Exploring Health Demographics of Female Collegiate Rowers

Comparison of different periodization models on isotonic and isokinetic muscle strength and lean mass in tactical athletes

INTRODUCTION

Tactical athletes need to develop strength and lower limb lean mass (LL LM) to perform effectively. Resistance training (RT) is the most effective way to achieve these goals. Two periodization models stand out: traditional linear periodization (TLP) and daily undulating periodization (DUP).

OBJECTIVE

To verify the effect of lower limb RT with TLP and DUP on isotonic and isokinetic muscle strength and lean mass in tactical athletes.

METHOD

Thirty-five Brazilian Army military (21.57 ± 2.02 years; 81.81 ± 11.19 Kg; 177.79 ± 6.88 cm) were divided into two treatment groups and one active control group.

INTERVENTIONS

The treatment groups performed 9 weeks of supervised RT (18 sessions), consisting of free weight exercises in this order: back squat, squat lunge, deadlift, and stiff legged deadlift. Dynamic isotonic muscle strength, lean mass, and isokinetic knee extension and flexion were assessed at baseline and post treatment period.

RESULTS

There was a significant pre-post difference in dynamic isotonic muscle strength (TLP, P < 0.001; DUP, P < 0.001) and lean mass (TLP, P = 0.034; DUP, P = 0.003) of LL LM in both treatment groups. However, effect sizes (ES) and variations (%Δ) of gains were greater in the DUP group both in muscle strength (TLP, ES = 1.55, %Δ = 30.97; DUP, ES = 2.55, %Δ = 36.02), and in lean mass (TLP, ES = 0.13, %Δ = 2.07; DUP, ES = 0.44, %Δ = 2.95). For isokinetic knee flexion strength, a significant difference was found between the TLP versus CON.

CONCLUSION

Both lower limb RT periodization models provided gains in muscle strength and lean mass, with a small advantage for the DUP approach. In the isokinetic knee flexion strength, the TLP was more effective.

Effects of Education, Nutrition, and Psychology on Preventing the Female Athlete Triad

The female athlete triad is a syndrome occurring in young female athletes defined by menstrual dysfunction, decreased energy availability (EA), and low bone mineral density (BMD). Although the triad includes these three conditions, not all three need to occur simultaneously for the diagnosis to be made. The goal of this review is to analyze published research on the female athlete triad and determine prevention methods in athletics. A review of 23 published sources using the PubMed database identified key recommendations, including education resources, psychological factors, and nutrition. It is recommended that athletes, parents, coaches, and healthcare professionals should learn about the risk factors, warning signs, and diagnosis for better prevention. Research revealed that eating disorders, self-esteem issues, and coach-athlete relationships should be evaluated and potentially managed with counseling. Finally, nutritional recommendations included maintaining EA, providing nutritional counseling, and proper nutritional education. Early intervention with proper education, psychological support, and nutritional management are vital to preventing the onset of the female athlete triad.

Prevalence of low energy availability in 25 New Zealand elite female rowers - A cross sectional study

OBJECTIVES

To quantify energy availability (EA) in elite female rowers, determine its association with bone mineral density (BMD), and examine the ability of the low energy availability in females-questionnaire (LEAF-Q) and brief eating disorder in athletes-questionnaire (BEDA-Q) to distinguish between low and normal EA.

DESIGN

Observational cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Twenty-five elite female rowers participated in the study. EA was calculated by means of a 4-day food intake diary and analysis of training load. Low energy availability (LEA) was defined as EA <30 kCal * kg-1 * FFM-1 * day-1. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess fat free mass (FFM) and BMD Z-scores. LEA risk was assessed using the LEAF-Q and BEDA-Q.

