Vaccination with an Acidic Polymerase Epitope of Influenza Virus Elicits a Potent Antiviral T Cell Response but Delayed Clearance of an Influenza Virus Challenge

Intranasal Epitope-Polymer Vaccine Lodges Resident Memory T Cells Protecting Against Influenza Virus

Intranasal vaccines, unlike injectable vaccines, boost immunity along the respiratory tract; this can significantly limit respiratory virus replication and shedding. There remains a need to develop mucosal adjuvants and vaccine delivery systems that are both safe and effective following intranasal administration. Here, biopolymer particles (BP) densely coated with repeats of MHC class I restricted immunodominant epitopes derived from influenza A virus namely NP366, a nucleoprotein-derived epitope and PA224, a polymerase acidic subunit derived epitope, are bioengineered. These BP-NP366/PA224 can be manufactured at a high yield and are obtained at ≈93% purity, exhibiting ambient-temperature stability. Immunological characterization includes comparing systemic and mucosal immune responses mounted following intramuscular or intranasal immunization. Immunization with BP-NP366/PA224 without adjuvant triggers influenza-specific CD8+ T cell priming and memory CD8+ T cell development. Co-delivery with the adjuvant poly(I:C) significantly boosts the size and functionality of the influenza-specific pulmonary resident memory CD8+ T cell pool. Intranasal, but not intramuscular delivery of BP-NP366/PA224 with poly(I:C), provides protection against influenza virus challenge. Overall, the BP approach demonstrates as a suitable antigen formulation for intranasal delivery toward induction of systemic protective T cell responses against influenza virus.

Recent Progress in Recombinant Influenza Vaccine Development Toward Heterosubtypic Immune Response

Flu, a viral infection caused by the influenza virus, is still a global public health concern with potential to cause seasonal epidemics and pandemics. Vaccination is considered the most effective protective strategy against the infection. However, given the high plasticity of the virus and the suboptimal immunogenicity of existing influenza vaccines, scientists are moving toward the development of universal vaccines. An important property of universal vaccines is their ability to induce heterosubtypic immunity, i.e., a wide immune response coverage toward different influenza subtypes. With the increasing number of studies and mounting evidence on the safety and efficacy of recombinant influenza vaccines (RIVs), they have been proposed as promising platforms for the development of universal vaccines. This review highlights the current progress and advances in the development of RIVs in the context of heterosubtypic immunity induction toward universal vaccine production. In particular, this review discussed existing knowledge on influenza and vaccine development, current hemagglutinin-based RIVs in the market and in the pipeline, other potential vaccine targets for RIVs (neuraminidase, matrix 1 and 2, nucleoprotein, polymerase acidic, and basic 1 and 2 antigens), and deantigenization process. This review also provided discussion points and future perspectives in looking at RIVs as potential universal vaccine candidates for influenza.

A Novel H-2d Epitope for Influenza A Polymerase Acidic Protein

Understanding the complexity of the T-cell epitope hierarchy in humans through mouse models can be difficult. In particular, using only one murine strain, the C57BL/6 mouse, to investigate the immune response to influenza virus infection limits our understanding. In the present study, by immunizing C57BL/6 mice with an adenoviral vector encoding the polymerase acidic (AdIiPA) protein of influenza A virus, we were able to induce a high number of PA-specific T cells. However, upon challenge, these cells were only partly protective. When instead immunizing BALB/c mice with AdIiPA, we found that the immunized mice were fully protected against challenge. We found that this protection was dependent on CD8 T cells, and we identified a novel H-2Dd-restricted epitope, PA33. These findings provide a new tool for researchers to study PA-specific immunity in mice with an H-2d haplotype. Additionally, our findings underscore the importance of critically evaluating important limitations of using a single inbred mouse strain in vaccine studies.

Cytotoxic T cell vaccination with PLGA microspheres interferes with influenza A virus replication in the lung and suppresses the infectious disease

Current influenza virus vaccines aim to elicit antibodies directed toward viral surface glycoproteins, which however are prone to antigenic drift. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) can exhibit heterosubtypic immunity against most influenza A viruses. In our study, we encapsulated the highly conserved, immunodominant, HLA-A*0201 restricted epitope from the influenza virus matrix protein M158-66 together with TLR ligands in biodegradable poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) microspheres. Subcutaneous immunization of transgenic mice expressing chimeric HLA-A*0201 molecules with these microspheres induced a strong and sustained CTL response which sufficed to prevent replication of a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing the influenza A virus (IAV) matrix protein but not the replication of IAV in the lung. However, subcutaneous priming followed by intranasal boosting with M158-66 bearing PLGA microspheres was able to induce vigorous CTL responses both in the lung and spleen of mice which interfered with IAV replication, weight loss, and infection-related death. Taken together, vaccination with well-defined and highly conserved IAV-derived CTL epitopes encapsulated into clinically compatible PLGA microspheres contribute to the control of influenza A virus infections. The promptitude and broad reactivity of the CTL response may help to attenuate pandemic outbreaks of influenza viruses.

