of the highly tumorigenic B16 melanoma following injection of natural and synthetic α-gal micelles into primary tumors. This treatment was further found to synergize with checkpoint inhibitor therapy by the anti-PD1 antibody. Phase-1 clinical trials indicated that α-gal micelle immunotherapy is safe and can induce the infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells into untreated distant metastases. It is suggested that, in addition to converting treated metastases into an autologous TA vaccine, this treatment should be considered as a neoadjuvant therapy, administering α-gal micelles into primary tumors immediately following their detection. Such an immunotherapy will convert tumors into a personalized anti-TA vaccine for the period prior to their resection.

Advancements and Challenges of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Wound Healing Applications

The current treatments for wound healing still exhibit drawbacks due to limited availability at the action sites, susceptibility to degradation, and immediate drug release, all of which are detrimental in chronic conditions. Nano-modification strategies, offering various advantages that can enhance the physicochemical properties of drugs, have been employed in efforts to maximize the efficacy of wound healing medications. Nowadays, nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) provide drug delivery capabilities that can safeguard active compounds from environmental influences and enable controlled release profiles. Consequently, NLCs are considered an alternative therapy to address the challenges encountered in wound treatment. This review delves into the application of NLCs in drug delivery for wound healing, encompassing discussions on their composition, preparation methods, and their impact on treatment effectiveness. The modification of drugs into the NLC model can be facilitated using relatively straightforward technologies such as pressure-based processes, emulsification techniques, solvent utilization methods, or phase inversion. Moreover, NLC production with minimal material compositions can accommodate both single and combination drug delivery. Through in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies, it has been substantiated that NLCs can enhance the therapeutic potential of various drug types in wound healing treatments. NLCs enhance efficacy by reducing the active substance particle size, increasing solubility and bioavailability, and prolonging drug release, ensuring sustained dosage at the wound site for chronic wounds. In summary, NLCs represent an effective nanocarrier system for optimizing the bioavailability of active pharmacological ingredients in the context of wound healing.

Nitric Oxide Releasing Nanomaterials for Cardiovascular Applications

A central paradigm of cardiovascular homeostasis is that impaired nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability results in a wide array of cardiovascular dysfunction including incompetent endothelium-dependent vasodilatation, thrombosis, vascular inflammation, and proliferation of the intima. Over the course of more than a century, NO donating formulations such as organic nitrates and nitrites have remained a cornerstone of treatment for patients with cardiovascular diseases. These donors primarily produce NO in the circulation and are not targeted to specific (sub)cellular sites of action. However, safe, and therapeutic levels of NO require delivery of the right amount to a precise location at the right time. To achieve these aims, several recent strategies aimed at therapeutically generating or releasing NO in living systems have shown that polymeric and inorganic (silica, gold) nanoparticles and nanoscale metal-organic frameworks could either generate NO endogenously by the catalytic decomposition of endogenous NO substrates or can store and release therapeutically relevant amounts of NO gas. NO-releasing nanomaterials have been developed for vascular implants (such as stents and grafts) to target atherosclerosis, hypertension, myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, and cardiac tissue engineering. In this review, we discuss the advances in design and development of novel NO-releasing nanomaterials for cardiovascular therapeutics and critically examine the therapeutic potential of these nanoplatforms to modulate cellular metabolism, to regulate vascular tone, inhibit platelet aggregation, and limit proliferation of vascular smooth muscle with minimal toxic effects.

Regeneration in Mice of Injured Skin, Heart, and Spinal Cord by α-Gal Nanoparticles Recapitulates Regeneration in Amphibians

The healing of skin wounds, myocardial, and spinal cord injuries in salamander, newt, and axolotl amphibians, and in mouse neonates, results in scar-free regeneration, whereas injuries in adult mice heal by fibrosis and scar formation. Although both types of healing are mediated by macrophages, regeneration in these amphibians and in mouse neonates also involves innate activation of the complement system. These differences suggest that localized complement activation in adult mouse injuries might induce regeneration instead of the default fibrosis and scar formation. Localized complement activation is feasible by antigen/antibody interaction between biodegradable nanoparticles presenting α-gal epitopes (α-gal nanoparticles) and the natural anti-Gal antibody which is abundant in humans. Administration of α-gal nanoparticles into injuries of anti-Gal-producing adult mice results in localized complement activation which induces rapid and extensive macrophage recruitment. These macrophages bind anti-Gal-coated α-gal nanoparticles and polarize into M2 pro-regenerative macrophages that orchestrate accelerated scar-free regeneration of skin wounds and regeneration of myocardium injured by myocardial infarction (MI). Furthermore, injection of α-gal nanoparticles into spinal cord injuries of anti-Gal-producing adult mice induces recruitment of M2 macrophages, that mediate extensive angiogenesis and axonal sprouting, which reconnects between proximal and distal severed axons. Thus, α-gal nanoparticle treatment in adult mice mimics physiologic regeneration in amphibians. These studies further suggest that α-gal nanoparticles may be of significance in the treatment of human injuries.

Lab on chip based self-adjustable liposomes for rapid wound healing: An in depth in vitro, in vivo and higher dose toxicity investigation

Thanks to microfluidic technology, different nano-delivery systems are becoming clinically viable. Using a novel and rapid microfluidic hydrodynamic focusing (MHF) method (lipids on chip) we developed self-adaptable liposomes (SLs) containing cefpodoxime proxetil (CP) for the treatment of skin infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. SLs were optimized using different flow rate ratios in the MHF method and the final formulation CPT3 was found to be the best in terms of particle size (68.27 ± 01.15 nm), % entrapment efficiency (% EE: 82 ± 1.5), polydispersity (PDI: 0.2 ± 0.012), and degree of deformability (DOD: 4.7 ± 0.18 nm). Rats (Sprague Dawley) treated with a self-adaptable CPT3 liposomal formulation recuperate skin injury, exhibited reduced bacterial counts (<106 CFU/mL) in the wounded region, and completely restored (100 %) on day 21. Rat survival, in vivo dermal pharmacokinetics and ex vivo-in vivo relationship were also investigated. Rats treated with an even 10-fold higher dose (100 mg/kg/day) of CP using an equivalent CPT3 formulation did not show any symptoms of toxicity as revealed by hematological, biochemical, and internal organ assessment observations. Finally, the developed CPT3 formulation with special interest in patients with high-risk skin injuries not only delivered CP in a controlled manner but was also clinically effective and safe as it did not produce any serious adverse events even at 10× higher doses in the infected rats.

Modulation of Inflammatory Responses to Enhance Nerve Recovery after Spinal Cord Injury

Inflammation can occur at the wound site, and immune cells are necessary to trigger wound healing and tissue regeneration after injury. It is partly initiated by the rapid migration of immune cells such as neutrophils, inflammatory monocytes, and macrophages after spinal cord injury (SCI). Secondary inflammation can increase the wound area; thus, the function of tissues below the injury levels. Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages, and the macrophage phenotype can change from a pro-inflammatory phenotype to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Therefore, various studies on immunomodulation have been performed to suppress secondary inflammation upon nerve damage. This editorial commentary focuses on various therapeutic methods that modulate inflammation and promote functional regeneration after SCI.

α-Gal Nanoparticles in CNS Trauma: I. In Vitro Activation of Microglia Towards a Pro-Healing State

BACKGROUND

Macrophages and microglia play critical roles after spinal cord injury (SCI), with the pro-healing, anti-inflammatory (M2) subtype being implicated in tissue repair. We hypothesize that promoting this phenotype within the post-injured cord microenvironment may provide beneficial effects for mitigating tissue damage. As a proof of concept, we propose the use of nanoparticles incorporating the carbohydrate antigen, galactose-α-1,3-galactose (α-gal epitope) as an immunomodulator to transition human microglia (HMC3) cells toward a pro-healing state.

