Gammaherpesvirus Infection Stimulates Lung Tumor-Promoting Inflammation

Lung tumor-promoting environmental exposures and γherpesvirus infections are associated with Type 17 inflammation. To test the effect of γherpesvirus infection in promoting lung tumorigenesis, we infected mutant K-Ras-expressing (K-RasLA1) mice with the murine γherpesvirus MHV68 via oropharyngeal aspiration. After 7 weeks, the infected mice displayed a more than 2-fold increase in lung tumors relative to their K-RasLA1 uninfected littermates. Assessment of cytokines in the lung revealed that expression of Type 17 cytokines (Il-6, Cxcl1, Csf3) peaked at day 7 post-infection. These observations correlated with the post-infection appearance of known immune mediators of tumor promotion via IL-17A in the lungs of tumor-bearing mice. Surprisingly, Cd84, an immune cell marker mRNA, did not increase in MHV68-infected wild-type mice lacking lung tumors. Csf3 and Cxcl1 protein levels increased more in the lungs of infected K-RasLA1 mice relative to infected wild-type littermates. Flow cytometric and transcriptomic analyses indicated that the infected K-RasLA1 mice had increased Ly6Gdim/Ly6Chi immune cells in the lung relative to levels seen in uninfected control K-RasLA1 mice. Selective methylation of adenosines (m6A modification) in immune-cell-enriched mRNAs appeared to correlate with inflammatory infiltrates in the lung. These observations implicate γherpesvirus infection in lung tumor promotion and selective accumulation of immune cells in the lung that appears to be associated with m6A modification of mRNAs in those cells.

A common secretomic signature across epithelial cancers metastatic to the pleura supports IL-6 axis therapeutic targeting

Background

Many cancers metastasize to the pleura, resulting in effusions that cause dyspnea and discomfort. Regardless of the tissue of origin, pleural malignancies are aggressive and uniformly fatal, with no treatment shown to prolong life. The pleural mesothelial monolayer is joined by tight junctions forming a contained bioreactor-like space, concentrating cytokines and chemokines secreted by the mesothelium, tumor, and infiltrating immune cells. This space represents a unique environment that profoundly influences tumor and immune cell behavior. Defining the pleural secretome is an important step in the rational development localized intrapleural immunotherapy.

Method

We measured cytokine/chemokine content of 252 malignant pleural effusion (MPE) samples across multiple cancers using a 40-analyte panel and Luminex multiplexing technology.

Results

Eleven analytes were consistently present in concentrations ≥ 10.0 pM: CXCL10/IP10 (geometric mean = 672.3 pM), CCL2/MCP1 (562.9 pM), sIL-6Rα (403.1 pM), IL-6 (137.6 pM), CXCL1/GRO (80.3 pM), TGFβ1 (76.8 pM), CCL22/MDC (54.8 pM), CXCL8/IL-8 (29.2 pM), CCL11/Eotaxin (12.6 pM), IL-10 (11.3 pM), and G-CSF (11.0 pM). All are capable of mediating chemotaxis, promotion of epithelial to mesenchymal transition, or immunosuppression, and many of are reportedly downstream of a pro-inflammatory cytokine cascade mediated by cytokine IL-6 and its soluble receptor.

Conclusion

The data indicate high concentrations of several cytokines and chemokines across epithelial cancers metastatic to the pleura and support the contention that the pleural environment is the major factor responsible for the clinical course of MPE across cancer types. A sIL-6Rα to IL-6 molar ratio of 2.7 ensures that virtually all epithelial, immune and vascular endothelial cells in the pleural environment are affected by IL-6 signaling. The central role likely played by IL-6 in the pathogenesis of MPE argues in favor of a therapeutic approach targeting the IL-6/IL-6R axis.

Expression of immune regulatory factors, chemokines and growth factors in differentiated gastric cancer cells treated with an anticancer bioactive peptide combined with oxaliplatin

Gastric cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors of the digestive system. An anticancer bioactive peptide (ACBP) was previously shown to have an important role in inhibiting the differentiation of the MKN-45, N87 and GES-1 cell lines. However, to date, research on the effects of inflammatory factors in MKN-45, N87 and GES-1 cell lines after treatment with ACBP combined with oxaliplatin (OXA) has not been performed. To investigate the expression of immune regulatory factors, tumor growth factors and chemotactic factors in differentiated gastric cancer cells treated with ACBP combined with OXA, the expression of cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6-10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, Eotaxin, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon (IFN)-γ, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, IFN-γ-induced protein-10, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB, MIP-1β, regulated upon activation, normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted, TNF-α and VEGF, was assessed with cell experiments using the Bio-Plex ProT Human Cytokine 27-plex Assay. The results indicated that immune regulatory factor, tumor growth factor and chemotactic factor expression levels were different after treatment with ACBP alone or ACBP combined with OXA. IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-17, IL-9, IL-10, IL-15, bFGF, GM-CSF and PDGF-BB expression was decreased in MKN-45 and N87 cells after ACBP treatment (P<0.01) and ACBP+OXA treatment (P<0.01) compared with the control cells, which indicated that ACBP inhibited tumor growth by regulating these cytokines, and the combination treatment inhibited tumor growth by regulating these cytokines. MIP-1β, MCP-1 and IL-13 expression was decreased in MKN-45 and N87 cells after the combination treatment compared with ACBP treatment alone, which indicated that ACBP combined with OXA was able to inhibit tumor growth by regulating these cytokines, while the mechanism of action of the ACBP and OXA is actually different, e.g. for OXA, this would be to cause DNA damage response. Therefore, the ACBP and OXA combination treatment may be closely associated with tumor progression and metastasis with immunological competence by MCP-1, MIP-1β and IL-13 expression.

Deregulation of cytokine affecting oral neutrophil subsets in oral cancer

The most prevalent form of leukocytes in human blood, neutrophils, is regarded as an essential part of the innate immune system and the body's 1st line of defense against foreign invaders. However, divergent opinions arise on the role of neutrophils in cancer, likely due to the occurrence of many neutrophil subsets. Several factors in the tumor microenvironment were found to modify the phenotype and function of neutrophils. Inhibitory cytokine production and recruitment of protumor immune cells to the tumor microenvironment are the reasons for immune suppression. Although some salivary cytokines were found to be increased in cancer patient's saliva, simultaneously, it was observed that those cytokines are high in other oral inflammatory conditions. So, it is challenging to distinguish at what level of expression those cytokines are involved in the neoplastic process. Therefore, the goal of this study is to provide a summary of the current information about the existence and presence of specific cytokines that impact cPMN and TAN and their potential activities in the context of healthy and cancer states so that we can relate to oPMN.

Prokineticin System Is a Pharmacological Target to Counteract Pain and Its Comorbid Mood Alterations in an Osteoarthritis Murine Model

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent joint disease associated with chronic pain. OA pain is often accompanied by mood disorders. We addressed the role of the Prokineticin (PK) system in pain and mood alterations in a mice OA model induced with monosodium iodoacetate (MIA). The effect of a PK antagonist (PC1) was compared to that of diclofenac. C57BL/6J male mice injected with MIA in the knee joint were characterized by allodynia, motor deficits, and fatigue. Twenty-eight days after MIA, in the knee joint, we measured high mRNA of PK2 and its receptor PKR1, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and MMP13. At the same time, in the sciatic nerve and spinal cord, we found increased levels of PK2, PKR1, IL-1β, and IL-6. These changes were in the presence of high GFAP and CD11b mRNA in the sciatic nerve and GFAP in the spinal cord. OA mice were also characterized by anxiety, depression, and neuroinflammation in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. In both stations, we found increased pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, PK upregulation and reactive astrogliosis in the hippocampus and microglia reactivity in the prefrontal cortex were detected. PC1 reduced joint inflammation and neuroinflammation in PNS and CNS and counteracted OA pain and emotional disturbances.