Influenza vaccines: T-cell responses deserve more attention

Currently licensed influenza vaccines rely predominantly on the induction of strain-matched hemagglutination inhibition antibody responses. These vaccines have a proven record of safety and efficacy in preventing influenza-induced illness and complications. However, they do not confer protection to all vaccinated individuals, and the protection they afford is short-lived, particularly in older adults. Hemagglutination inhibition titers induced by these vaccines are considered correlates of protection, but recent data demonstrate that this is not always the case. It is clear that better insight is needed into the immune responses that correlate with protection against human influenza. Influenza vaccines that can induce cross-reactive cellular immune responses (CD4(+) and/or CD8(+) T-cell responses) might correct some of the shortcomings of currently used influenza vaccines. In the future, the use of infection-permissive and disease-modifying vaccines that allow for the induction of cross-reactive T-cell responses may become a valuable complement to the administration of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccines.

DNA-vaccine platform development against H1N1 subtype of swine influenza A viruses

Swine influenza virus (SIV) is an important viral pathogen in pig populations. However, commercial vaccines cannot provide complete protection with induced humoral immunity only, and require frequent updates to fight against current isolates. DNA vaccination is an effective means of eliciting both arms of the immune system, the humoral and cellular immune responses. In this study, DNA vector pcDNA3.1 was inserted with a chimeric intron downstream of the CMV promoter region followed by a Kozak sequence to enhance the expression of gene inserts. The C-terminal of the VP22 gene (VP22c), encoding the tegument protein of bovine herpesvirus-1, was fused separately to the N-terminal of four quadruplicated epitopes: two B-cell epitopes (HA91-108 and M2e), and two T-cell epitopes (NP366-374 and NP380-393), which were conserved, at least among the three SIV subtypes prevailing in pig populations in North America. Linker -KK- was used to space between each copy of the two B-cell epitopes, and -RVKR- was used for the two T-cell epitopes, in order to enhance the presentation of epitopes to the immune system. The expression of epitopes was confirmed in in vitro transfection of 293FT cells, and higher percentages of epitope-positive cells were achieved from the plasmids containing VP22c than those without. After the DNA plasmids were administered to mice intramuscularly in combination or separately, or boosted with recombinant proteins of quadruplicated epitopes fused to VP22c, the vaccine stimulated the desired epitope-specific humoral immunity to the two B-cell epitopes, and cellular immunity to the epitope NP380-393. Our results indicate that plasmids with quadruplicated epitopes fused to the VP22c may be a potential vehicle in developing epitopes as vaccines against SIV.

Critical role of natural killer cells in lung immunopathology during influenza infection in mice

Influenza viral infection results in excessive pulmonary inflammation that has been linked to the damage caused by immune responses and viral replication. The multifunctional cytokine interleukin (IL-15), influences the proliferation and maintenance of immune cells such as CD8(+) T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Here we show that IL-15(-/-) mice are protected from lethal influenza infection. Irrespective of the mouse strains, the protection observed was linked to the lack of NK cells. Increased survival in the IL-15(-/-) or NK1.1(+) cell-depleted wild-type mice was associated with significantly lower lung lesions as well as decreased mononuclear cells and neutrophils in the airway lumen. Levels of interleukin 10 were significantly higher and levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 6 and interleukin 12, were significantly lower in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from IL-15(-/-) and NK1.1(+) cell-depleted wild-type mice than in that from control mice. Our data suggest that NK cells significantly augment pulmonary inflammation, contributing to the pathogenesis of influenza infection.