METHODS

Quiescent HMC3 cells were acutely exposed to α-gal nanoparticles in the presence of human serum and subsequently characterized for changes in cell shape, expression of anti or pro-inflammatory markers, and secretion of phenotype-specific cytokines.

RESULTS

HMC3 cells treated with serum activated α-gal nanoparticles exhibited rapid enlargement and shape change in addition to expressing CD68. Moreover, these activated cells showed increased expression of anti-inflammatory markers like Arginase-1 and CD206 without increasing production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α or IL-6.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to show that resting human microglia exposed to a complex of α-gal nanoparticles and anti-Gal (from human serum) can be activated and polarized toward a putative M2 state. The data suggests that α-gal nanoparticles may have therapeutic relevance to the CNS microenvironment, in both recruiting and polarizing macrophages/microglia at the application site. The immunomodulatory activity of these α-gal nanoparticles post-SCI is further described in the companion work (Part II).

α-Gal Nanoparticles in CNS Trauma: II. Immunomodulation Following Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) Improves Functional Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Previous investigations have shown that local application of nanoparticles presenting the carbohydrate moiety galactose-α-1,3-galactose (α-gal epitopes) enhance wound healing by activating the complement system and recruiting pro-healing macrophages to the injury site. Our companion in vitro paper suggest α-gal epitopes can similarly recruit and polarize human microglia toward a pro-healing phenotype. In this continuation study, we investigate the in vivo implications of α-gal nanoparticle administration directly to the injured spinal cord.

METHODS

α-Gal knock-out (KO) mice subjected to spinal cord crush were injected either with saline (control) or with α-gal nanoparticles immediately following injury. Animals were assessed longitudinally with neurobehavioral and histological endpoints.

RESULTS

Mice injected with α-gal nanoparticles showed increased recruitment of anti-inflammatory macrophages to the injection site in conjunction with increased production of anti-inflammatory markers and a reduction in apoptosis. Further, the treated group showed increased axonal infiltration into the lesion, a reduction in reactive astrocyte populations and increased angiogenesis. These results translated into improved sensorimotor metrics versus the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Application of α-gal nanoparticles after spinal cord injury (SCI) induces a pro-healing inflammatory response resulting in neuroprotection, improved axonal ingrowth into the lesion and enhanced sensorimotor recovery. The data shows α-gal nanoparticles may be a promising avenue for further study in CNS trauma.

Accelerated Burn Healing in a Mouse Experimental Model Using α-Gal Nanoparticles

Macrophages play a pivotal role in the process of healing burns. One of the major risks in the course of burn healing, in the absence of regenerating epidermis, is infections, which greatly contribute to morbidity and mortality in such patients. Therefore, it is widely agreed that accelerating the recruitment of macrophages into burns may contribute to faster regeneration of the epidermis, thus decreasing the risk of infections. This review describes a unique method for the rapid recruitment of macrophages into burns and the activation of these macrophages to mediate accelerated regrowth of the epidermis and healing of burns. The method is based on the application of bio-degradable "α-gal" nanoparticles to burns. These nanoparticles present multiple α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R), which bind the abundant natural anti-Gal antibody that constitutes ~1% of immunoglobulins in humans. Anti-Gal/α-gal nanoparticle interaction activates the complement system, resulting in localized production of the complement cleavage peptides C5a and C3a, which are highly effective chemotactic factors for monocyte-derived macrophages. The macrophages recruited into the α-gal nanoparticle-treated burns are activated following interaction between the Fc portion of anti-Gal coating the nanoparticles and the multiple Fc receptors on macrophage cell membranes. The activated macrophages secrete a variety of cytokines/growth factors that accelerate the regrowth of the epidermis and regeneration of the injured skin, thereby cutting the healing time by half. Studies on the healing of thermal injuries in the skin of anti-Gal-producing mice demonstrated a much faster recruitment of macrophages into burns treated with α-gal nanoparticles than in control burns treated with saline and healing of the burns within 6 days, whereas healing of control burns took ~12 days. α-Gal nanoparticles are non-toxic and do not cause chronic granulomas. These findings suggest that α-gal nanoparticles treatment may harness anti-Gal for inducing similar accelerated burn healing effects also in humans.

Antibody production and tolerance to the α-gal epitope as models for understanding and preventing the immune response to incompatible ABO carbohydrate antigens and for α-gal therapies

This review describes the significance of the α-gal epitope (Galα-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R) as the core of human blood-group A and B antigens (A and B antigens), determines in mouse models the principles underlying the immune response to these antigens, and suggests future strategies for the induction of immune tolerance to incompatible A and B antigens in human allografts. Carbohydrate antigens, such as ABO antigens and the α-gal epitope, differ from protein antigens in that they do not interact with T cells, but B cells interacting with them require T-cell help for their activation. The α-gal epitope is the core of both A and B antigens and is the ligand of the natural anti-Gal antibody, which is abundant in all humans. In A and O individuals, anti-Gal clones (called anti-Gal/B) comprise >85% of the so-called anti-B activity and bind to the B antigen in facets that do not include fucose-linked α1-2 to the core α-gal. As many as 1% of B cells are anti-Gal B cells. Activation of quiescent anti-Gal B cells upon exposure to α-gal epitopes on xenografts and some protozoa can increase the titer of anti-Gal by 100-fold. α1,3-Galactosyltransferase knockout (GT-KO) mice lack α-gal epitopes and can produce anti-Gal. These mice simulate human recipients of ABO-incompatible human allografts. Exposure for 2-4 weeks of naïve and memory mouse anti-Gal B cells to α-gal epitopes in the heterotopically grafted wild-type (WT) mouse heart results in the elimination of these cells and immune tolerance to this epitope. Shorter exposures of 7 days of anti-Gal B cells to α-gal epitopes in the WT heart result in the production of accommodating anti-Gal antibodies that bind to α-gal epitopes but do not lyse cells or reject the graft. Tolerance to α-gal epitopes due to the elimination of naïve and memory anti-Gal B cells can be further induced by 2 weeks in vivo exposure to WT lymphocytes or autologous lymphocytes engineered to present α-gal epitopes by transduction of the α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene. These mouse studies suggest that autologous human lymphocytes similarly engineered to present the A or B antigen may induce corresponding tolerance in recipients of ABO-incompatible allografts. The review further summarizes experimental works demonstrating the efficacy of α-gal therapies in amplifying anti-viral and anti-tumor immune-protection and regeneration of injured tissues.

Reproducing extracellular matrix adverse remodelling of non-ST myocardial infarction in a large animal model

The rising incidence of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) and associated long-term high mortality constitutes an urgent clinical issue. Unfortunately, the study of possible interventions to treat this pathology lacks a reproducible pre-clinical model. Indeed, currently adopted small and large animal models of MI mimic only full-thickness, ST-segment-elevation (STEMI) infarcts, and hence cater only for an investigation into therapeutics and interventions directed at this subset of MI. Thus, we develop an ovine model of NSTEMI by ligating the myocardial muscle at precise intervals parallel to the left anterior descending coronary artery. Upon histological and functional investigation to validate the proposed model and comparison with STEMI full ligation model, RNA-seq and proteomics show the distinctive features of post-NSTEMI tissue remodelling. Transcriptome and proteome-derived pathway analyses at acute (7 days) and late (28 days) post-NSTEMI pinpoint specific alterations in cardiac post-ischaemic extracellular matrix. Together with the rise of well-known markers of inflammation and fibrosis, NSTEMI ischaemic regions show distinctive patterns of complex galactosylated and sialylated N-glycans in cellular membranes and extracellular matrix. Identifying such changes in molecular moieties accessible to infusible and intra-myocardial injectable drugs sheds light on developing targeted pharmacological solutions to contrast adverse fibrotic remodelling.