RESULTS

The mean EA was 23.2 ± 12.2 kCal * kg-1 * FFM-1 * day-1. Prevalence of LEA was 64 %. The mean BMD Z-score was 1.6 ± 0.6 (range: 0.7 to 2.9). Athletes with LEA had a significantly higher BEDA-Q score than the group with normal EA (mean 0.30 ± 0.17 vs. 0.09 ± 0.11, P < 0.05), but LEAF-Q score was not different between groups (mean 10.4 ± 4.6, 8.2 ± 4.5, P = 0.29).

CONCLUSION

Low energy availability is common amongst elite female rowers in New Zealand and is positively correlated with higher scores on the BEDA-Q. Bone mineral density was normal irrespective of EA status.

Intersection of mental health issues and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): a narrative review by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on REDs

Overall athlete health is a stated priority by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), yet it can be difficult for athletes to safely balance nutritional needs, training load, recovery, social interactions, expectations and other demands. The effect of energy intake and, especially, low energy availability (LEA) on athlete mental health, is understudied. In this narrative review, we examine research that has included psychological factors and mental health variables when investigating the effect of LEA, dieting/restrictive eating and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs), since the 2018 IOC consensus statement on REDs. Based on currently available data, early psychological indicators associated with problematic LEA are mood changes, fatigue and psychological conflict. More severe mental health outcomes associated with REDs are reduced well-being, elevated anxiety, depressive symptoms and eating disorders. We propose a psychological model that helps structure how possible risk factors (eg, body dissatisfaction, environmental demands or increased training load) and moderating (eg, gender, sport) and/or potential mediating (eg, social climate, self-esteem) factors are associated with LEA and ultimately REDs. The current scientific literature underscores the importance of including mental health factors when screening for REDs and for developing a clinical approach to address the psychological sequelae of REDs once diagnosed. An interdisciplinary perspective is recommended. Lastly, and importantly, the athlete perspective urges clinicians to not underestimate the drive for success and denial of health consequences that athletes demonstrate when pursuing their sport goals.

Total and Regional Body Composition of NCAA Collegiate Female Rowing Athletes

This study explored body composition in female NCAA Division I rowers compared to controls; and the effect of season, boat category, and oar side on body composition. This retrospective analysis of 91 rowers, and 173 age, sex, and BMI-matched controls examined total and regional fat mass (FM), lean mass (LM), bone mineral content (BMC), bone mineral density (BMD), percent body fat (%BF), and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) measured using dual X-ray absorptiometry. Two-sample t-testing was used to assess differences between rowers and controls. Repeated measures ANOVA analyzed differences across seasons. ANOVA analyzed differences between boat categories. Paired t-testing analyzed oar side versus non-oar side. Rowers had greater height (174.2; 164.1 cm), weight (75.2; 62.6 kg), LM (51.97; 41.12 kg), FM (20.74; 19.34 kg), BMC (2.82; 2.37 kg), and BMD (1.24; 1.14 g/cm²); but lower %BF (30.5%; 27.1%), and VAT (168.1; 105.0 g) than controls (p<0.05). Total, arm, and trunk muscle-to-bone ratio were greater in rowers (p<0.001). Rowers demonstrated greater arm LM (5.8 kg; 5.6 kg) and BMC (0.37 kg; 0.36 kg) in Spring compared to Fall (p<0.05). 1V8 rowers had a lower %BF than non-scoring rowers (25.7%; 29.0%; p=0.025). No differences observed between oar sides. These findings will help rowing personnel better understand body composition of female collegiate rowers.

The Prevalence of Menstrual Cycle Disorders in Female Athletes from Different Sports Disciplines: A Rapid Review