Antibodies against conserved antigens provide opportunities for reform in influenza vaccine design

High-performance neutralizing antibody against influenza virus typically recognizes the globular head region of its hemagglutinin (HA) envelope glycoprotein. To-date, approved human vaccination strategies have been designed to induce such antibodies as a sole means of preventing the consequences of this infection. However, frequent amino-acid changes in the HA globular head allow for efficient immune evasion. Consequently, vaccines inducing such neutralizing antibodies need to be annually re-designed and re-administered at a great expense. These vaccines furthermore provide little-to-no immunity against antigenic-shift strains, which arise from complete replacement of HA or of neuraminidase genes, and pose pandemic risks. To address these issues, laboratory research has focused on inducing immunity effective against all strains, regardless of changes in the HA globular head. Despite prior dogma that such cross-protection needs to be induced by cellular immunity alone, several advances in recent years demonstrate that antibodies of other specificities are capable of cross-strain protection in mice. This review discusses the reactivity, induction, efficacy, and mechanisms of antibodies that react with poorly accessible epitopes in the HA stalk, with the matrix 2 membrane ion channel, and even with the internal nucleoprotein. These advances warrant further investigation of the inducibility and efficacy of such revolutionary antibody strategies in humans.

Division of labor between subsets of lymph node dendritic cells determines the specificity of the CD8⁺ T-cell recall response to influenza infection

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are important targets for vaccines against a wide variety of infections that enter the body via mucosal tissues. To induce effective immunity these vaccines must include the most protective epitopes and elicit rapid recall responses at the site of infection. Although live attenuated viruses are sometimes used to induce cellular immunity against recurrent influenza infections, the mechanisms that determine the magnitude of the response to individual viral components are very poorly defined. Heterosubtypic infections in C57BL/6 mice illustrate an additional level of complexity, when the antigen specificity of the response shifts dramatically between primary and secondary challenge. This model provides a unique opportunity to identify the mechanisms that regulate memory CD8(+) T-cell reactivation in vivo and control the specificity of the recall response by pathogen-specific CTL. We show that multiple factors contribute to the changing pattern of immunodominance during secondary infection, including the location of the memory CD8(+) T cells at the time of reinfection and their ability to directly recognize migratory CD103(+) DCs as they arrive in the lung draining LN.

Influenza A virus infection activates cholesterol sulfotransferase (SULT2B1b) in the lung of female C57BL/6 mice

Cytosolic sulfotransferases (SULTs) catalyze the sulfation of hormones, neurotransmitters, and xenobiotics, increasing their water solubility. SULTs are not only important for xenobiotic detoxification but they also play important biological roles in the regulation of the activities of various biosignaling molecules and other cellular functions. In this study, we investigated the effects of influenza A virus lung infection on the expression of SULTs in the lung, brain, and liver of female C57BL/6 mice. Our results demonstrate for the first time that SULT2B1b enzyme activity and protein expression are significantly up-regulated in the lung and brain of female mice in response to lung influenza A virus infection. Real-time quantitative PCR results are consistent with Western blot and enzymatic activity data. In mouse liver, mSULT2B1b is not significantly changed. Enzyme activities, protein expression, and mRNA expression of SULT1A1 and SULT2A1 in the lung, brain, and liver of mice were not significantly affected by the infection. The induction of SULT2B1b may be used to inactivate natural liver X receptor ligands and activate the proliferation of T cells in response to influenza A virus infection in the lung and brain of mice. Our results raise the possibility that regulation of SULT2B1b may influence acquired immune responses to infectious diseases.

Contributions of antinucleoprotein IgG to heterosubtypic immunity against influenza virus

Influenza A virus causes recurring seasonal epidemics and occasional influenza pandemics. Because of changes in envelope glycoprotein Ags, neutralizing Abs induced by inactivated vaccines provide limited cross-protection against new viral serotypes. However, prior influenza infection induces heterosubtypic immunity that accelerates viral clearance of a second strain, even if the external proteins are distinct. In mice, cross-protection can also be elicited by systemic immunization with the highly conserved internal nucleoprotein (NP). Both T lymphocytes and Ab contribute to such cross-protection. In this paper, we demonstrate that anti-NP IgG specifically promoted influenza virus clearance in mice by using a mechanism involving both FcRs and CD8(+) cells. Furthermore, anti-NP IgG rescued poor heterosubtypic immunity in B cell-deficient mice, correlating with enhanced NP-specific CD8 T cell responses. Thus, Ab against this conserved Ag has potent antiviral activity both in naive and in influenza-immune subjects. Such antiviral activity was not seen when mice were vaccinated with another internal influenza protein, nonstructural 1. The high conservation of NP Ag and the known longevity of Ab responses suggest that anti-NP IgG may provide a critically needed component of a universal influenza vaccine.