α-Gal Nanoparticles Mediated Homing of Endogenous Stem Cells for Repair and Regeneration of External and Internal Injuries by Localized Complement Activation and Macrophage Recruitment

This review discusses a novel experimental approach for the regeneration of original tissue structure by recruitment of endogenous stem-cells to injured sites following administration of α-gal nanoparticles, which harness the natural anti-Gal antibody. Anti-Gal is produced in large amounts in all humans, and it binds the multiple α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R) presented on α-gal nanoparticles. In situ binding of anti-Gal to α-gal nanoparticles activates the complement system and generates complement cleavage chemotactic-peptides that rapidly recruit macrophages. Macrophages reaching anti-Gal coated α-gal nanoparticles bind them via Fc/Fc receptor interaction and polarize into M2 pro-reparative macrophages. These macrophages secrete various cytokines that orchestrate regeneration of the injured tissue, including VEGF inducing neo-vascularization and cytokines directing homing of stem-cells to injury sites. Homing of stem-cells is also directed by interaction of complement cleavage peptides with their corresponding receptors on the stem-cells. Application of α-gal nanoparticles to skin wounds of anti-Gal producing mice results in decrease in healing time by half. Furthermore, α-gal nanoparticles treated wounds restore the normal structure of the injured skin without fibrosis or scar formation. Similarly, in a mouse model of occlusion/reperfusion myocardial-infarction, near complete regeneration after intramyocardial injection of α-gal nanoparticles was demonstrated, whereas hearts injected with saline display ~20% fibrosis and scar formation of the left ventricular wall. It is suggested that recruitment of stem-cells following anti-Gal/α-gal nanoparticles interaction in injured tissues may result in induction of localized regeneration facilitated by conducive microenvironments generated by pro-reparative macrophage secretions and “cues” provided by the extracellular matrix in the injury site.

Cutaneous Wound Healing: A Review about Innate Immune Response and Current Therapeutic Applications

Skin wounds and compromised wound healing are major concerns for the public. Although skin wound healing has been studied for decades, the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind the process are still not completely clear. The systemic responses to trauma involve the body’s inflammatory and immunomodulatory cellular and humoral networks. Studies over the years provided essential insights into a complex and dynamic immunity during the cutaneous wound healing process. This review will focus on innate cell populations involved in the initial phase of this orchestrated process, including innate cells from both the skin and the immune system.

Biosynthesis of α-Gal Epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R) and Their Unique Potential in Future α-Gal Therapies

The α-gal epitope is a carbohydrate antigen which appeared early in mammalian evolution and is synthesized in large amounts by the glycosylation enzyme α1,3galactosyltransferase (α1,3GT) in non-primate mammals, lemurs, and New-World monkeys. Ancestral Old-World monkeys and apes synthesizing α-gal epitopes underwent complete extinction 20–30 million years ago, and their mutated progeny lacking α-gal epitopes survived. Humans, apes, and Old-World monkeys which evolved from the surviving progeny lack α-gal epitopes and produce the natural anti-Gal antibody which binds specifically to α-gal epitopes. Because of this reciprocal distribution of the α-gal epitope and anti-Gal in mammals, transplantation of organs from non-primate mammals (e.g., pig xenografts) into Old-World monkeys or humans results in hyperacute rejection following anti-Gal binding to α-gal epitopes on xenograft cells. The in vivo immunocomplexing between anti-Gal and α-gal epitopes on molecules, pathogens, cells, or nanoparticles may be harnessed for development of novel immunotherapies (referred to as “α-gal therapies”) in various clinical settings because such immune complexes induce several beneficial immune processes. These immune processes include localized activation of the complement system which can destroy pathogens and generate chemotactic peptides that recruit antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages and dendritic cells, targeting of antigens presenting α-gal epitopes for extensive uptake by APCs, and activation of recruited macrophages into pro-reparative macrophages. Some of the suggested α-gal therapies associated with these immune processes are as follows: 1. Increasing efficacy of enveloped-virus vaccines by synthesizing α-gal epitopes on vaccinating inactivated viruses, thereby targeting them for extensive uptake by APCs. 2. Conversion of autologous tumors into antitumor vaccines by expression of α-gal epitopes on tumor cell membranes. 3. Accelerating healing of external and internal injuries by α-gal nanoparticles which decrease the healing time and diminish scar formation. 4. Increasing anti-Gal–mediated protection against zoonotic viruses presenting α-gal epitopes and against protozoa, such as Trypanosoma, Leishmania, and Plasmodium, by vaccination for elevating production of the anti-Gal antibody. The efficacy and safety of these therapies were demonstrated in transgenic mice and pigs lacking α-gal epitopes and producing anti-Gal, raising the possibility that these α-gal therapies may be considered for further evaluation in clinical trials.

Near Complete Repair After Myocardial Infarction in Adult Mice by Altering the Inflammatory Response With Intramyocardial Injection of α-Gal Nanoparticles

Background: Neonatal mice, but not older mice, can regenerate their hearts after myocardial-infarction (MI), a process mediated by pro-reparative macrophages. α-Gal nanoparticles applied to skin wounds in adult-mice bind the anti-Gal antibody, activate the complement cascade and generate complement chemotactic peptides that recruit pro-reparative macrophages which are further activated by these nanoparticles. The recruited macrophages decrease wound healing time by ~50%, restore the normal skin structure and prevent fibrosis and scar formation in mice. Objectives: The objective of this study is to determine if α-gal nanoparticles injected into the reperfused myocardium after MI in adult-mice can induce myocardial repair that restores normal structure, similar to that observed in skin injuries. Methods and Results: MI was induced by occluding the mid-portion of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery for 30 min. Immediately following reperfusion, each mouse received two 10 μl injections of 100 μg α-gal nanoparticles in saline into the LAD territory (n = 20), or saline for controls (n = 10). Myocardial infarct size was measured by planimetry following Trichrome staining and macrophage recruitment by hematoxylin-eosin staining. Left ventricular (LV) function was measured by echocardiography. Control mice displayed peak macrophage infiltration at 4-days, whereas treated mice had a delayed peak macrophage infiltration at 7-days. At 28-days, control mice demonstrated large transmural infarcts with extensive scar formation and poor contractile function. In contrast, mice treated with α-gal nanoparticles demonstrated after 28-days a marked reduction in infarct size (~10-fold smaller), restoration of normal myocardium structure and contractile function. Conclusions: Intramyocardial injection of α-gal nanoparticles post-MI in anti-Gal producing adult-mice results in near complete repair of the infarcted territory, with restoration of normal LV structure and contractile function. The mechanism responsible for this benefit likely involves alteration of the usual inflammatory response post-MI, as previously observed with regeneration of injured hearts in adult zebrafish, salamanders and neonatal mice.