Taxane chemotherapy induces stromal injury that leads to breast cancer dormancy escape

A major cause of cancer recurrence following chemotherapy is cancer dormancy escape. Taxane-based chemotherapy is standard of care in breast cancer treatment aimed at killing proliferating cancer cells. Here, we demonstrate that docetaxel injures stromal cells, which release protumor cytokines, IL-6 and granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), that in turn invoke dormant cancer outgrowth both in vitro and in vivo. Single-cell transcriptomics shows a reprogramming of awakened cancer cells including several survival cues such as stemness, chemoresistance in a tumor stromal organoid (TSO) model, as well as an altered tumor microenvironment (TME) with augmented protumor immune signaling in a syngeneic mouse breast cancer model. IL-6 plays a role in cancer cell proliferation, whereas G-CSF mediates tumor immunosuppression. Pathways and differential expression analyses confirmed MEK as the key regulatory molecule in cancer cell outgrowth and survival. Antibody targeting of protumor cytokines (IL-6, G-CSF) or inhibition of cytokine signaling via MEK/ERK pathway using selumetinib prior to docetaxel treatment prevented cancer dormancy outgrowth suggesting a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent cancer recurrence.

The Role of Cytokines in Neutrophil Development, Tissue Homing, Function and Plasticity in Health and Disease

Neutrophils are crucial innate immune cells and comprise 50-70% of the white blood cell population under homeostatic conditions. Upon infection and in cancer, blood neutrophil numbers significantly increase because of the secretion of various chemo- and cytokines by, e.g., leukocytes, pericytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells present in the inflamed tissue or in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The function of neutrophils in cancer has recently gained considerable attention, as they can exert both pro- and anti-tumorigenic functions, dependent on the cytokine milieu present in the TME. Here, we review the effect of cytokines on neutrophil development, tissue homing, function and plasticity in cancer and autoimmune diseases as well as under physiological conditions in the bone marrow, bloodstream and various organs like the spleen, kidney, liver, lung and lymph nodes. In addition, we address several promising therapeutic options, such as cytokine therapy, immunocytokines and immunotherapy, which aim to exploit the anti-tumorigenic potential of neutrophils in cancer treatment or block excessive neutrophil-mediated inflammation in autoimmune diseases.

Pseudorabies virus hijacks DDX3X, initiating an addictive "mad itch" and immune suppression, to facilitate viral spread

Infections with defined Herpesviruses, such as Pseudorabies virus (PRV) and Varicella zoster virus (VZV) can cause neuropathic itch, referred to as "mad itch" in multiple species. The underlying mechanisms involved in neuropathic "mad itch" are poorly understood. Here, we show that PRV infections hijack the RNA helicase DDX3X in sensory neurons to facilitate anterograde transport of the virus along axons. PRV induces re-localization of DDX3X from the cell body to the axons which ultimately leads to death of the infected sensory neurons. Inducible genetic ablation of Ddx3x in sensory neurons results in neuronal death and "mad itch" in mice. This neuropathic "mad itch" is propagated through activation of the opioid system making the animals "addicted to itch". Moreover, we show that PRV co-opts and diverts T cell development in the thymus via a sensory neuron-IL-6-hypothalamus-corticosterone stress pathway. Our data reveal how PRV, through regulation of DDX3X in sensory neurons, travels along axons and triggers neuropathic itch and immune deviations to initiate pathophysiological programs which facilitate its spread to enhance infectivity.

The imbalance of liver resident macrophages polarization promotes chronic autoimmune hepatitis development in mice

Background

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory liver disease. At present, it is largely unknown how the innate immune cells influence AIH development.

Objective

To inquiry about mechanism of liver resident macrophages in AIH development, thus offering a new direction for AIH targeted treatment.

Methods

The liver resident macrophages were eliminated by clodronate liposomes in AIH liver tissues, followed by HE and Picrosirius assay to detect liver fibrosis and lymphocyte infiltration. The liver resident macrophages polarization was detected by Immunohistochemistry and qPCR. The collagenase digestion was used to isolate Kupffer cells from AIH mice liver tissues and pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines were determined by qPCR.

Results

M2 macrophages were the dominant phenotype at early immune response stage and hepatic inflammation was progressively aggravated after depletion of liver resident macrophages. M2 macrophages could effectively delay the development of AIH and could be polarized to M1 macrophages at the disease progresses. TLR2 ligands could promote M2 macrophages producing anti-inflammatory cytokines, whereas TLR4 ligands could promote M1 macrophages producing proinflammatory cytokines. The change of TLR2 and TLR4 ligands could lead to continuous high expression of TLR4 and decreased expression of TLR2 in macrophages to further affect liver resident macrophages polarization state.

Conclusion

TLR2 and TLR4 ligands mediated liver resident macrophages polarization to favor chronic autoimmune hepatitis development.

Interplay between tumor-derived factors and tumor-associated neutrophils: opportunities for therapeutic interventions in cancer

Neutrophils have emerged as important players in the tumor microenvironment, largely attributed to their plasticity and heterogeneity. Evidence accumulated thus far indicates that neutrophils signaled by external cues can promote tumor progression via several mechanisms. Hence, in our quest to target tumor-associated neutrophils to improve treatment, understanding the mechanisms by which tumor-derived factors regulate neutrophils to gain pro-tumor functions and the feedback loop by which these neutrophils promote tumor progression is very crucial. Herein, we review the published data on how tumor-derived factors alter neutrophils phenotype to promote tumor progression with particular emphasis on immunosuppression, autophagy, angiogenesis, tumor proliferation, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance. These deeper insights could provide a wider view and novel therapeutic approach to neutrophil-targeted therapy in cancer.

Diverse Neutrophil Functions in Cancer and Promising Neutrophil-Based Cancer Therapies

Neutrophils represent the most abundant cell type of leukocytes in the human blood and have been considered a vital player in the innate immune system and the first line of defense against invading pathogens. Recently, several studies showed that neutrophils play an active role in the immune response during cancer development. They exhibited both pro-oncogenic and anti-tumor activities under the influence of various mediators in the tumor microenvironment. Neutrophils can be divided into several subpopulations, thus contradicting the traditional concept of neutrophils as a homogeneous population with a specific function in the innate immunity and opening new horizons for cancer therapy. Despite the promising achievements in this field, a full understanding of tumor-neutrophil interplay is currently lacking. In this review, we try to summarize the current view on neutrophil heterogeneity in cancer, discuss the different communication pathways between tumors and neutrophils, and focus on the implementation of these new findings to develop promising neutrophil-based cancer therapies.

Humanized anti-IL-26 monoclonal antibody as a novel targeted therapy for chronic graft-versus-host disease

IL-26 is a Th17 cytokine, with its gene being absent in rodents. To characterize the in vivo immunological effects of IL-26 in chronic systemic inflammation, we used human IL26 transgenic (hIL-26Tg) mice and human umbilical cord blood mononuclear cells (hCBMC) in mouse allogeneic-graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and chronic xenogeneic-GVHD model, respectively. Transfer of bone marrow and spleen T cells from hIL-26Tg mice into B10.BR mice resulted in GVHD progression, with clinical signs of tissue damage in multiple organs. IL-26 markedly increased neutrophil levels both in the GVHD-target tissues and peripheral blood. Expression levels of Th17 cytokines in hIL-26Tg mice-derived donor CD4 T cells were significantly increased, whereas IL-26 did not affect cytotoxic function of donor CD8 T cells. In addition, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels were particularly enhanced in hIL-26Tg mice. We also developed a humanized neutralizing anti-IL-26 monoclonal antibody (mAb) for therapeutic use, and its administration after onset of chronic xenogeneic-GVHD mitigated weight loss and prolonged survival, with preservation of graft-versus-leukemia effect. Taken together, our data elucidate the in vivo immunological effects of IL-26 in chronic GVHD models and suggest that a humanized anti-IL-26 mAb may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of chronic GVHD.

The role of neutrophil extracellular traps in cancer progression, metastasis and therapy

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) released by activated neutrophils typically consist of DNA-histone complexes and granule proteins. NETs were originally identified as a host defense system against foreign pathogens and are strongly associated with autoimmune diseases. However, a novel and predominant role of NETs in cancer is emerging. Increasing evidence has confirmed that many stimuli can facilitate NET formation in an NADPH oxidase (NOX)-dependent/NOX-independent manner. In cancer, NETs have been linked to cancer progression, metastasis, and cancer-associated thrombosis. In this review, we aimed to summarize the current available knowledge regarding NET formation and focused on the role of NETs in cancer biological behaviors. The potential target for cancer therapy will be further discussed.