Cross-protective immunity to influenza A viruses

Antigenic changes in influenza virus occur gradually, owing to mutations (antigenic drift), and abruptly, owing to reassortment among subtypes (antigenic shift). Availability of strain-matched vaccines often lags behind these changes, resulting in a shortfall in public health. In animal models, cross-protection by vaccines based on conserved antigens does not completely prevent infection, but greatly reduces morbidity, mortality, virus replication and, thus, viral shedding and spread. Such immunity is especially effective and long-lasting with mucosal administration. Cross-protective immunity in humans is controversial, but is suggested by some epidemiological findings. 'Universal' vaccines protective against all influenza A viruses might substantially reduce severity of infection and limit spread of disease during outbreaks. These vaccines could be used 'off the shelf' early in an outbreak or pandemic, before strain-matched vaccines are available.

Seasonal influenza infection and live vaccine prime for a response to the 2009 pandemic H1N1 vaccine

The robust immune response to a single dose of pandemic 2009 H1N1 vaccine suggests that a large segment of the population has been previously primed. We evaluated the effect of seasonal (s) H1N1 infection, s-trivalent inactivated vaccine (s-TIV), and trivalent s-live attenuated influenza vaccine (s-LAIV) before immunization with a pandemic live attenuated influenza vaccine (p-LAIV) in mice. We compared serum and mucosal antibody and pulmonary CD8 and CD4 responses and the virologic response to challenge with a wild-type 2009 pandemic H1N1 (p-H1N1) virus. Two doses of p-LAIV induced cellular immune and robust ELISA and neutralizing antibody responses that were associated with complete protection from p-H1N1 challenge. A single dose of p-LAIV induced a cellular response and ELISA but not a neutralizing antibody response, and incomplete protection from p-H1N1 virus challenge. Primary infection with s-H1N1 influenza virus followed by a dose of p-LAIV resulted in cross-reactive ELISA antibodies and a robust cellular immune response that was also associated with complete protection from p-H1N1 virus challenge. A lower-magnitude but similar response associated with partial protection was seen in mice that received a dose of s-LAIV followed by p-LAIV. Mice that received a dose of s-TIV followed by p-LAIV did not show any evidence of priming. In summary, prior infection with a seasonal influenza virus or s-LAIV primed mice for a robust response to a single dose of p-LAIV that was associated with protection equivalent to two doses of the matched pandemic vaccine.

Considerations in the design of vaccines that induce CD8 T cell mediated immunity

The protective capacity of many currently used vaccines is based on induction of neutralizing antibodies. Many pathogens, however, have adapted themselves in different ways to escape antibody-based immune protection. In particular, for those infections against which conventional neutralizing antibody-based vaccinations appear challenging, CD8 T-cells are considered to be promising candidates for vaccine targeting. The design of vaccines that induce robust and long-lasting protective CD8 T-cell responses however imposes new challenges, as many factors such as kinetics and efficiency of antigen-processing and presentation by antigen presenting cells, T-cell repertoire and cytokine environment during T cell priming contribute to the specificity and functionality of CD8 T-cell responses. In the following, we review the most prominent aspects that underlie CD8 T-cell induction and discuss how this knowledge may help to improve the design of efficient CD8 T-cell inducing vaccines.

Responses against a subdominant CD8+ T cell epitope protect against immunopathology caused by a dominant epitope

CD8(+) T cell responses are critical for the control of virus infections. Following infection, epitope-specific responses establish an unpredictable but reproducible pattern of dominance that is dictated by a large number of both positive and negative factors. Immunodomination, or diminution of subdominant epitope-specific responses by dominant epitopes, can play a substantial role in the establishment of epitope hierarchy. To determine the role of a dominant (K(d)M2(82-90)) and a subdominant (D(b)M(187-195)) epitope of respiratory syncytial virus in viral control and immunodomination, MHC-binding anchor residues in the two epitopes were mutated individually in recombinant infectious viruses, greatly reducing or deleting the epitope-specific CD8(+) T cell responses. Neither mutation negatively affected viral clearance in mice, and compensation by the unmutated epitope was seen in both cases, whereas compensation by five other subdominant epitopes was minimal. Mutation of the dominant K(d)M2(82-90) response resulted in effective viral clearance by the subdominant epitope with less illness, whereas mutation of the subdominant D(b)M(187-195) response resulted in overcompensation of the already dominant K(d)M2(82-90) epitope, and increased severity of illness. Increased illness was associated with poor functionality of the abundant population of CD8(+) T cells specific to the dominant K(d)M2(82-90) epitope, as measured by the percentage and magnitude of IFN-γ production. These data demonstrate efficient viral clearance, and a protective effect of subdominant CD8(+) T cell responses.