α-Gal immunization positively impacts Trypanosoma cruzi colonization of heart tissue in a mouse model

Chagas disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is considered endemic in more than 20 countries but lacks both an approved vaccine and limited treatment for its chronic stage. Chronic infection is most harmful to human health because of long-term parasitic infection of the heart. Here we show that immunization with a virus-like particle vaccine displaying a high density of the immunogenic α-Gal trisaccharide (Qβ-αGal) induced several beneficial effects concerning acute and chronic T. cruzi infection in α1,3-galactosyltransferase knockout mice. Approximately 60% of these animals were protected from initial infection with high parasite loads. Vaccinated animals also produced high anti-αGal IgG antibody titers, improved IFN-γ and IL-12 cytokine production, and controlled parasitemia in the acute phase at 8 days post-infection (dpi) for the Y strain and 22 dpi for the Colombian strain. In the chronic stage of infection (36 and 190 dpi, respectively), all of the vaccinated group survived, showing significantly decreased heart inflammation and clearance of amastigote nests from the heart tissue.

Recent perspectives of nanotechnology in burn wounds management: a review

OBJECTIVE

The burden of the management of problematic skin wounds characterised by a compromised skin barrier is growing rapidly. Almost six million patients are affected in the US alone, with an estimated market of $25 billion annually. There is an urgent requirement for efficient mechanism-based treatments and more efficacious drug delivery systems. Novel strategies are needed for faster healing by reducing infection, moisturising the wound, stimulating the healing mechanisms, speeding up wound closure and reducing scar formation.

METHODS

A systematic review of qualitative studies was conducted on the recent perspectives of nanotechnology in burn wounds management. Pubmed, Scopus, EMBASE, CINAHL and PsychINFO databases were all systematically searched. Authors independently rated the reporting of the qualitative studies included. A comprehensive literature search was conducted covering various resources up to 2018-2019. Traditional techniques aim to simply cover the wound without playing any active role in wound healing. However, nanotechnology-based solutions are being used to create multipurpose biomaterials, not only for regeneration and repair, but also for on-demand delivery of specific molecules. The chronic nature and associated complications of nonhealing wounds have led to the emergence of nanotechnology-based therapies that aim at facilitating the healing process and ultimately repairing the injured tissue.

CONCLUSION

Nanotechnology-based therapy is in the forefront of next-generation therapy that is able to advance wound healing of hard-to-heal wounds. In this review, we will highlight the developed nanotechnology-based therapeutic agents and assess the viability and efficacy of each treatment. Herein we will explore the unmet needs and future directions of current technologies, while discussing promising strategies that can advance the wound-healing field.

Annexin A1-derived peptide Ac2-26 facilitates wound healing in diabetic mice

Impaired wound healing is a common complication of diabetes. In diabetic wounds, macrophages present dysfunctional efferocytosis and abnormal phenotypes, which could result in excessive neutrophil accumulation and prolonged inflammation, thereby eventually hindering wound repair. ANXA1 N-terminal peptide Ac2-26 exhibits a high potential in mitigating inflammation and improving repair; however, its efficacy in diabetic wound repair remains unclear. In this study, a cutaneous excisional wound model was built in genetically diabetic mice. Ac2-26 or a vehicle solution was employed locally in wound sites. Subsequently, wound zones were measured and sampled at different time intervals post-wounding. Using hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's trichrome staining, we observed the histopathological variations and collagen deposition in wound samples. Based on immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence, the numbers of neutrophils, macrophages, and CD206-positive macrophages in the wound samples were determined. Cytokine expression in wound samples was studied by immunoblot assay. Results showed that Ac2-26 treatment could facilitate diabetic wound closure, down-regulate the number of neutrophils, and improve angiogenesis and collagen deposition. In addition, Ac2-26 application expedited macrophage recruitment and up-regulated the percentage of macrophages expressing CD206, which is a marker for M2 macrophages. Moreover, Ac2-26 inhibited the expressions of TNF-α and IL-6 and up-regulated the expressions of IL-10, TGF-β, and VEGFA during diabetic wound healing. Hence, based on the aforementioned findings, Ac2-26 application in diabetic wounds could exert anti-inflammatory and pro-repair effects by reducing neutrophil accumulation and facilitating M2 macrophage development.

Emerging progress on the mechanism and technology in wound repair

Normal wound repair is a dynamic and complex process involving multiple coordinated interactions between growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, and various cells. Any failure during the repair process may cause chronic wounds or scar formation, which increase the financial burden of patients due to repetitive treatments and considerable medical expenditures, and affect their quality of life. Nowadays, extensive efforts have been made to develop novel therapeutics for wound repair. Genetic engineering technology, tissue engineering technology, stem cell-based therapy, physical and biochemical technology, and vacuum-assisted closure technique have been proposed to be beneficial for wound repair, and shown considerable potential for improving the rate and quality of wound healing and skin regeneration. However, challenges remain as applying these techniques. As the development of cell biology and molecular biology, the understanding of the mechanism under wound repair has gradually deepened. As the growth of interdisciplinary research on physics, chemistry, biology, tissue engineering, and materials, the concept and technique relating wound repair for clinical application have rapidly developed. This article reviews the latest progress on the mechanism and technique in wound repair.

Aptamer-integrated α-Gal liposomes as bispecific agents to trigger immune response for killing tumor cells

A novel bispecific α-Gal liposome was constructed by self-assembling AS1411 aptamers into the α-Gal containing liposomes. The α-Gal liposomes were prepared using cell membranes of red blood cells from rabbit, which are composed of cholesterol, phospholipids, and α-Gal glycolipids. AS1411 is a DNA aptamer with high specificity and affinity for nucleolin and could integrate into liposomes by the modification of cholesterol. The bispecific α-Gal liposomes surface-functionalized by α-Gal and AS1411 aptamer could recognize anti-Gal antibodies and nucleolin overexpressed by tumor cells simultaneously, followed by activating the immune system to attack the tumor cells, resulting in the lysis of the tumor cells by antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Under simulated tumor environment, the lysis rate of MCF-7 cells treated by the AS1411 modified α-Gal liposomes drastically increased compared to the liposomes without AS1411 aptamer. This study suggests that the AS1411 modified α-Gal liposomes can recognize nucleolin-overexpressing tumor cells selectively, subsequently improve the effect of the immunotherapy with high specificity. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 107A: 1176-1183, 2019.

A prophylactic α-Gal-based glycovaccine effectively protects against murine acute Chagas disease

Chagas disease (ChD), caused by the hemoflagellate parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, affects six to seven million people in Latin America. Lately, it has become an emerging public health concern in nonendemic regions such as North America and Europe. There is no prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine as yet, and current chemotherapy is rather toxic and has limited efficacy in the chronic phase of the disease. The parasite surface is heavily coated by glycoproteins such as glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored mucins (tGPI-mucins), which display highly immunogenic terminal nonreducing α-galactopyranosyl (α-Gal)-containing glycotopes that are entirely absent in humans. The immunodominant tGPI-mucin α-Gal glycotope, the trisaccharide Galα1,3Galβ1,4GlcNAc (Galα3LN), elicits high levels of protective T. cruzi-specific anti-α-Gal antibodies in ChD patients in both the acute and chronic phases. Although glycoconjugates are the major parasite glycocalyx antigens, they remain completely unexplored as potential ChD vaccine candidates. Here we investigate the efficacy of the T. cruzi immunodominant glycotope Galα3LN, covalently linked to a carrier protein (human serum albumin (HSA)), as a prophylactic vaccine candidate in the acute model of ChD, using the α1,3-galactosyltransferase-knockout (α1,3GalT-KO) mouse, which mimics the human immunoresponse to α-Gal glycotopes. Animals vaccinated with Galα3LN-HSA were fully protected against lethal T. cruzi challenge by inducing a strong anti-α-Gal antibody-mediated humoral response. Furthermore, Galα3LN-HSA-vaccinated α1,3GalT-KO mice exhibited significant reduction (91.7–99.9%) in parasite load in all tissues analyzed, cardiac inflammation, myocyte necrosis, and T cell infiltration. This is a proof-of-concept study to demonstrate the efficacy of a prophylactic α-Gal-based glycovaccine for experimental acute Chagas disease.