Recent advances in conventional and unconventional vesicular secretion pathways in the tumor microenvironment

All cells in the changing tumor microenvironment (TME) need a class of checkpoints to regulate the balance among exocytosis, endocytosis, recycling and degradation. The vesicular trafficking and secretion pathways regulated by the small Rab GTPases and their effectors convey cell growth and migration signals and function as meditators of intercellular communication and molecular transfer. Recent advances suggest that Rab proteins govern conventional and unconventional vesicular secretion pathways by trafficking widely diverse cargoes and substrates in remodeling TME. The mechanisms underlying the regulation of conventional and unconventional vesicular secretion pathways, their action modes and impacts on the cancer and stromal cells have been the focus of much attention for the past two decades. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of vesicular secretion pathways in TME. We begin with an overview of the structure, regulation, substrate recognition and subcellular localization of vesicular secretion pathways. We then systematically discuss how the three fundamental vesicular secretion processes respond to extracellular cues in TME. These processes are the conventional protein secretion via the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus route and two types of unconventional protein secretion via extracellular vesicles and secretory autophagy. The latest advances and future directions in vesicular secretion-involved interplays between tumor cells, stromal cell and host immunity are also described.

Melanoma Stem Cells Educate Neutrophils to Support Cancer Progression

Simple Summary

In melanoma patients, poor prognosis often correlates with high presence of cancer-associated neutrophils, indicating that tumors can recruit these immune cells to specifically sustain their own development and progression. However, the role of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in this dialogue has not been elucidated yet. Our results revealed that melanoma SCs can reshape the immune microenvironment by triggering a pro-tumor N2 phenotype in neutrophils, which in turn are able to confer stemness properties to melanoma cells.

Abstract

Background: It is now well-established that cancer stem cells (CSCs) can support melanoma progression by reshaping the tumor immune microenvironment. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between melanoma SCs and cancer-associated neutrophils have not been elucidated yet. Methods: The aim of the present study was to unravel the role of melanoma SCs in neutrophil polarization. HL60 neutrophil-like (dHL60) cells were treated with conditioned medium from A375 melanoma SCs (CSC-CM), and their phenotype was investigated. Results: We demonstrated that CSC-CM could specifically activate immune cells by increasing CD66b and CD11b expression. In particular, we revealed that A375 CSCs could release various soluble factors, namely TGF-β, IL-6, and IL-8, able to promote the recruitment of neutrophils and their switch toward an N2 phenotype characterized by the activation of ERK, STAT3, and P38 pathways and the overexpression of CXCR2 and NF-kB. Moreover, after exposure to CSC-CM, dHL60 cells exhibited enhanced ROS production and NET release, without undergoing cell death; increased secretion of MMP-9 and pro-inflammatory cytokines was also observed. Finally, CSC-CM-activated neutrophils endowed A375 cells with stemness traits, stimulating both sphere formation and ABCG2 expression. Conclusion: Collectively, our results suggest that melanoma SCs can prime neutrophils to support cancer progression.

Machine learning predicts cancer subtypes and progression from blood immune signatures

Clinical adoption of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer management has highlighted the interconnection between carcinogenesis and the immune system. Immune cells are integral to the tumour microenvironment and can influence the outcome of therapies. Better understanding of an individual's immune landscape may play an important role in treatment personalisation. Peripheral blood is a readily accessible source of information to study an individual's immune landscape compared to more complex and invasive tumour bioipsies, and may hold immense diagnostic and prognostic potential. Identifying the critical components of these immune signatures in peripheral blood presents an attractive alternative to tumour biopsy-based immune phenotyping strategies. We used two syngeneic solid tumour models, a 4T1 breast cancer model and a CT26 colorectal cancer model, in a longitudinal study of the peripheral blood immune landscape. Our strategy combined two highly accessible approaches, blood leukocyte immune phenotyping and plasma soluble immune factor characterisation, to identify distinguishing immune signatures of the CT26 and 4T1 tumour models using machine learning. Myeloid cells, specifically neutrophils and PD-L1-expressing myeloid cells, were found to correlate with tumour size in both the models. Elevated levels of G-CSF, IL-6 and CXCL13, and B cell counts were associated with 4T1 growth, whereas CCL17, CXCL10, total myeloid cells, CCL2, IL-10, CXCL1, and Ly6Cintermediate monocytes were associated with CT26 tumour development. Peripheral blood appears to be an accessible means to interrogate tumour-dependent changes to the host immune landscape, and to identify blood immune phenotypes for future treatment stratification.

Lin28B-high breast cancer cells promote immune suppression in the lung pre-metastatic niche via exosomes and support cancer progression

The formation of pre-metastatic niche is a key step in the metastatic burden. The pluripotent factor Lin28B is frequently expressed in breast tumors and is particularly upregulated in the triple negative breast cancer subtype. Here, we demonstrate that Lin28B promotes lung metastasis of breast cancer by building an immune-suppressive pre-metastatic niche. Lin28B enables neutrophil recruitment and N2 conversion. The N2 neutrophils are then essential for immune suppression in pre-metastatic lung by PD-L2 up-regulation and a dysregulated cytokine milieu. We also identify that breast cancer-released exosomes with low let-7s are a prerequisite for Lin28B-induced immune suppression. Moreover, Lin28B-induced breast cancer stem cells are the main sources of low-let-7s exosomes. Clinical data further verify that high Lin28B and low let-7s in tumors are both indicators for poor prognosis and lung metastasis in breast cancer patients. Together, these data reveal a mechanism by which Lin28B directs the formation of an immune-suppressive pre-metastatic niche.

The establishment of a pre-metastatic niche is a key step preceding metastasis formation. Here the authors show that tumor-intrinsic Lin28B, a RNA-binding protein, has an essential role in the formation of an immune-suppressive pre-metastatic niche, promoting lung metastasis of breast cancer.

Optimal regulation of tumour-associated neutrophils in cancer progression

In a tumour microenvironment, tumour-associated neutrophils could display two opposing differential phenotypes: anti-tumour (N1) and pro-tumour (N2) effector cells. Converting N2 to N1 neutrophils provides innovative therapies for cancer treatment. In this study, a mathematical model for N1-N2 dynamics describing the cancer survival and immune inhibition in response to TGF-β and IFN-β is considered. The effects of exogenous intervention of TGF-β inhibitor and IFN-β are examined in order to enhance N1 recruitment to combat tumour progression. Our approach employs optimal control theory to determine drug infusion protocols that could minimize tumour volume with least administration cost possible. Four optimal control scenarios corresponding to different therapeutic strategies are explored, namely, TGF-β inhibitor control only, IFN-β control only, concomitant TGF-β inhibitor and IFN-β controls, and alternating TGF-β inhibitor and IFN-β controls. For each scheme, different initial conditions are varied to depict different pathophysiological condition of a cancer patient, leading to adaptive treatment schedule. TGF-β inhibitor and IFN-β drug dosages, total drug amount, infusion times and relative cost of drug administrations are obtained under various circumstances. The control strategies achieved could guide in designing individualized therapeutic protocols.

Anti-Fibrotic Effect of Synthetic Noncoding Oligodeoxynucleotide for Inhibiting mTOR and STAT3 via the Regulation of Autophagy in an Animal Model of Renal Injury

Renal fibrosis is a common process of various kidney diseases. Autophagy is an important cell biology process to maintain cellular homeostasis. In addition, autophagy is involved in the pathogenesis of various renal disease, including acute kidney injury, glomerular diseases, and renal fibrosis. However, the functional role of autophagy in renal fibrosis remains poorly unclear. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays a negative regulatory role in autophagy. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is an important intracellular signaling that may regulate a variety of inflammatory responses. In addition, STAT3 regulates autophagy in various cell types. Thus, we synthesized the mTOR/STAT3 oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) to regulate the autophagy. The aim of this study was to investigate the beneficial effect of mTOR/STAT3 ODN via the regulation of autophagy appearance on unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced renal fibrosis. This study showed that UUO induced inflammation, tubular atrophy, and tubular interstitial fibrosis. However, mTOR/STAT3 ODN suppressed UUO-induced renal fibrosis and inflammation. The autophagy markers have no statistically significant relation, whereas mTOR/STAT3 ODN suppressed the apoptosis in tubular cells. These results suggest the possibility of mTOR/STAT3 ODN for preventing renal fibrosis. However, the role of mTOR/STAT3 ODN on autophagy regulation needs to be further investigated.