Designing CD8+ T cell vaccines: it's not rocket science (yet)

CD8+ T cells play important roles in clearing viral infections and eradicating tumors. Designing vaccines that elicit effective CD8+ T cell responses requires a thorough knowledge of the pathways of antigen presentation in vivo. Here, I review recent progress in understanding the activation of naïve CD8+ T cells in vivo, with particular emphasis on cross-priming, the presentation of protein antigens acquired by dendritic cells from their environment. With the rapid advances in this area of research, the dawn of rational vaccine design is at hand.

Identification of a dual-specific T cell epitope of the hemagglutinin antigen of an h5 avian influenza virus in chickens

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) of the H5N1 subtype have caused morbidity and mortality in humans. Although some migratory birds constitute the natural reservoir for this virus, chickens may play a role in transmission of the virus to humans. Despite the importance of avian species in transmission of AIV H5N1 to humans, very little is known about host immune system interactions with this virus in these species. The objective of the present study was to identify putative T cell epitopes of the hemagglutinin (HA) antigen of an H5 AIV in chickens. Using an overlapping peptide library covering the HA protein, we identified a 15-mer peptide, H5_246–260, within the HA1 domain which induced activation of T cells in chickens immunized against the HA antigen of an H5 virus. Furthermore, H5_246–260 epitope was found to be presented by both major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules, leading to activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets, marked by proliferation and expression of interferon (IFN)-γ by both of these cell subsets as well as the expression of granzyme A by CD8+ T cells. This is the first report of a T cell epitope of AIV recognized by chicken T cells. Furthermore, this study extends the previous finding of the existence of dual-specific epitopes in other species to chickens. Taken together, these results elucidate some of the mechanisms of immune response to AIV in chickens and provide a platform for creation of rational vaccines against AIV in this species.

CXCR3 directs antigen-specific effector CD4+ T cell migration to the lung during parainfluenza virus infection

Effector T cells are a crucial component of the adaptive immune response to respiratory virus infections. Although it was previously reported that the chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR3 affect trafficking of respiratory virus-specific CD8+ T cells, it is unclear whether these receptors govern effector CD4+ T cell migration to the lungs. To assess the role of CCR5 and CXCR3 in vivo, we directly compared the migration of Ag-specific wild-type and chemokine receptor-deficient effector T cells in mixed bone marrow chimeric mice during a parainfluenza virus infection. CXCR3-deficient effector CD4+ T cells were 5- to 10-fold less efficient at migrating to the lung compared with wild-type cells, whereas CCR5-deficient effector T cells were not impaired in their migration to the lung. In contrast to its role in trafficking, CXCR3 had no impact on effector CD4+ T cell proliferation, phenotype, or function in any of the tissues examined. These findings demonstrate that CXCR3 controls virus-specific effector CD4+ T cell migration in vivo, and suggest that blocking CXCR3-mediated recruitment may limit T cell-induced immunopathology during respiratory virus infections.

Gene regulation and chromatin remodeling by IL-12 and type I IFN in programming for CD8 T cell effector function and memory

A third signal that can be provided by IL-12 or type I IFN is required for differentiation of naive CD8 T cells responding to Ag and costimulation. The cytokines program development of function and memory within 3 days of initial stimulation, and we show here that programming involves regulation of a common set of approximately 355 genes including T-bet and eomesodermin. Much of the gene regulation program is initiated in response to Ag and costimulation within 24 h but is then extinguished unless a cytokine signal is available. Histone deacetylase inhibitors mimic the effects of IL-12 or type I IFN signaling, indicating that the cytokines relieve repression and allow continued gene expression by promoting increased histone acetylation. In support of this, increased association of acetylated histones with the promoter loci of granzyme B and eomesodermin is shown to occur in response to IL-12, IFN-alpha, or histone deacetylase inhibitors. Thus, IL-12 and IFN-alpha/beta enforce in common a complex gene regulation program that involves, at least in part, chromatin remodeling to allow sustained expression of a large number of genes critical for CD8 T cell function and memory.

In situ imaging reveals different responses by naïve and memory CD8 T cells to late antigen presentation by lymph node DC after influenza virus infection

Pulmonary influenza infection causes prolonged lymph node hypertrophy while processed viral antigens continue to be presented to virus-specific CD8 T cells. We show that naïve, but not central/memory, nucleoprotein (NP)-specific CD8 T cells recognized antigen-bearing CD11b(+) DC in the draining lymph nodes more than 30 days after infection. After these late transfers, the naïve CD8 T cells underwent an abortive proliferative response in the mediastinal lymph node (MLN), where large clusters of partially activated cells remained in the paracortex until at least a week after transfer. A majority of the endogenous NP-specific CD8 T cells that were in the MLN between 30 and 50 days after infection also showed signs of a continuing response to antigen stimulation. A high frequency of endogenous NP-specific CD8 T cells in the MLN indicates that late antigen presentation may help shape the epitope dominance hierarchy during reinfection.