A vaccine candidate derived from an immunodominant parasitic glycan could offer a much-needed preventive therapy for Chagas disease. The disease, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is endemic to Latin America and an emergent threat to North America and Europe. Current therapies are few, poorly efficacious, and toxic. Igor Almeida, from the University of Texas at El Paso, United States, and his team created a candidate which presents a host with T. cruzi surface-derived α-galactose-containing (α-Gal) glycan covalently linked to a carrier protein. Parasite-derived α-Gal-containing proteins are known to be highly immune-stimulating to humans but were previously unexplored as prophylactics. In a mouse model designed to mimic the human response to Chagas disease, vaccinated animals had a strong antibody response and were fully protected against lethal exposure to T. cruzi. The results offer a promising candidate for future research and validate the method used in this proof-of-concept study.

Association between food allergy and ankylosing spondylitis: An observational study

Food allergies can alter the gut microbiome composition, increasing the risk of conditions such as ankylosing spondylitis (AS).To identify the association between specific allergens and AS, we investigated the differences in the serum levels of 14 food antigen-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) G between AS patients and healthy participants. The association between the levels of these antibodies and disease activity was assessed by measuring the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP).We enrolled 75 AS patients and 78 healthy controls who had undergone antigen-specific IgG tests in West China Hospital between January 2015 and October 2017, and performed enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for specific IgG against 14 food allergens: rice, egg, mushroom, milk, pork, chicken, beef, crab, codfish, corn, soybean, tomato, shrimp, and wheat. The following tests were used to analyze differences between AS patients and healthy controls: χ test for sex, and a 2-tailed Student t-test or Mann-Whitney U test based on the results of Levene test for age and IgG levels. Correlations between IgG and CRP levels were calculated using a Spearman's correlation.AS patients had significantly higher serum levels of beef-, crab-, and pork-specific IgG than did healthy participants. In addition, the serum levels of pork-specific IgG were significantly and positively correlated with CRP.These results suggest that α-Gal, the predominant natural antigen in mammalian red meat, might play a potential role in the pathogenesis of AS, and therefore, AS patients should exclude such allergenic foods, including beef, crab and pork, from their daily diet.

Mechanistic understanding of nanoparticles' interactions with extracellular matrix: the cell and immune system

Extracellular matrix (ECM) is an extraordinarily complex and unique meshwork composed of structural proteins and glycosaminoglycans. The ECM provides essential physical scaffolding for the cellular constituents, as well as contributes to crucial biochemical signaling. Importantly, ECM is an indispensable part of all biological barriers and substantially modulates the interchange of the nanotechnology products through these barriers. The interactions of the ECM with nanoparticles (NPs) depend on the morphological characteristics of intercellular matrix and on the physical characteristics of the NPs and may be either deleterious or beneficial. Importantly, an altered expression of ECM molecules ultimately affects all biological processes including inflammation. This review critically discusses the specific behavior of NPs that are within the ECM domain, and passing through the biological barriers. Furthermore, regenerative and toxicological aspects of nanomaterials are debated in terms of the immune cells-NPs interactions.

The role of complement in the acute phase response after burns

Severe burns induce a complex systemic inflammatory response characterized by a typical prolonged acute phase response (APR) that starts approximately 4-8h after-burn and persists for months up to a year after the initial burn trauma. During this APR, acute phase proteins (APPs), including C-reactive protein (CRP) and complement (e.g. C3, C4 and C5) are released in the blood, resulting amongst others, in the recruitment and migration of inflammatory cells. Although the APR is necessary for proper wound healing, a prolonged APR can induce local tissue damage, hamper the healing process and cause negative systemic effects in several organs, including the heart, lungs, kidney and the central nervous system. In this review, we will discuss the role of the APR in burns with a specific focus on complement.

α-Gal Nanoparticles in Wound and Burn Healing Acceleration

Significance: Rapid recruitment and activation of macrophages may accelerate wound healing. Such accelerated healing was observed in wounds and burns of experimental animals treated with α-gal nanoparticles. Recent Advances: α-Gal nanoparticles present multiple α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R). α-Gal nanoparticles applied to wounds bind anti-Gal (the most abundant antibody in humans) and generate chemotactic complement peptides, which rapidly recruit macrophages. Fc/Fc receptor interaction between anti-Gal coating the α-gal nanoparticles and recruited macrophages activates macrophages to produce cytokines that accelerate healing. α-Gal nanoparticles applied to burns and wounds in mice and pigs producing anti-Gal, decreased healing time by 40-60%. In mice, this accelerated healing avoided scar formation. α-Gal nanoparticle-treated wounds, in diabetic mice producing anti-Gal, healed within 12 days, whereas saline-treated wounds became chronic wounds. α-Gal nanoparticles are stable for years and may be applied dried, in suspension, aerosol, ointments, or within biodegradable materials. Critical Issues: α-Gal nanoparticle therapy can be evaluated only in mammalian models producing anti-Gal, including α1,3-galactosyltransferase knockout mice and pigs or Old World primates. Traditional experimental animal models synthesize α-gal epitopes and lack anti-Gal. Future Directions: Since anti-Gal is naturally produced in all humans, it is of interest to determine safety and efficacy of α-gal nanoparticles in accelerating wound and burn healing in healthy individuals and in patients with impaired wound healing such as diabetic patients and elderly individuals. In addition, efficacy of α-gal nanoparticle therapy should be studied in healing and regeneration of internal injuries such as surgical incisions, ischemic myocardium following myocardial infarction, and injured nerves.

Induced Remodeling of Porcine Tendons to Human Anterior Cruciate Ligaments by α-GAL Epitope Removal and Partial Cross-Linking

This review describes a novel method developed for processing porcine tendon and other ligament implants that enables in situ remodeling into autologous ligaments in humans. The method differs from methods using extracellular matrices (ECMs) that provide postoperative orthobiological support (i.e., augmentation grafts) for healing of injured ligaments, in that the porcine bone-patellar-tendon-bone itself serves as the graft replacing ruptured anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). The method allows for gradual remodeling of porcine tendon into autologous human ACL while maintaining the biomechanical integrity. The method was first evaluated in a preclinical model of monkeys and subsequently in patients. The method overcomes detrimental effects of the natural anti-Gal antibody and harnesses anti-non-gal antibodies for the remodeling process in two steps: Step 1. Elimination of α-gal epitopes—this epitope that is abundant in pigs (as in other nonprimate mammals) binds the natural anti-Gal antibody, which is the most abundant natural antibody in humans. This interaction, which can induce fast resorption of the porcine implant, is avoided by enzymatic elimination of α-gal epitopes from the implant with recombinant α-galactosidase. Step 2. Partial cross-linking of porcine tendon with glutaraldehyde—this cross-linking generates covalent bonds in the ECM, which slow infiltration of macrophages into the implant. Anti-non-gal antibodies are produced in recipients against the multiple porcine antigenic proteins and proteoglycans because of sequence differences between human and porcine homologous proteins. Anti-non-gal antibodies bind to the implant ECM, recruit macrophages, and induce the implant destruction by directing proteolytic activity of macrophages. Partial cross-linking of the tendon ECM decreases the extent of macrophage infiltration and degradation of the implant and enables concomitant infiltration of fibroblasts that follow the infiltrating macrophages. These fibroblasts align with the implant collagen fibers and secrete their own collagen and other ECM proteins, which gradually remodel the porcine tendon into human ACL. This ligamentization process lasts ∼2 years and the biomechanical integrity of the graft is maintained throughout the whole period. These studies are the first, and so far the only, to demonstrate remodeling of porcine tendon implants into permanently functional autologous ACL in humans.