The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Neutrophils, Angiogenesis, and Cancer

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from already existing vasculature, is tightly regulated by pro- and anti-angiogenic stimuli and occurs under both physiological and pathological conditions. Tumor angiogenesis is central for tumor development, and an “angiogenic switch” could be initiated by multiple immune cells, such as neutrophils. Tumor-associated neutrophils promote tumor angiogenesis by the release of both conventional and non-conventional pro-angiogenic factors. Therefore, neutrophil-mediated tumor angiogenesis should be taken into consideration in the design of novel anti-cancer therapy. This review recapitulates the complex role of neutrophils in tumor angiogenesis and summarizes neutrophil-derived pro-angiogenic factors and mechanisms regulating angiogenic activity of tumor-associated neutrophils. Moreover, it provides up-to-date information about neutrophil-targeting therapy, complementary to anti-angiogenic treatment.

Interplay between Prokineticins and Histone Demethylase KDM6A in a Murine Model of Bortezomib-Induced Neuropathy

Chemotherapy-induced neuropathy (CIN) is a major adverse effect associated with many chemotherapeutics, including bortezomib (BTZ). Several mechanisms are involved in CIN, and recently a role has been proposed for prokineticins (PKs), a chemokine family that induces proinflammatory/pro-algogen mediator release and drives the epigenetic control of genes involved in cellular differentiation. The present study evaluated the relationships between epigenetic mechanisms and PKs in a mice model of BTZ-induced painful neuropathy. To this end, spinal cord alterations of histone demethylase KDM6A, nuclear receptors PPARα/PPARγ, PK2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β were assessed in neuropathic mice treated with the PK receptors (PKRs) antagonist PC1. BTZ treatment promoted a precocious upregulation of KDM6A, PPARs, and IL-6, and a delayed increase of PK2 and IL-1β. PC1 counteracted allodynia and prevented the increase of PK2 and of IL-1β in BTZ neuropathic mice. The blockade of PKRs signaling also opposed to KDM6A increase and induced an upregulation of PPAR gene transcription. These data showed the involvement of epigenetic modulatory enzymes in spinal tissue phenomena associated with BTZ painful neuropathy and underline a role of PKs in sustaining the increase of proinflammatory cytokines and in exerting an inhibitory control on the expression of PPARs through the regulation of KDM6A gene expression in the spinal cord.

G-CSF and IL-6 may be involved in formation of endometriosis lesions by increasing the expression of angiogenic factors in neutrophils

Evidence accumulated in recent years has revealed that neutrophils are involved in the initial establishment of endometriosis, which is well-known as a chronic inflammatory disease. So far, why and how neutrophils promote the formation of early endometriosis are still unclear. In this study, using a mouse model of endometriosis, we demonstrated that endometriosis mice (EMs mice) had a significantly increased number of neutrophils in peritoneal fluids and lesions, and increased levels of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and IL-6 in serum and peritoneal fluids compared to the control group. In the neutrophils and uterine fragments co-injection experiment, neutrophils regulated by G-CSF and IL-6 had a similar effect to neutrophils from EMs mice, increasing the number, area, weight and microvessel density (MVD) of endometriotic lesions. Blocking the effect of G-CSF and IL-6 in EMs mice resulted in a decrease in the number, area and weight of endometriotic lesions. Following the depletion of neutrophils in vivo using a anti-Ly6G antibody, the MVD in the lesions of mice treated with neutrophils from EMs mice and neutrophils from pG/pI6 mice were significantly reduced. Neutrophils from EMs mice and neutrophils from pG/pI6 mice altered the expression levels of Mmp9, Bv8 and Trail genes compared to the neutrophils from PBS-treated mice. IL-6 together with G-CSF induced a higher expression of phospho-STAT3 and STAT3 in neutrophils. These findings suggest that neutrophils modulated by G-CSF and IL-6 through the STAT3 pathway alter the expression levels of the angiogenesis-related genes Mmp9, Bv8 and Trail, and may promote the establishment of early endometriosis.

Leveling Up the Controversial Role of Neutrophils in Cancer: When the Complexity Becomes Entangled

Neutrophils are the most abundant immune cell in the circulation of human and act as gatekeepers to discard foreign elements that have entered the body. They are essential in initiating immune responses for eliminating invaders, such as microorganisms and alien particles, as well as to act as immune surveyors of cancer cells, especially during the initial stages of carcinogenesis and for eliminating single metastatic cells in the circulation and in the premetastatic organs. Since neutrophils can secrete a whole range of factors stored in their many granules as well as produce reactive oxygen and nitrogen species upon stimulation, neutrophils may directly or indirectly affect carcinogenesis in both the positive and negative directions. An intricate crosstalk between tumor cells, neutrophils, other immune cells and stromal cells in the microenvironment modulates neutrophil function resulting in both anti- and pro-tumor activities. Both the anti-tumor and pro-tumor activities require chemoattraction towards the tumor cells, neutrophil activation and ROS production. Divergence is seen in other neutrophil properties, including differential secretory repertoire and membrane receptor display. Many of the direct effects of neutrophils on tumor growth and metastases are dependent on tight neutrophil–tumor cell interactions. Among them, the neutrophil Mac-1 interaction with tumor ICAM-1 and the neutrophil L-selectin interaction with tumor-cell sialomucins were found to be involved in the neutrophil-mediated capturing of circulating tumor cells resulting in increased metastatic seeding. On the other hand, the anti-tumor function of neutrophils was found to rely on the interaction between tumor-surface-expressed receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and Cathepsin G expressed on the neutrophil surface. Intriguingly, these two molecules are also involved in the promotion of tumor growth and metastases. RAGE is upregulated during early inflammation-induced carcinogenesis and was found to be important for sustaining tumor growth and homing at metastatic sites. Cathepsin G was found to be essential for neutrophil-supported lung colonization of cancer cells. These data level up the complexity of the dual role of neutrophils in cancer.

Neutrophil expansion defines an immunoinhibitory peripheral and intratumoral inflammatory milieu in resected non-small cell lung cancer: a descriptive analysis of a prospectively immunoprofiled cohort

Background

The biological underpinnings of the prognostic and predictive significance of a relative neutrophilia in patients with non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) are undefined. We sought to comprehensively examine the relationships between circulating and intratumoral neutrophil populations and features of the immune contexture in patients undergoing NSCLC resection.

Methods

Preoperative soluble cytokine and angiogenic factors; tumor multiplex immunofluorescence; RNA, whole exome, and T-cell receptor sequencing; and flow cytometry were analyzed for relationships with populations of circulating (from complete blood counts) and intratumoral neutrophils (transcriptional signatures) in a prospectively enrolled resected NSCLC cohort (n=66). In a historical cohort (n=1524), preoperative circulating neutrophil and lymphocyte counts were analyzed for associations with overall survival (OS).

Results

Circulating neutrophil populations were positively correlated with increased tumor burden, and surgical tumor resection was followed by a subsequent reduction in peripheral neutrophil counts. Expansion of the circulating neutrophil compartment was associated with increased levels of pro-granulopoietic (IL-1β, IL-17A, TNFα, IL-6) and T_H2-associated (IL-5, IL-13) cytokines. Tumors with high intratumoral neutrophil burden were marked by a blunted T-cell response characterized by reduced expression of cytotoxic T-cell genes (CD8A, CD8B, GZMA, GZMB), decreased CD3⁺CD8⁺ cell infiltration, and diminished expression of IFNγ-related genes. The associations between increased intratumoral neutrophil burden and reduced CD3⁺CD8⁺ infiltration persisted after adjustment for tumor size, histology, mutational burden, and PD-L1 expression. In 1524 patients, elevated preoperative circulating neutrophil count was independently associated with worse OS (main effect HR 1.82, 95% CI 1.24 to 2.68, p=0.002).

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrate that neutrophil expansion reflects protumorigenic and immunosuppressive processes that manifest as worse OS in patients undergoing NSCLC resection. These results justify further investigation of therapeutic strategies targeting neutrophil-associated immune evasion.

Systemic Inflammation after Uniport, Multiport, or Hybrid VATS Lobectomy for Lung Cancer

BACKGROUND

 Different video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) approaches can be adopted to perform lobectomy for non-small cell lung cancer. Given the hypothetical link existing between postoperative inflammation and long-term outcomes, we compared the dynamics of systemic inflammation markers after VATS lobectomy performed with uniportal access (UNIVATS), multiportal access (MVATS), or hybrid approach (minimally invasive hybrid open surgery, MIHOS).

METHODS

 Peripheral blood-derived inflammation markers (neutrophil-to-lymphocyte [NTL] ratio, platelet-to-lymphocyte [PTL] ratio, and systemic immune-inflammation index [SII]) were measured preoperatively and until postoperative day 5 in 109 patients undergoing UNIVATS, MVATS, or MIHOS lobectomy. Differences were compared through repeated-measure analysis of variance, before and after 1:1:1 propensity score matching. Time-to-event analysis was also done by measuring time to NTL normalization, based on the reliability change index for each patient.