CD8 T cells utilize TRAIL to control influenza virus infection

Elimination of influenza virus-infected cells during primary influenza virus infections is thought to be mediated by CD8(+) T cells though perforin- and FasL-mediated mechanisms. However, recent studies suggest that CD8(+) T cells can also utilize TRAIL to kill virally infected cells. Therefore, we herein examined the importance of TRAIL to influenza-specific CD8(+) T cell immunity and to the control of influenza virus infections. Our results show that TRAIL deficiency increases influenza-associated morbidity and influenza virus titers, and that these changes in disease severity are coupled to decreased influenza-specific CD8(+) T cell cytotoxicity in TRAIL(-/-) mice, a decrease that occurs despite equivalent numbers of pulmonary influenza-specific CD8(+) T cells. Furthermore, TRAIL expression occurs selectively on influenza-specific CD8(+) T cells, and high TRAIL receptor (DR5) expression occurs selectively on influenza virus-infected pulmonary epithelial cells. Finally, we show that adoptive transfer of TRAIL(+/+) but not TRAIL(-/-) CD8(+) effector T cells alters the mortality associated with lethal dose influenza virus infections. Collectively, our results suggest that TRAIL is an important component of immunity to influenza infections and that TRAIL deficiency decreases CD8(+) T cell-mediated cytotoxicity, leading to more severe influenza infections.

Bacillus anthracis peptidoglycan stimulates an inflammatory response in monocytes through the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway

We hypothesized that the peptidoglycan component of B. anthracis may play a critical role in morbidity and mortality associated with inhalation anthrax. To explore this issue, we purified the peptidoglycan component of the bacterial cell wall and studied the response of human peripheral blood cells. The purified B. anthracis peptidoglycan was free of non-covalently bound protein but contained a complex set of amino acids probably arising from the stem peptide. The peptidoglycan contained a polysaccharide that was removed by mild acid treatment, and the biological activity remained with the peptidoglycan and not the polysaccharide. The biological activity of the peptidoglycan was sensitive to lysozyme but not other hydrolytic enzymes, showing that the activity resides in the peptidoglycan component and not bacterial DNA, RNA or protein. B. anthracis peptidoglycan stimulated monocytes to produce primarily TNFα; neutrophils and lymphocytes did not respond. Peptidoglycan stimulated monocyte p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and p38 activity was required for TNFα production by the cells. We conclude that peptidoglycan in B. anthracis is biologically active, that it stimulates a proinflammatory response in monocytes, and uses the p38 kinase signal transduction pathway to do so. Given the high bacterial burden in pulmonary anthrax, these findings suggest that the inflammatory events associated with peptidoglycan may play an important role in anthrax pathogenesis.

The chemokine receptor CCR5 plays a key role in the early memory CD8+ T cell response to respiratory virus infections

Innate recognition of invading pathogens in peripheral tissues results in the recruitment of circulating memory CD8(+) T cells to sites of localized inflammation during the early phase of a recall response. However, the mechanisms that control the rapid recruitment of these cells to peripheral sites are poorly understood, particularly in relation to influenza and parainfluenza infections of the respiratory tract. In this study, we demonstrate a crucial role for C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) in the accelerated recruitment of memory CD8(+) T cells to the lung airways during virus challenge. Most importantly, CCR5 deficiency resulted in decreased recruitment of memory T cells expressing key effector molecules and impaired control of virus replication during the initial stages of a secondary response. These data highlight the critical importance of early memory T cell recruitment for the efficacy of cellular immunity in the lung.

Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase establishes and broadens antiviral CD8+ T cell immunodominance hierarchies

The action of TdT on mouse TCR genes accounts for approximately 90% of T cell repertoire diversity. We report that in TdT-/- mice, total T(CD8+) responses to influenza and vaccinia viruses are reduced by approximately 30% relative to wild-type mice. We find that T(CD8+) responses to three subdominant influenza virus determinants are reduced to background values in TdT-/- mice while responses to three immunodominant determinants undergo a major reshuffling. A similar reshuffling occurs in T(CD8+) responses to immunodominant vaccinia virus determinants, and is clearly based on broad differences in TCR family usage and CDR3 length between wild-type and TdT-/- mice. These findings demonstrate that TdT plays a critical role in the magnitude and breadth of anti-viral T(CD8+) responses toward individual determinants and suggests that germline TCR repertoire bias toward the most dominant determinants is a major factor in establishing immunodominance hierarchies.