Decellularization and Characterization of Porcine Superflexor Tendon: A Potential Anterior Cruciate Ligament Replacement

The porcine superflexor tendon (SFT) was identified as having appropriate structure and properties for development of a decellularized device for use in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. SFTs were decellularized using a combination of freeze-thaw and washes in hypotonic buffer and 0.1% (w/v) sodium dodecyl sulfate in hypotonic buffer plus proteinase inhibitors, followed by nuclease treatment and sterilization using peracetic acid. The decellularized biological scaffold was devoid of cells and cell remnants and contained only 13 ng/mg (dry weight) residual total DNA. Immunohistochemistry showed retention of collagen type I and III and tenascin-C. Quantitative analysis of sulfated sugar and hydroxyproline content revealed a loss of glycosaminoglycans compared with native tissue, but no loss of collagen. The decellularized SFT was biocompatible in vitro and in vivo following implantation in a mouse subcutaneous model for 12 weeks. Uniaxial tensile testing to failure indicated that the gross material properties of decellularized SFTs were not significantly different to native tissue. Decellularized SFTs had an ultimate tensile strength of 61.8 ± 10.3 MPa (±95% confidence limits), a failure strain of 0.29 ± 0.04, and a Young's modulus of the collagen phase of 294.1 ± 61.9 MPa. Analysis of the presence of the α-Gal (galactose-α-1,3-galactose) epitope by immunohistochemistry, lectin binding, and antibody absorption assay indicated that the epitope was reduced, but still present post decellularization. This is discussed in light of the potential role of noncellular α-Gal in the acceleration of wound healing and tissue regeneration in the presence of antibodies to α-Gal.

Natural anti-carbohydrate antibodies contributing to evolutionary survival of primates in viral epidemics?

Humans produce multiple natural antibodies against carbohydrate antigens on gastrointestinal bacteria. Two such antibodies appeared in primates in recent geological times. Anti-Gal, abundant in humans, apes and Old-World monkeys, appeared 20-30 million years ago (mya) following inactivation of the α1,3GT gene (GGTA1). This gene encodes in other mammals the enzyme α1,3galactosyltransferase (α1,3GT) that synthesizes α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R) which bind anti-Gal. Anti-Neu5Gc, found only in humans, appeared in hominins <6 mya, following elimination of N-glycolylneuraminic-acid (Neu5Gc) because of inactivation of CMAH, the gene encoding hydroxylase that converts N-acetylneuraminic-acid (Neu5Ac) into Neu5Gc. These antibodies, were initially produced in few individuals that acquired random mutations inactivating the corresponding genes and eliminating α-gal epitopes or Neu5Gc, which became nonself antigens. It is suggested that these evolutionary selection events were induced by epidemics of enveloped viruses, lethal to ancestral Old World primates or hominins. Such viruses presented α-gal epitopes or Neu5Gc, synthesized in primates that conserved active GGTA1 or CMAH, respectively, and were lethal to their hosts. The natural anti-Gal or anti-Neu5Gc antibodies, produced in offspring lacking the corresponding carbohydrate antigens, neutralized and destroyed viruses presenting α-gal epitopes or Neu5Gc. These antibodies further induced rapid, effective immune responses against virus antigens, thus preventing infections from reaching lethal stages. These epidemics ultimately resulted in extinction of primate populations synthesizing these carbohydrate antigens and their replacement with offspring populations lacking the antigens and producing protective antibodies against them. Similar events could mediate the elimination of various carbohydrate antigens, thus preventing the complete extinction of other vertebrate species.

Inhalation of α-gal/sialic acid liposomes: a novel approach for inhibition of influenza virus infection?

Effective inhibition of influenza virus infection in symptomatic patients may be feasible by inhalation of aerosol-containing liposomes presenting α-gal epitopes and sialic acid epitopes. The virus binds to sialic acid epitopes and the natural anti-Gal antibody binds to α-gal epitopes on the liposomes and activates the complement system to generate chemotactic peptides that recruit macrophages. These macrophages bind and internalize via their Fc receptors, anti-Gal-coated liposomes and the influenza virus bound to them, process the viral antigens and transport them to the regional lymph nodes for eliciting a rapid, protective immune response that prevents progression of the virus infection.

Exogenous pulmonary surfactant prevents the development of intra-abdominal adhesions in rats

Intra-abdominal adhesions are major post-operative complications for which no effective means of prevention is available. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of exogenous pulmonary surfactant administration in the prevention of post-operative abdominal adhesions. Rats were randomly assigned to undergo laparotomy (L) or gastroenterostomy (GE) and then treated with surfactant (groups L-S and GE-S, respectively). Intra-abdominal adhesions, collagen fibre content, metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, expression of growth factors (TGF-β, KGF and VEGF), type III procollagen (PCIII) and pro-caspase 3, as well as isolectin B4 and ED1-positive cells expressing MMP-9, were evaluated. Groups treated with surfactant (GE-S and L-S) exhibited fewer adhesions. A significant reduction in collagen fibre content was observed in GE-S compared to GE animals (P < 0.001). In situ and gelatin zymography analysis showed higher MMP-9 expression and activity in the GE-S group compared to the GE group (P < 0.05). ED1-positive cell counts were significantly higher in the GE-S group (P < 0.001) than in the GE group. Virtually all cells positive for ED1 were MMP-9+. Double-labelling of MMP-9 with IB4 showed no significant differences between GE-S and GE groups. TGF-β, KGF, PCIII and pro-caspase-3 mRNA expression decreased significantly in GE-S compared to GE animals (P < 0.05). Surfactant administration also reduced apoptosis in the GE-S group. These findings suggest that surfactant reduces the intra-abdominal adhesions triggered by laparotomy and gastrointestinal anastomosis, thus preventing fibrosis formation at the peritoneal surfaces. This preclinical study suggests an innovative treatment strategy for intra-abdominal adhesions with surfactant and to endorse its putative mechanism of action.

Characteristics of α-Gal epitope, anti-Gal antibody, α1,3 galactosyltransferase and its clinical exploitation (Review)

The α-Gal epitope (Galα1,3Galα1,4GlcNAc-R) is ubiquitously presented in non-primate mammals, marsupials and New World Monkeys, but it is absent in humans, apes and Old World monkeys. However, the anti-Gal antibody (~1% of immunoglobulins) is naturally generated in human, and is found as the immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM and IgA isotypes. Owing to the specific binding of the anti-Gal antibody with the α-Gal epitope, humans have a distinct anti-α-gal reactivity, which is responsible for hyperacute rejection of organs transplanted from α-gal donors. In addition, the α1,3 galactosyltransferases (α1,3GT) can catalyze the synthesis of the α-Gal epitope. Therefore, the α1,3GT gene, which encodes the α1,3GT, is developed profoundly. The distributions of the α-Gal epitope and anti-Gal antibody, and the activation of α1,3GT, reveal that the enzyme of α1,3GT in ancestral primates is ineffective. Comparison of the nucleotide sequence of the human α1,3-GT pseudogene to the corresponding different species sequence, and according to the evolutionary tree of different species, the results of evolutionary inactivation of the α1,3GT gene in ancestral primates attribute to the mutations under a stronger selective pressure. However, on the basis of the structure, the mechanism and the specificity of the α-Gal epitope and anti-Gal antibody, they can be applied to clinical exploitation. Knocking out the α1,3GT gene will eliminate the xenoantigen, Gal(α1,3)Gal, so that the transplantation of α1,3GT gene knockout pig organ into human becomes a potential clinically acceptable treatment for solving the problem of organ shortage. By contrast, the α-Gal epitope expressed through the application of chemical, biochemical and genetic engineering can be exploited for the clinical use. Targeting anti-Gal-mediated autologous tumor vaccines, which express α-Gal epitope to antigen-presenting cells, would increase their immunogenicity and elicit an immune response, which will be potent enough to eradicate the residual tumor cells. For tumor vaccines, the way of increasing immunogenicity of certain viral vaccines, including flu vaccines and human immunodeficiency virus vaccines, can also be used in the elderly. Recently, α-Gal epitope nanoparticles have been applied to accelerate wound healing and further directions on regeneration of internally injured tissues.