RESULTS

 After UNIVATS, there was a faster decrease in NTL ratio (p = 0.015) and SII (p = 0.019) compared with other approaches. MVATS exhibited more pronounced PTL rebound (p = 0.011). However, all these differences disappeared in matched analysis. After MIHOS, NTL ratio normalization took longer (mean difference: 0.7 ± 0.2 days, p = 0.047), yet MIHOS was not independently associated with slower normalization at Cox's regression analysis (p = 0.255, odds ratio: 1.6, confidence interval: 0.7-4.0). Furthermore, surgical access was not associated with cumulative postoperative morbidity, nor was it with incidence of postoperative pneumonia.

CONCLUSION

 In this study, different VATS approaches resulted into unsubstantial differences in postoperative systemic inflammatory response, after adjusting for confounders. The majority of patients returned back to preoperative values by postoperative day 5 independently on the adopted surgical access. Further studies are needed to elaborate whether these small differences may still be relevant to patient management.

Stromal Neutrophil Extracellular Trap Density Is an Independent Prognostic Factor for Cervical Cancer Recurrence

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence indicates that the tumor microenvironment influences tumor progression and patient prognosis through various inflammatory cells. Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) and their functional structures termed neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are prominent constituents of several malignant tumors and affect the tumor microenvironment and cancer evolution. Here, we investigate the prognostic value of PMNs and NETs for recurrence in patients with cervical cancer.

METHODS

The study comprised 126 cervical cancer patients who were retrospectively enrolled. CD66b+ neutrophils and myeloperoxidase/citrullinated histone H3 (MPO/H3Cit)-labeled NETs were assessed by immunofluorescence, and the relationships with clinical and histopathologic features and patient outcome were evaluated.

RESULTS

The highest density of CD66b+ neutrophils were observed in the stromal compartment (median 55 cells/mm2). Above median densities of stromal CD66b+ neutrophils and NETs were significantly associated with short recurrence-free survival (RFS) (P = 0.041 and P = 0.006, respectively). Multivariate analysis identified high clinical stage (hazard ratio [HR] 6.40; 95% confidence interval [CI] 3.51-11.64; P < 0.001), lymph node metastases (HR 4.69; 95% CI 3.09-9.66; P = 0.006) and high density of NETs (HR 2.66; 95% CI 1.21-5.82; P = 0.015) as independent prognostic factors for short RFS, whereas a high density of CD66b+ neutrophils was not significant. Patients with a high NET density showed worse recurrence status in every stage, but the difference was only significant for stage I (P = 0.042), not stages II, III, or IV (all P > 0.05). Combining stromal NET density and the tumor, nodes, metastasis (TNM) staging system had better prognostic accuracy for cervical cancer than the TNM staging system alone at five and six years respectively (P = 0.010 and P = 0.023).

CONCLUSION

Stromal NET density is an independent prognostic factor for RFS in cervical cancer. Combining NETs with the TNM staging system may further improve prognostic stratification.

Heterogeneous Myeloid Cells in Tumors

Accumulating studies highlight a critical role of myeloid cells in cancer biology and therapy. The myeloid cells constitute the major components of tumor microenvironment (TME). The most studied tumor-associated myeloid cells (TAMCs) include monocytes, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), dendritic cells (DCs), cancer-related circulating neutrophils, tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). These heterogenous myeloid cells perform pro-tumor or anti-tumor function, exerting complex and even opposing effects on all stages of tumor development, such as malignant clonal evolution, growth, survival, invasiveness, dissemination and metastasis of tumor cells. TAMCs also reshape TME and tumor vasculature to favor tumor development. The main function of these myeloid cells is to modulate the behavior of lymphocytes, forming immunostimulatory or immunosuppressive TME cues. In addition, TAMCs play a critical role in modulating the response to cancer therapy. Targeting TAMCs is vigorously tested as monotherapy or in combination with chemotherapy or immunotherapy. This review briefly introduces the TAMC subpopulations and their function in tumor cells, TME, angiogenesis, immunomodulation, and cancer therapy.

Tumors modulate fenestrated vascular beds and host endocrine status

Allograft and xenograft transplantation into a mouse host is frequently utilized to study cancer biology, tumor behavior, and response to treatment. Preclinical studies employing these models often focus solely upon the intra-tumoral effects of a given treatment, without consideration of systemic toxicity or tumor-host interaction, nor whether this latter relationship could modulate the toxicologic response to therapy. Here it is demonstrated that the implantation and growth of a range of human- and mouse-derived cell lines leads to structural vascular and, potentially, functional changes within peripheral endocrine tissues, a process that could conceivably ameliorate the severity of anti-angiogenic-induced fenestrated vessel attenuation. Observations suggest a multifactorial process, which may involve host- and tumor-derived cytokines/growth factors, and the liberation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Further investigation revealed a structurally comparable response to the administration of exogenous estrogen. These findings, in addition to providing insight into the development of clinical anti-angiogenic "adaptation," may be of significance within the "cancer-cachexia" and cancer-related anemia syndromes in man.

The Role of Marrow Microenvironment in the Growth and Development of Malignant Plasma Cells in Multiple Myeloma

The development and effectiveness of novel therapies in multiple myeloma have been established in large clinical trials. However, multiple myeloma remains an incurable malignancy despite significant therapeutic advances. Accumulating data have elucidated our understanding of the genetic background of the malignant plasma cells along with the role of the bone marrow microenvironment. Currently, the interaction among myeloma cells and the components of the microenvironment are considered crucial in multiple myeloma pathogenesis. Adhesion molecules, cytokines and the extracellular matrix play a critical role in the interplay among genetically transformed clonal plasma cells and stromal cells, leading to the proliferation, progression and survival of myeloma cells. In this review, we provide an overview of the multifaceted role of the bone marrow microenvironment in the growth and development of malignant plasma cells in multiple myeloma.

Strontium-doped gelatin scaffolds promote M2 macrophage switch and angiogenesis through modulating the polarization of neutrophils

The immune system mediates inflammation, vascularization and the first response to injuries or implanted biomaterials. Although the function of neutrophils in tissue repair has been extensively studied, its complete role in the tissue regeneration of biomaterials, specifically the resolution of inflammation and promotion of angiogenesis, is unclear. Here, we fabricate nanofibrous gelatin scaffolds containing 10% (w/w) strontium-hydroxyapatite (SrHA) via phase-separation methods to investigate Sr-mediated regulation of neutrophil polarization and, subsequently, the effects on angiogenesis and macrophage polarization. Compared with neutrophils cultured on pure gelatin or HA-incorporated gelatin scaffolds, neutrophils on SrHA-incorporated gelatin scaffolds show more N2 polarization in vitro and in vivo and significantly greater production of immunomodulatory and angiogenic factors. The Sr-induced immunomodulatory and proangiogenic functions of neutrophils are mediated through NF-κB pathway downregulation and increased STAT3 phosphorylation. Thus, neutrophils play a vital role in tissue engineering, and Sr-incorporated scaffolds efficiently promote neutrophil polarization to the N2 phenotype, enhancing resolution of inflammation and ultimately promoting angiogenesis and tissue regeneration. Thus, incorporation of neutrophils in analyses of the immune characteristics of scaffolds and the development of immunomodulatory biomaterials that can regulate neutrophils are novel and promising strategies in tissue engineering.

Emerging roles for myeloid immune cells in bone metastasis

Metastasis, especially bone metastasis, is a major cause of cancer-related deaths, which is associated with long-term pain due to skeletal-related events and poor quality of life. Tumor cells alter the bone microenvironment through aberrant activation of osteoclasts and osteoblasts which induces bone osteolysis and release of growth factors leading to cancer growth. Though this phenomenon has been well characterized, bone-targeted therapies have shown little improvement in patient survival. Recent evidence indicates a growing appreciation for the complex bone environment, in addition to bone-remodeling stromal cells, which includes an abundance of myeloid immune cells that can either protect against or contribute to the progression of the disease within the bone cavity. Additionally, myeloid cells are recruited into primary tumor sites, where they promote development of the pre-metastatic niche and also can regulate tumor progression within the tumor-bone microenvironment through a milieu of complex mechanisms and involving heterogeneous myeloid populations. In this review, we have highlighted the complex roles of myeloid immunity in bone metastasis and hope to bring attention to the potential of novel immunotherapeutic interventions for the elimination of bone metastasis.