B cells promote resistance to heterosubtypic strains of influenza via multiple mechanisms

Immunity to heterosubtypic strains of influenza is thought to be mediated primarily by memory T cells, which recognize epitopes in conserved proteins. However, the involvement of B cells in this process is controversial. We show in this study that influenza-specific memory T cells are insufficient to protect mice against a lethal challenge with a virulent strain of influenza in the absence of B cells. B cells contribute to protection in multiple ways. First, although non-neutralizing Abs by themselves do not provide any protection to challenge infection, they do reduce weight loss, lower viral titers, and promote recovery of mice challenged with a virulent heterosubtypic virus in the presence of memory T cells. Non-neutralizing Abs also facilitate the expansion of responding memory CD8 T cells. Furthermore, in cooperation with memory T cells, naive B cells also promote recovery from infection with a virulent heterosubtypic virus by generating new neutralizing Abs. These data demonstrate that B cells use multiple mechanisms to promote resistance to heterosubtypic strains of influenza and suggest that vaccines that elicit both memory T cells and Abs to conserved epitopes of influenza may be an effective defense against a wide range of influenza serotypes.

Age-associated decline in T cell repertoire diversity leads to holes in the repertoire and impaired immunity to influenza virus

A diverse T cell repertoire is essential for a vigorous immune response to new infections, and decreasing repertoire diversity has been implicated in the age-associated decline in CD8 T cell immunity. In this study, using the well-characterized mouse influenza virus model, we show that although comparable numbers of CD8 T cells are elicited in the lung and lung airways of young and aged mice after de novo infection, a majority of aged mice exhibit profound shifts in epitope immunodominance and restricted diversity in the TCR repertoire of responding cells. A preferential decline in reactivity to viral epitopes with a low naive precursor frequency was observed, in some cases leading to “holes” in the T cell repertoire. These effects were also seen in young thymectomized mice, consistent with the role of the thymus in maintaining naive repertoire diversity. Furthermore, a decline in repertoire diversity generally correlated with impaired responses to heterosubtypic challenge. This study formally demonstrates in a mouse infection model that naturally occurring contraction of the naive T cell repertoire can result in impaired CD8 T cell responses to known immunodominant epitopes and decline in heterosubtypic immunity. These observations have important implications for the design of vaccine strategies for the elderly.

Differential uptake and processing of a Haemophilus influenzae P5-derived immunogen by chinchilla dendritic cells

Dendritic cells (DCs) are potent antigen-presenting cells involved in the initiation and modulation of immune responses after immunization via their ability to process and present antigen to naive T cells. We wanted to examine the role of DCs in the development of protective immunity against nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHI)-induced experimental otitis media (OM) after intranasal immunization of chinchillas with an NTHI P5-derived synthetic peptide immunogen called LB1. As chinchilla DCs have not been described, we adapted well-established protocols to induce the differentiation of chinchilla bone marrow precursor cells into DCs, which resulted in cells that were morphologically and phenotypically similar to DCs of other species. In vitro, chinchilla DCs readily internalized LB1, upregulated expression of the maturation markers CD80 and major histocompatibility complex class II, and presented processed LB1 to primed CD3+ T cells, which resulted in antigen-specific T-cell proliferation. In vivo, LB1-activated DCs trafficked from the chinchilla nasal cavity primarily to the nasal-associated lymphoid tissues and were detected in close proximity to CD3+ T cells within this lymphoid aggregate. These data are the first to characterize chinchilla DCs and their functional properties. Furthermore, they suggest an important role for chinchilla DCs in the development of protective immunity against experimental NTHI-induced OM after intranasal immunization.