Nanomaterials for wound healing: scope and advancement

Innovative methods for treating impaired and hard-to-heal wounds are needed. Novel strategies are needed for faster healing by reducing infection, moisturizing the wound, stimulating the healing mechanisms, speeding up the wound closure and reducing scar formation. In the past few years, nanotechnology has been constantly revolutionizing the treatment and management of wound care, by offering novel solutions which include but are not limited to: state-of-the-art materials, so called 'smart' biomaterials and theranostic nanoparticles. Nanotechnology-based therapy has recently announced itself as a possible next-generation therapy that is able to advance wound healing to cure chronic wounds. In this communication, the recent progress in advanced therapy for cutaneous wound healing during last 5 years using a nanotechnology-based approach is summarized.

Acceleration of wound healing by α-gal nanoparticles interacting with the natural anti-Gal antibody

Application of α-gal nanoparticles to wounds and burns induces accelerated healing by harnessing the natural anti-Gal antibody which constitutes ~1% of human immunoglobulins. α-gal nanoparticles present multiple α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R), the carbohydrate ligand of anti-Gal. Studied α-gal nanoparticles were comprised of glycolipids with α-gal epitopes, phospholipids, and cholesterol. Binding of anti-Gal to α-gal nanoparticles in wounds activates the complement cascade, resulting in formation of chemotactic complement cleavage peptides that induce rapid recruitment of many macrophages. The Fc/Fcγ receptors interaction between anti-Gal coating α-gal nanoparticles and the recruited macrophages activates macrophages to produce cytokines/growth factors that promote wound healing and recruit stem cells. Studies of wound healing by α-gal nanoparticles were feasible in α1,3galactosyltransferase knockout mice and pigs. In contrast to other nonprimate mammals, these mice and pigs lack the α-gal epitope, and thus they are not immunotolerant to it and produce anti-Gal. Treatment of skin wounds and burns with α-gal nanoparticles resulted in 40-60% decrease in healing time in comparison with control wounds treated with saline. This accelerated healing is associated with increased recruitment of macrophages and extensive angiogenesis in wounds, faster regrowth of epidermis, and regeneration of the dermis. The accelerated healing further decreases and may completely eliminate fibrosis and scar formation in wounds. Since healing of internal injuries is mediated by mechanisms similar to those in external wound healing, it is suggested that α-gal nanoparticles treatment may also improve regeneration and restoration of biological function following internal injuries such as surgical incisions, myocardial ischemia following infarction, and nerve injuries.

Wound administration of M2-polarized macrophages does not improve murine cutaneous healing responses

Macrophages play a crucial role in all stages of cutaneous wound healing responses and dysregulation of macrophage function can result in derailed wound repair. The phenotype of macrophages is influenced by the wound microenvironment and evolves during healing from a more pro-inflammatory (M1) profile in early stages, to a less inflammatory pro-healing (M2) phenotype in later stages of repair. The aim of the current study was to investigate the potential of exogenous administration of M2 macrophages to promote wound healing in an experimental mouse model of cutaneous injury. Bone marrow derived macrophages were stimulated in-vitro with IL-4 or IL-10 to obtain two different subsets of M2-polarized cells, M2a or M2c respectively. Polarized macrophages were injected into full-thickness excisional skin wounds of either C57BL/6 or diabetic db/db mice. Control groups were injected with non-polarized (M0) macrophages or saline. Our data indicate that despite M2 macrophages exhibit an anti-inflammatory phenotype in-vitro, they do not improve wound closure in wild type mice while they delay healing in diabetic mice. Examination of wounds on day 15 post-injury indicated delayed re-epithelialization and persistence of neutrophils in M2 macrophage treated diabetic wounds. Therefore, topical application of ex-vivo generated M2 macrophages is not beneficial and contraindicated for cell therapy of skin wounds.

Plasma anti-α-galactoside antibody binds to serine- and threonine-rich peptide sequence of apo(a) subunit in Lp(a)

Lipoprotein(a) immune complexes [Lp(a) IC] of varying particle density obtained by ultracentrifugation of plasma from normal healthy donors were markedly dominated by IgG. Lp(a) and immunoglobulins were liberated from plasma Lp(a) IC by treatment with melibiose, a sugar specific for circulating anti-α-galactoside antibody (anti-Gal). Upon incubation with plasma lipoprotein fraction anti-Gal but not the α-glucoside-specific antibody from human plasma formed de novo IC with Lp(a). Binding of Lp(a) sugar-reversibly enhanced the fluorescence of FITC-labeled anti-Gal as did binding of α-galactoside-containing glycoproteins. This effect apparently due to conformational shift in the Fc region of the antibody was also produced by apo(a) subunit separated from Lp(a) and de-O-glycosylated apo(a) but not by any other plasma lipoproteins or by Lp(a) pre-incubated with the O-glycan-specific lectin jacalin. O-Glycans and their terminal sialic acid moieties in apo(a) of circulating Lp(a)-anti-Gal IC, in contrast to those in pure Lp(a), were inaccessible to jacalin and anion exchange resin, respectively. Unlike other plasma lipoproteins, Lp(a) inhibited Griffonia simplicifolia isolectin B4 which also accommodates serine- and threonine-rich peptide sequence (STPS) as surrogate ligand to α-galactosides at its binding site. Results suggest that anti-Gal recognizes STPS in the O-glycan-rich regions of apo(a) subunit in Lp(a) which contains no α-linked galactose.

Glycans in immune recognition and response

Glycans at the forefront of cells facilitate immune recognition processes. Cancer cells commonly present altered cell surface glycosylation, especially manifested in the expression of sialic acid at the termini of glycolipids and glycoproteins. Although tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACAs) result in expression of altered-self, most such carbohydrates do not elicit strong humoral responses. Various strategies had been devised to elicit increased immunogenicity of such TACA aiming for potent immunotherapeutic antibodies or cancer vaccines. However some carbohydrates are immunogenic in humans and hold potential for novel glycotherapies. N-Glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) is a foreign immunogenic sugar in humans originating from the diet (e.g., red meat) and subsequently expressed on the cell surface, especially accumulating on carcinoma. Consequently, the human immune system detects this non-self carbohydrate generating a broad anti-Neu5Gc antibody response. The co-existence of Neu5Gc/anti-Neu5Gc within humans spurs chronic inflammation mediated disease, including cancer. Concurrently, anti-Neu5Gc antibodies hold potential for novel targeted therapy. αGal is another foreign immunogenic carbohydrate antigen in humans and all humans have circulating anti-Gal antibodies. This review aims to describe the immunogenicity of Neu5Gc and its implications for human diseases, highlighting differences and similarities with αGal and its potential for novel targeted theranostics.