Neutrophil-derived granule cargoes: paving the way for tumor growth and progression

Neutrophils are the key cells of our innate immune system mediating host defense via a range of effector functions including phagocytosis, degranulation, and NETosis. For this, they employ an arsenal of anti-microbial cargoes packed in their readily mobilizable granule subsets. Notably, the release of granule content is tightly regulated; however, under certain circumstances, their unregulated release can aggravate tissue damage and could be detrimental to the host. Several constituents of neutrophil granules have also been associated with various inflammatory diseases including cancer. In cancer setting, their excessive release may modulate tissue microenvironment which ultimately leads the way for tumor initiation, growth and metastasis. Neutrophils actively infiltrate within tumor tissues, wherein they show diverse phenotypic and functional heterogeneity. While most studies are focused at understanding the phenotypic heterogeneity of neutrophils, their functional heterogeneity, much of which is likely orchestrated by their granule cargoes, is beginning to emerge. Therefore, a better understanding of neutrophil granules and their cargoes will not only shed light on their diverse role in cancer but will also reveal them as novel therapeutic targets. This review provides an overview on existing knowledge of neutrophil granules and detailed insight into the pathological relevance of their cargoes in cancer. In addition, we also discuss the therapeutic approach for targeting neutrophils or their microenvironment in disease setting that will pave the way forward for future research.

Local and Systemic STAT3 and p65 NF-KappaB Expression as Progression Markers and Functional Targets for Patients With Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer, which main etiologic factor is Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection, continues to be a burden for public health systems in developing countries. Our laboratory has been working with the hypothesis that signals generated in the tumor microenvironment can modulate local and systemic immune responses. In this context, it would be reasonable to think that tumors create pro-tumoral bias in immune cells, even before they are recruited to the tumor microenvironment. To understand if and how signaling started in the tumor microenvironment can influence cells within the tumor and systemically, we investigated the expression of key proteins in signaling pathways important for cell proliferation, viability, immune responses and tolerance. Besides, we used detection of specific phosphorylated residues, which are indicative of activation for Akt, CREB, p65 NFκB, and STAT3. Our findings included the observation of a significant STAT3 expression increase and p65 NFκB decrease in circulating leukocytes in correlation with lesion grade. In light of those observations, we started investigating the result of the inhibition of STAT3 in a tumor experimental model. STAT3 inhibition impaired tumor growth, increased anti-tumor T cell responses and decreased the accumulation of myeloid cells in the spleen. The concomitant inhibition of NFκB partially reversed these effects. This study indicates that STAT3 and NFκB are involved in immunomodulatory tumor effects and STAT3 inhibition could be considered as therapy for patients with cervical cancer.

Distinct Tissue Damage and Microbial Cues Drive Neutrophil and Macrophage Recruitment to Thermal Injury

Tissue damage triggers a rapid innate immune response that mediates host defense. Previously we reported that thermal damage of the larval zebrafish fin disrupts collagen organization and induces a robust and potentially damaging innate immune response. The mechanisms that drive damaging versus protective neutrophil inflammation in interstitial tissues remain unclear. Here we identify distinct cues in the tissue microenvironment that differentially drive neutrophil and macrophage responses to sterile injury. Using live imaging, we found a motile zone for neutrophils, but not macrophages, in collagen-free regions and identified a specific role for interleukin-6 (IL-6) receptor signaling in neutrophil responses to thermal damage. IL-6 receptor mutants show impaired neutrophil recruitment to sterile thermal injury that was not present in tissues infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These findings identify distinct signaling networks during neutrophil recruitment to sterile and microbial damage cues and provide a framework to limit potentially damaging neutrophil inflammation.

Tumor-associated neutrophils suppress antitumor immunity of NK cells through the PD-L1/PD-1 axis

Studies have begun to emerge showing the protumor effects of tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) in tumorigenesis, which may involve dysfunction of NK cells. However, the mechanism through which these rebellious neutrophils modulate NK cell immunity in tumor-bearing state remains unclear. In the present study, we demonstrate that neutrophils can impair the cytotoxicity and infiltration capability of NK cells, and downregulate CCR1 resulting in the weakened infiltration capability of NK cells. Moreover, neutrophils can decrease the responsiveness of NK-activating receptors, NKp46 and NKG2D. Mechanistically, enhanced PD-L1 on neutrophils and PD-1 on NK cells, and subsequent PD-L1/PD-1 interactions were the main mechanisms determining the suppression of neutrophils in NK cell immunity. G-CSF/STAT3 pathway was responsible for PD-L1 upregulation on neutrophils, while IL-18 was essential for PD-1 enhancement on NK cells. The crosstalk between neutrophils and NK cells was cell-cell interaction-dependent. These findings suggest that neutrophils can suppress the antitumor immunity of NK cells in tumor-bearing status through the PD-L1/PD-1 axis, highlighting the importance of PD-L1/PD-1 in the inhibitory effect of neutrophils on NK cells. Targeting G-CSF/STAT3 and IL-18 signaling pathway may be potential strategies to inhibit residual tumor in tumor therapy.

Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) IRAK1 and STAT3 up-regulate synergistically the transcription of IL-10

In vertebrates, IL-10 is an anti-inflammatory factor that serves as a key inhibitory role in a wide range of immune responses. IRAK1 (IL-1 receptor-associated kinase 1), a key molecule in the inflammatory signal of IL-1R/TLR, plays an important pivotal role in regulating the autoimmunity of body. STAT3 (Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) activated by IRAK1 participates in inflammation, tumorigenesis, metabolic disorders and immune response. Under the stimulation of LPS, IRAK1 enters the nucleus to form a dimer with STAT3 and regulates the expression of IL-10. However, the relationship between fish IRAK1 and STAT3 has not been reported. To explain the anti-inflammation in fish, we amplified and identified the complete open reading frame of grass carp IRAK1 (CiIRAK1) and STAT3 (CiSTAT3) based on the existing sequences. The expression of CiIRAK1 and CiSTAT3 were up-regulated significantly under the stimulation of LPS. This result suggests that both CiIRAK1 and CiSTAT3 may be involved in LPS-induced TLR4 pathway. The subcellular localization experiment revealed that CiIRAK1 is distributed in cytoplasm and enters nucleus after LPS stimulation. CiSTAT3 is distributed in both cytoplasm and nucleus with or without LPS stimulation. Immunoprecipitation assay revealed that CiIRAK1 interacted with CiSTAT3 under LPS stimulation. However in absence of LPS stimulation, CiIRAK1 and CiSTAT3 cannot interact with each other. Subsequently, immunofluorescence colocalization experiment further proved the interaction of CiIRAK1 and CiSTAT3 in nucleus under LPS stimulation. The dual luciferase reporter assays indicated that the binding of CiIRAK1 and CiSTAT3 synergistically enhanced the activity of CiIL-10 promoter.

Expression of HIF-1α is a predictive marker of the efficacy of neoadjuvant chemotherapy for locally advanced cervical cancer

Platinum-based, arterial infusion chemotherapy as a neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) followed by hysterectomy may be efficient for the treatment of locally advanced cervical cancer and improve prognosis. It is important to predict whether the NACT would be effective before it is launched. Hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) is the master transcriptional regulator of the cellular response to altered oxygen concentration. HIF-1α protein expression is elevated in numerous human malignancies, contributes to poor disease outcome, and has been reported to induce tumorigenesis and chemoresistance. In the present study, patients with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage IIB-IIIB cervical cancer (n=59) between 2008 and 2014 were assessed for HIF-1α expression by immunohistochemistry. Tumor samples were obtained by biopsy before any treatment. A double-path chemotherapy regimen, paclitaxel (intravenous) plus cisplatin (intra-arterial injection into the uterine region), was used as NACT. The patients were then separated into two groups according to NACT response: One group comprised patients with NACT, for whom the response to treatment was efficient resulting in complete/partial remission of the tumor (CR + PR group; n=52), the other group contained patients with NACT, for whom the result of the treatment was a stable/progressive disease (SD + PD group; n=7). HIF-1α expression was tested in paraffin-embedded sections using immunohistochemistry. HIF-1α expression was significantly higher in the SD + PD group compared with the CR + PR group (P=0.029). The overall survival time was significantly longer in the CR + PR group compared with the SD + PD group (P<0.001). When the patients were divided into two groups based on HIF-1α expression levels. Low (weighted score ≤4, n=39) and high (weighted score ≥6, n=20) expression level groups; the low HIF-1α expression group was significantly more susceptible to NACT treatment (P=0.025). Cox hazard analysis revealed that a high level of HIF-1α expression and lymph node metastases were significant independent predictors of poor overall survival (P=0.025, HR=6.354; P=0.020, HR=6.909, respectively). These results indicated that the expression of HIF-1α may be able to predict the efficiency of NACT and may be considered an independent prognostic factor for stage IIB-IIIB cervical cancer.