The Context of Epitope Presentation Can Influence Functional Quality of Recalled Influenza A Virus-Specific Memory CD8+ T Cells

Lipopeptide constructs offer a novel strategy for eliciting effective cellular and humoral immunity by directly targeting the vaccine Ag to dendritic cells. Importantly, it is not known how closely immunity generated after lipopeptide vaccination mimics that generated after natural infection. We have used a novel lipopeptide vaccine strategy to analyze both the quantity and quality of CD8(+) T cell immunity to an influenza A virus epitope derived from the acidic polymerase protein (PA(224)) in B6 mice. Vaccination with the PA(224) lipopeptide resulted in accelerated viral clearance after subsequent influenza virus infection. The lipopeptide was also effective at recalling secondary D(b)PA(224) responses in the lung. Lipopeptide recalled D(b)PA(224)-specific CTL produced lower levels of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha, but produced similar levels of IL-2 when compared with D(b)PA(224)-specific CTL recalled after virus infection. Furthermore, lipopeptide- and virus-recalled CTL demonstrated similar TCR avidity. Interestingly, lipopeptide administration resulted in expansion of D(b)PA(224)-specific CTL using a normally subdominant TCRBV gene segment. Overall, these results demonstrate that protective CTL responses elicited by lipopeptide vaccines can be correlated with TCR avidity, IL-2 production, and broad TCR repertoire diversity. Furthermore, factors that impact the quality of immunity are discussed. These factors are important considerations when evaluating the efficacy of novel vaccine strategies that target dendritic cells for eliciting cellular immunity.

Ab and T cell epitopes of influenza A virus, knowledge and opportunities

The Immune Epitope Database and Analysis Resources (IEDB) (www.immuneepitope.org) was recently developed to capture epitope related data. IEDB also hosts various bioinformatics tools that can be used to identify novel epitopes as well as to analyze and visualize existing epitope data. Herein, a comprehensive analysis was undertaken (i) to compile and inventory existing knowledge regarding influenza A epitopes and (ii) to determine possible cross-reactivities of identified epitopes among avian H5N1 and human influenza strains. At present, IEDB contains >600 different epitopes derived from 58 different strains and 10 influenza A proteins. By using the IEDB analysis resources, conservancy analyses were performed, and several conserved and possibly cross-reactive epitopes were identified. Significant gaps in the current knowledge were also revealed, including paucity of Ab epitopes in comparison with T cell epitopes, limited number of epitopes reported for avian influenza strains/subtypes, and limited number of epitopes reported from proteins other than hemagglutinin and nucleoprotein. This analysis provides a resource for researchers to access existing influenza epitope data. At the same time, the analysis illustrates gaps in our collective knowledge that should inspire directions for further study of immunity against the influenza A virus.

Confronting complexity: real-world immunodominance in antiviral CD8+ T cell responses

Antiviral CD8(+) T cells respond to only a minute fraction of the potential peptide determinants encoded by viral genomes. Immunogenic determinants can be ordered into highly reproducible hierarchies based on the magnitude of cognate CD8(+) T cell responses. Until recently, this phenomenon, termed immunodominance, was largely defined and characterized in model systems utilizing a few strains of inbred mice infected with a handful of viruses with limited coding capacity. Here, I review work that has extended immunodominance studies to viruses of greater complexity and to the real world of human antiviral immunity.

Immunity and immunological memory following smallpox vaccination

The smallpox vaccine consists of live vaccinia virus and is generally considered the gold standard of vaccines, since it is the only one that has led to the complete eradication of an infectious disease from the human population. Renewed fears that smallpox might be deliberately released in an act of bioterrorism have led to resurgence in the study of immunity and immunological memory to vaccinia virus and other poxviruses. Here we review our current understanding of memory T-cell, memory B-cell, and antibody responses to vaccinia and related poxviruses, both in animal models and human subjects. Of particular interest are recent advances in understanding protective immunity to poxviruses, quantifying immunological memory to the smallpox vaccine in humans, and identifying major vaccinia-specific T-cell and B-cell epitopes. In addition, potential mechanisms for maintenance of immunological memory are discussed.

Influenza and the challenge for immunology

The continued westward dissemination of H5N1 influenza A viruses in avian populations and the nearly 50% mortality rate of humans infected with H5N1 are a source of great international concern. A mutant H5N1 virus with the capability to spread rapidly between humans could cause a global catastrophe. Governments have reacted by developing national response plans, stockpiling antiviral drugs and speeding up the development and approval of vaccines. Here we summarize what is known about the interaction between influenza A viruses and the mammalian host response, specifically emphasizing issues that might be of interest to the broader immunology community.

T cells and viral persistence: lessons from diverse infections

Persistent virus infections create specific problems for their hosts. Although the dynamics of immune responses after acute infection are well studied and very consistent, especially in mouse models, the patterns of responses noted during persistent infection are more complex and differ depending on the infection. In particular, CD8(+) T cell responses differ widely in quantity and quality. In this review we examine these diverse responses and ask how they may arise; in particular, we discuss the function of antigen re-encounter and the CD4(+) T cell responses to and the escape strategies of specific viruses. We focus on studies of four main human pathogens, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus, and their animal models.