Anti-Gal: an abundant human natural antibody of multiple pathogeneses and clinical benefits

Anti-Gal is the most abundant natural antibody in humans, constituting ~ 1% of immunoglobulins. Anti-Gal is naturally produced also in apes and Old World monkeys. The ligand of anti-Gal is a carbohydrate antigen called the 'α-gal epitope' with the structure Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R. The α-gal epitope is present as a major carbohydrate antigen in non-primate mammals, prosimians and New World monkeys. Anti-Gal can contributes to several immunological pathogeneses. Anti-Gal IgE produced in some individuals causes allergies to meat and to the therapeutic monoclonal antibody cetuximab, all presenting α-gal epitopes. Aberrant expression of the α-gal epitope or of antigens mimicking it in humans may result in autoimmune processes, as in Graves' disease. α-Gal epitopes produced by Trypanosoma cruzi interact with anti-Gal and induce 'autoimmune like' inflammatory reactions in Chagas' disease. Anti-Gal IgM and IgG further mediate rejection of xenografts expressing α-gal epitopes. Because of its abundance, anti-Gal may be exploited for various clinical uses. It increases immunogenicity of microbial vaccines (e.g. influenza vaccine) presenting α-gal epitopes by targeting them for effective uptake by antigen-presenting cells. Tumour lesions are converted into vaccines against autologous tumour-associated antigens by intra-tumoral injection of α-gal glycolipids, which insert into tumour cell membranes. Anti-Gal binding to α-gal epitopes on tumour cells targets them for uptake by antigen-presenting cells. Accelerated wound healing is achieved by application of α-gal nanoparticles, which bind anti-Gal, activate complement, and recruit and activate macrophages that induce tissue regeneration. This therapy may be of further significance in regeneration of internally injured tissues such as ischaemic myocardium and injured nerves.

Human plasma anti-α-galactoside antibody forms immune complex with autologous lipoprotein(a)

Anti-α-galactoside antibody (anti-Gal) from human plasma that bound to α-galactoside-bearing guar galactomannan gel and was eluted with specific sugar (affinity-purified anti-Gal ; APAG) invariably contained apo(a) and apo B subunits in a proportion close to that in plasma lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)]. Since LDL does not contain apo(a), result suggested Lp(a) as a component of APAG. Lp(a) in APAG was complexed with anti-Gal since plate-coated anti-apo(a) captured Lp(a) along with the antibody. Association of Lp(a) with anti-Gal in APAG was considerably lower in presence of anti-Gal-specific sugar, suggesting that Lp(a) occupied the sugar-binding site of anti-Gal. Content of Lp(a)-bound anti-Gal in APAG, though a minor fraction of total antibody, increased steadily with total Lp(a) content of plasma. Further, Lp(a) released from immune complex-rich fraction of plasma by anti-Gal- specific sugar was proportional to total plasma Lp(a). Anti-Gal titre decreased with increasing Lp(a) concentration among 114 plasma samples. Results indicate the potential of anti-Gal molecules with its binding site partially occupied by Lp(a) molecule(s) to a) use the remaining binding site(s) to recognize other macromolecules or cells and b) transport Lp(a) across Fc receptor-bearing cells.

Discovery of the natural anti-Gal antibody and its past and future relevance to medicine

This is a personal account of the discovery of the natural anti-Gal antibody, the most abundant natural antibody in humans, the reciprocal distribution of this antibody and its ligand the α-gal epitope in mammals and the immunological barrier this antibody has formed in porcine to human xenotransplantation. This barrier has been overcome in the recent decade with the generation of α1,3-galactosyltransferase gene-knockout pigs. However, anti-Gal continues to be relevant in medicine as it can be harnessed for various therapeutic effects. Anti-Gal converts tumor lesions injected with α-gal glycolipids into vaccines that elicit a protective anti-tumor immune response by in situ targeting of tumor cells for uptake by antigen-presenting cells. This antibody further accelerates wound and burn healing by interaction with α-gal nanoparticles applied to injured areas and induction of rapid recruitment and activation of macrophages. Anti-Gal/α-gal nanoparticle immune complexes may further induce rapid recruitment and activation of macrophages in ischemic myocardium and injured nerves, thereby inducing tissue regeneration and prevention of fibrosis.

Conversion of tumors into autologous vaccines by intratumoral injection of α-Gal glycolipids that induce anti-Gal/α-Gal epitope interaction

Anti-Gal is the most abundant antibody in humans, constituting 1% of immunoglobulins. Anti-Gal binds specifically α-gal epitopes (Galα1-3Galβ1-4GlcNAc-R). Immunogenicity of autologous tumor associated antigens (TAA) is greatly increased by manipulating tumor cells to express α-gal epitopes and bind anti-Gal. Glycolipids with αgal epitopes (α-gal glycolipids) injected into tumors insert into the tumor cell membrane. Anti-Gal binding to the multiple α-gal epitopes de novo presented on the tumor cells results in targeting of these cells to APC via the interaction between the Fc portion of the bound anti-Gal and Fcγ; receptors on APC. The APC process and present immunogenic TAA peptides and thus, effectively activate tumor specific CD4+ helper T cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells which destroy tumor cells in micrometastases. The induced immune response is potent enough to overcome immunosuppression by Treg cells. A phase I clinical trial indicated that α-gal glycolipid treatment has no adverse effects. In addition to achieving destruction of micrometastases in cancer patients with advance disease, α-gal glycolipid treatment may be effective as neo-adjuvant immunotherapy. Injection of α-gal glycolipids into primary tumors few weeks prior to resection can induce a protective immune response capable of destroying micrometastases expressing autologous TAA, long after primary tumor resection.

2nd Charles Richet et Jules Héricourt workshop: therapeutic antibodies and anaphylaxis; May 31-June 1, 2011, Tours, France

The Charles Richet and Jules Héricourt workshops honor the memory of Jules Héricourt (1850-1938) and Charles Richet (1850-1935) who described the principle of serotherapy in 1888 and made the very first attempts to fight cancer with serotherapy in 1895. In 1902, Charles Richet and Paul Portier described "anaphylaxis," a discovery awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913. The first workshop, "Towards the clinical use of mAbs with higher cytolytic efficacy in cancer" was held in Tours, France on November 20-21, 2008. The second Charles Richet and Jules Héricourt workshop, held May 31-June 1, 2011 at the University of Tours, France, was also organized by the Cancéropôle Grand Ouest. The topic of the workshop was therapeutic antibodies and anaphylaxis, a subject rarely addressed in congresses focused on monoclonal antibodies. To have discussions about mAb side effects with complete objectivity, the congress was organized independently of any sponsorship from pharmaceutical companies. This academic event was motivated by the high incidence of shocks to cetuximab and the need to compile and evaluate scattered information. This growing public health concern was thus analyzed from different scientific and medical angles. The first session was devoted to acute infusion reactions, with an emphasis on deconvolution of the terms "cytokine-release syndrome," "cytokine storms," "anaphylaxis" and their epidemiology. This session concluded with the Charles Richet lecture on cetuximab anaphylaxis and anti-αGal IgE by Thomas Platts-Mills, its discoverer. In the next session, the involvement of anti-glycan antibodies in both anaphylaxis and delayed hypersensitivity reactions to therapeutic antibodies was discussed. A gala dinner was held in the gardens of the beautiful château of Villandry, which was acquired and restored by Joachim Carvalho, a pupil of Charles Richet's and great-grandfather of the present owner. The final session focused on strategies to prevent cetuximab anaphylaxis in clinical practice included a variety of topics, e.g., premedication, biobetters and biosimilars, skin testing and predictive assays. All speakers and attendees enjoyed this very stimulating and rewarding meeting, which gathered many people with divergent scientific backgrounds and medical specialties.