Prognostic Analysis of Preoperative Inflammatory Biomarkers in Patients With Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the prognostic role of inflammatory biomarkers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.

METHODS

For this study, we enrolled 151 patients who had undergone surgery for laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. We assessed the preoperative neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR), monocyte to lymphocyte ratio (MLR), mean platelet volume, red cell distribution width, and alkaline phosphatase. The chi-square test, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, and Cox proportional hazards model were conducted on overall survival, progression-free survival, locoregional recurrence-free survival, and distant metastasis-free survival of patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.

RESULTS

Both Kaplan-Meier analysis and univariate analysis showed significant prognostic differences with age, laryngectomy methods, Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) staging, tumor location, NLR, PLR, MLR, and mean platelet volume. Multivariate analysis indicated that NLR (overall survival: hazard ratio [HR] = 3.02, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.28-7.10, P = .011), PLR (overall survival: HR = 0.33, 95% CI: 0.14-0.78, P = .011; progression-free survival: HR = 0.016,95% CI: 0.10-0.79, P = .016), and MLR (overall survival: HR = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.11-0.76, P = .012) were independent prognostic factors for 5-year survival. However, red cell distribution width and alkaline phosphatase had no significant difference in overall survival and progression-free survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative high NLR, PLR, and MLR were associated with poor prognosis. They were found to be effective and reliable inflammatory biomarkers for patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.

The Role of TRAIL/DRs in the Modulation of Immune Cells and Responses

Expression of TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis–inducing ligand) by immune cells can lead to the induction of apoptosis in tumor cells. However, it becomes increasingly clear that the interaction of TRAIL and its death receptors (DRs) can also directly impact immune cells and influence immune responses. Here, we review what is known about the role of TRAIL/DRs in immune cells and immune responses in general and in the tumor microenvironment in particular.

Ctenopharyngodon Idella STAT3 alleviates autophagy by up-regulating BCL-2 expression

In mammals, STAT3 (Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) plays an absolutely vital role in response to cytokines and growth factors. In mammals, IL-6/JAK/STAT3 pathway is closely linked to immune response and promotes cell proliferation, survival and metastasis. Some recent studies have already demonstrated that STAT3 regulates autophagy. As a downstream target gene of STAT3, Bcl-2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) not only participates in regulating apoptosis, but also responds to autophagy. STAT3 regulates autophagy through Bcl-2. In general, the generation of autophagy is always accompanied by the change of apoptosis, and the occurrence of apoptosis is often accompanied by the decreased of cell viability. In grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), LPS-induced autophagy is involved in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, only the relationship between autophagy and cytokines was illustrated, in which the signaling pathways were not discussed. In the present study, we found that the autophagy inducer, Tunicamycin (Tm), can induce C.Idella Kidney cells (CIK) autophagy. When the cells were incubated with the recombinant human IL-6 (rIL-6) for a short period of times, the mRNA expression level of C.Idella IL-6R and STAT3 were increased. At the same time, the number of GFP-LC3 puncta and the ratio of LC3-II/LC3-I were both decreased obviously in cells. It indicated that the rIL-6 can significantly alleviate autophagy induced by Tm. We speculated that CiSTAT3 may play a key role in the process. To confirm this hypothesis, we performed a rIL-6 activating CiSTAT3 assay. The result demonstrated that rIL-6 can induce CiSTAT3 to form homologous dimmer. The activated CiSTAT3 regulated the transcription activity of CiBcl-2, finally led to a decrease of autophagy. In addition, when cells were in the state of autophagy, apoptosis was increased and cell viability was decreased. When CiSTAT3 was activated, cell apoptosis weakened and cell viability was increased. The results suggest that CiSTAT3 plays an important role in maintaining the normal physiological process of cells.

Multiple Interactions Between Cancer Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment Modulate TRAIL Signaling: Implications for TRAIL Receptor Targeted Therapy

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) signaling is far more complex than initially anticipated and can lead to either anti- or protumorigenic effects, hampering the successful clinical use of therapeutic TRAIL receptor agonists. Cell autonomous resistance mechanisms have been identified in addition to paracrine factors that can modulate apoptosis sensitivity. The tumor microenvironment (TME), consisting of cellular and non-cellular components, is a source for multiple signals that are able to modulate TRAIL signaling in tumor and stromal cells. Particularly immune effector cells, also part of the TME, employ the TRAIL/TRAIL-R system whereby cell surface expressed TRAIL can activate apoptosis via TRAIL receptors on tumor cells, which is part of tumor immune surveillance. In this review we aim to dissect the impact of the TME on signaling induced by endogenous and exogenous/therapeutic TRAIL, thereby distinguishing different components of the TME such as immune effector cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and non-hematopoietic stromal cells. In addition, also non-cellular biochemical and biophysical properties of the TME are considered including mechanical stress, acidity, hypoxia, and glucose deprivation. Available literature thus far indicates that tumor-TME interactions are complex and often bidirectional leading to tumor-enhancing or tumor-reducing effects in a tumor model- and tumor type-dependent fashion. Multiple signals originating from different components of the TME simultaneously affect TRAIL receptor signaling. We conclude that in order to unleash the full clinical potential of TRAIL receptor agonists it will be necessary to increase our understanding of the contribution of different TME components on outcome of therapeutic TRAIL receptor activation in order to identify the most critical mechanism responsible for resistance, allowing the design of effective combination treatments.

Interleukin-35 as an Emerging Player in Tumor Microenvironment

IL-35 is the newest member of IL-12 family. A dimeric protein consisting of two separate subunits has manifested suppressive actions on immune system, which is counterproductive in the context of cancers. Various reports have confirmed its inhibitory role on immune system which is carried out via formation of IL-35-producing regulatory T cells (iTr35), increased Treg development and suppressive Th17 cells growth. Although last decade has seen a great deal of scientific interest on this subject, the exact role, precise signal transduction and elaborative functions of IL-35 in tumor microenvironment (TME) remained elusive. Search for anti-IL-35 therapies have exhibited limited success in animal models. Contrarily, few studies have denied the idea that IL-35 plays a role in cancer. The purpose of this review is to analyze the reported scientific data on continuous symphony of IL-35 in cancers since the inception of former.

Effects of combined inhibition of STAT3 and VEGFR2 pathways on the radiosensitivity of non-small-cell lung cancer cells

Purpose

The goals of this study were to determine the effects of combined inhibition of STAT3 and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) pathways on the radiosensitivity of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, and to assess the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

The expressions of VEGFR2, STAT3, related signaling molecules, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), and cyclin D1 were determined by Western blotting. Radiosensitivity was assessed using the colony-forming assay, and cell cycle and cell death were analyzed by flow cytometry. A nude mouse xenograft tumor model of Calu-1 cells was established. The hepatorenal toxicity of the above-mentioned treatment on tumor-bearing mice was observed by H&E staining. The expression of STAT3, VEGFR2, HIF-1α, and cyclin D1 of the transplanted tumor tissues was detected by immunohistochemistry. Apoptosis of tumor tissues was evaluated by TUNEL staining.

Results

In vitro, we selected two cell lines with high expression levels of STAT3, including Calu-1 cells that exhibit high VEGFR2 expression and A549 cells that exhibit low VEGFR2 expression. When apatinib treatment was combined with S3I-201, the expression of VEGFR2, STAT3, and their downstream signaling molecules was significantly decreased (P<0.01). There was an increase in cell death and G2/M phase arrest after treatments, with the most significant changes occurring upon dual inhibition of STAT3 and VEGFR2 (P<0.01). In vivo, combined treatment of radiotherapy and dual inhibition of VEGFR2 and STAT3 was well tolerated and did not deliver additional toxicity. Compared with the control group and the radiation treatment (RT) + apatinib or RT + S3I-201 duplex group, the expression level of STAT3, p-STAT3, VEGFR2, HIF-1α, and cyclin D1 in the triple group (RT + apatinib + S3I-201) was the lowest, and the proportion of apoptotic cells was the highest (P<0.05).

Conclusion

The combined inhibition of VEGFR2 and STAT3 is effective in enhancing radiosensitizing effects in NSCLC cells.

Role of tumor-associated neutrophils in regulation of tumor growth in lung cancer development: A mathematical model

Neutrophils display rapid and potent innate immune responses in various diseases. Tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) however either induce or overcome immunosuppressive functions of the tumor microenvironment through complex tumor-stroma crosstalk. We developed a mathematical model to address the question of how phenotypic alterations between tumor suppressive N1 TANS, and tumor promoting N2 TANs affect nonlinear tumor growth in a complex tumor microenvironment. The model provides a visual display of the complex behavior of populations of TANs and tumors in response to various TGF-β and IFN-β stimuli. In addition, the effect of anti-tumor drug administration is incorporated in the model in an effort to achieve optimal anti-tumor efficacy. The simulation results from the mathematical model were in good agreement with experimental data. We found that the N2-to-N1 ratio (N21R) index is positively correlated with aggressive tumor growth, suggesting that this may be a good prognostic factor. We also found that the antitumor efficacy increases when the relative ratio (Dap) of delayed apoptotic cell death of N1 and N2 TANs is either very small or relatively large, providing a basis for therapeutically targeting prometastatic N2 TANs.

The Prokineticins: Neuromodulators and Mediators of Inflammation and Myeloid Cell-Dependent Angiogenesis

The mammalian prokineticins family comprises two conserved proteins, EG-VEGF/PROK1 and Bv8/PROK2, and their two highly related G protein-coupled receptors, PKR1 and PKR2. This signaling system has been linked to several important biological functions, including gastrointestinal tract motility, regulation of circadian rhythms, neurogenesis, angiogenesis and cancer progression, hematopoiesis, and nociception. Mutations in PKR2 or Bv8/PROK2 have been associated with Kallmann syndrome, a developmental disorder characterized by defective olfactory bulb neurogenesis, impaired development of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons, and infertility. Also, Bv8/PROK2 is strongly upregulated in neutrophils and other inflammatory cells in response to granulocyte-colony stimulating factor or other myeloid growth factors and functions as a pronociceptive mediator in inflamed tissues as well as a regulator of myeloid cell-dependent tumor angiogenesis. Bv8/PROK2 has been also implicated in neuropathic pain. Anti-Bv8/PROK2 antibodies or small molecule PKR inhibitors ameliorate pain arising from tissue injury and inhibit angiogenesis and inflammation associated with tumors or some autoimmune disorders.

NAMPT signaling is critical for the proangiogenic activity of tumor-associated neutrophils

Tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) regulate many processes associated with tumor progression, and depending on the microenvironment, they can exhibit pro- or antitumor functions. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating their tumorigenicity are not clear. Using transplantable tumor models, we showed here that nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), a molecule involved in CSF3R downstream signaling, is essential for tumorigenic conversion of TANs and their pro-angiogenic switch. As a result tumor vascularization and growth are strongly supported by these cells. Inhibition of NAMPT in TANs leads to their antitumor conversion. Adoptive transfer of such TANs into B16F10-tumor bearing mice attenuates tumor angiogenesis and growth. Of note, we observe that the regulation of NAMPT signaling in TANs, and its effect on the neutrophil tumorigenicity, are analogous in mice and human. NAMPT is up-regulated in TANs from melanoma and head-and-neck tumor patients, and its expression positively correlates with tumor stage. Mechanistically, we found that targeting of NAMPT suppresses neutrophil tumorigenicity by inhibiting SIRT1 signaling, thereby blocking transcription of pro-angiogenic genes. Based on these results, we propose that NAMPT regulatory axis is important for neutrophils to activate angiogenic switch during early stages of tumorigenesis. Thus, identification of NAMPT as the critical molecule priming protumor functions of neutrophils provides not only mechanistic insight into the regulation of neutrophil tumorigenicity, but also identifies a potential pathway that may be targeted therapeutically in neutrophils. This, in turn, may be utilized as a novel mode of cancer immunotherapy.

The Predictive Value of Pretreatment Neutrophil-To-Lymphocyte Ratio in Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) has been reported to be both a prognostic biomarker for cancer and associated with inflammation, but its predictive role in tumor immunity is not clear. The present study examined the correlations of the NLR and immune suppression with the prognoses in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of 1168 patients who were newly diagnosed with stage T1N(+) and T2-T4 ESCC at our hospital. The NLR of each ESCC patient prior to treatment was calculated, and the associations of the NLR with various clinicopathological parameters and prognoses were then examined. In addition, correlations of the proportion of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and level of interleukin (IL)-6 with the NLR were assessed in 242 ESCC patients.

RESULTS

An elevated NLR was significantly correlated with advanced-stage disease and reduced overall survival (OS) of ESCC patients. Furthermore, the levels of IL-6 in tumors and MDSCs in the peripheral circulation were significantly correlated with the prognoses of ESCC, and the NLR was positively correlated with MDSC levels in the circulation and IL-6 staining intensity in tumor specimens. Moreover, a high NLR was significantly associated with reduced OS in the 926 patients treated with concomitant chemoradiotherapy, but not in the 242 patients who underwent surgical intervention.

CONCLUSION

The NLR may represent a clinically useful biomarker to guide ESCC treatment decisions. Patients with a higher NLR may be an optimal subgroup for IL-6- and MDSC-targeted therapy.

CD177+ neutrophils suppress epithelial cell tumourigenesis in colitis-associated cancer and predict good prognosis in colorectal cancer

Neutrophils are found to be infiltrated in tumour tissues of patients with colitis-associated cancer (CAC) and colorectal cancer (CRC), and CD177 is mainly expressed in neutrophils. In our study, expression of CD177 in tumour tissues from patients with CAC or CRC was analysed byquantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. We recruited 378 patients with CRC, determined CD177 expression in tumours and examined its correlation with clinicopathological features. Moreover, CAC model was induced in wild-type and CD177-/- mice by azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulphate. CD177+ neutrophils were significantly increased in colon tumour tissues from patients with CRC or CAC compared with controls. Expression of CD177 mRNA and percentages of CD177+ neutrophils were also markedly increased in tumour tissues from CRC patients compared with controls. Patients with high density of CD177+ neutrophils had better overall survival and disease-free survival compared with controls. Multivariate analyses revealed that the density of CD177+ neutrophils was an independent factor in predicting overall survival and disease-free survival. Consistently, CD177 depletion aggravated azoxymethane/dextran sodium sulphate-induced CAC in mice. Expression of Ki67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen was increased in tumour tissues from CD177-/- mice compared with wild-type counterparts. Moreover, CD177-/- neutrophils failed to migrate in response to fMLP[AU: Please expand fMLP, DN, TNM and HIF-1α.] stimulation compared with wild-type controls. Our data indicate that CD177+ neutrophils suppress epithelial cell tumourigenesis and act as an independent factor in predicting the prognosis in patients with CRC. CD177+ neutrophils may serve as a novel therapeutic target in the treatment and predict the prognosis of CAC and CRC.

Survival and prognostic analysis of preoperative inflammatory markers in patients undergoing surgical resection for laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

To estimate the prognostic value of inflammatory markers in patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC).

METHODS

A total of 361 resected LSCC patients were included. The preoperative and postoperative neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), monocyte-to-lymphocyte ratio (MLR), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and l actate dehydrogenase (LDH) were assessed. The Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox regression analysis were conducted on overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS).

RESULTS

Both Kaplan-Meier analysis and univariate analysis demonstrated significant prognostic value of preoperative and postoperative NLR, PLR and MLR. However, only preoperative ALP was predictive of OS and PFS, and LDH failed to be predictor of OS and PFS. The multivariate analysis showed that preoperative NLR (OS: HR = 1.64, 95%CI: 1.06-2.54, p = 0.026; PFS: HR = 1.52, 95%CI: 1.04-2.23, p = 0.029) and postoperative MLR (OS: HR = 2.02, 95%CI: 1.29-3.14, p = 0.002; PFS: HR = 1.57, 95%CI: 1.05-2.34, p = 0.026) were independently related with survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The elevated preoperative NLR, PLR, MLR and ALP were significantly associated with worse survival and cancer progression. The preoperative NLR and postoperative MLR might be independent prognostic markers of OS and PFS in LSCC patients undergoing surgical resection.