The aim of this study was to rapidly review the literature on the prevalence of menstrual disorders in female athletes from different sports modalities. Articles were searched in the Web of Science and PubMed database in May 2022. A total of 1309 records were identified, and 48 studies were included in the final stage. The menstrual disorders described in the included studies were primary (in 33% of included studies) and secondary amenorrhea (in 73% of included studies) and oligomenorrhea (in 69% of included studies). The prevalence of menstrual disorders among the studies ranged from 0 to 61%. When data were pooled according to discipline (mean calculation), the highest prevalence of primary amenorrhea was found in rhythmic gymnastics (25%), soccer (20%) and swimming (19%); for secondary amenorrhea in cycling (56%), triathlon (40%) and rhythmic gymnastics (31%); and oligomenorrhea in boxing (55%), rhythmic gymnastics (44%) and artistic gymnastics (32%). Based on the results of this review, the study supports the literature of the higher prevalence of menstrual disorders in gymnastics and endurance disciplines. However, team sports modalities such as volleyball and soccer also presented a considerable percentage of menstrual disorders compared to the general population. It reinforces the importance of coaches and physicians paying attention to athletes' menstrual cycle as the occurrence of menstrual disorders can be associated with impairment on some health components.

The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis from 1993 to 2021

Sport psychology embraced the study of athletic identity in the 1990s. The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) is at the forefront of athletic identity measurement. This quantitative review examined two hypotheses: individual who are most engaged in sports identify most as athletes and thus score higher on the AIMS, and athletic identity relates to positive (e.g., intrinsic motivation) and negative (negative emotions) factors. In addition to our two hypotheses, we explored whether the AIMS subscales influenced our two hypotheses. After completing a systematic search of SPORTDiscus, APA PsycINFO, ERIC, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection APA within the EBSCOhost platform along with some hand searching, 101 articles published between 1993 and our end date of August 2021 met the inclusion criteria. The included studies investigated 20,498 athletes competing in a variety of sports from the following continents: Australia, Asia, Europe, and North America. We based all analyses on random- and mixed-effects statistics. Higher-achieving athletes, as expected, self-reported a higher degree of athletic identity. The differences between athlete groups were significant (p < 0.001) and meaningful (g values ranged from 1.55 to 1.93). The AIMS total score correlations with positive and negative factors (correlates) were small in magnitude (r = 0.22 and 0.17). However, the relationships differed across correlate subcategories (e.g., intrinsic motivation/commitment, r = 0.51, and body issues, r = 0.14). Minimal AIMS subscale reporting occurred across the 101 studies; thus, we could not assess their importance with certainty. In conclusion, a higher degree of athletic identity related to valued sport correlates such as intrinsic motivation/commitment and the mastery goal orientation. These correlations were small in relation to negative or less desirable factors in sport such as body disorder issues and negative emotions. We recommend future research of greater complexity and the reporting of athletes’ competitive backgrounds to understand athletic identity. In addition, researchers should report AIMS subscale data.

An Assessment of the Early Symptoms of Energy Deficiency as a Female Athlete Triad Risk among the Polish National Kayaking Team Using LEAF-Q

Background: Kayaking is a high intensity sport that demands high levels of aerobic and anaerobic capacity as well as a great deal of strength and endurance. The aim of this study was an assessment of the frequency of occurrence of early low energy availability symptoms using the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire for women belonging to the Polish national kayaking team. Additionally, quantitative measurements of body composition and levels of calcium were performed. Methods: The study involved 33 women who were competitors in the Polish national kayaking team. Results: An analysis of the results in terms of disorders in the monthly cycle in the tested kayakers found that only five competitors, approximately 15% of the entire group, had this type of problem. Between the participants who had disorders of the menstrual cycle and those whose cycle was normal, there was only a statistically significant difference at the level of p < 0.001 in relation to the age of the kayakers. Conclusions: The Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire proved to be a useful screening tool, which allowed for the early detection of Female Athlete Triad symptoms in several young female kayakers from the Polish national team.

ORAL HEALTH CONDITIONS AND SELF-REPORTED PRESENCE OF PAIN IN ROWERS: AN EPIDEMIOLOGY STUDY

ABSTRACT Introduction: Rowers are especially prone to oral health problems due to the massive consumption of supplements and isotonic drinks that lead eating disorders, due to the need for weight control, and to the development of teeth clenching caused by the constant activation of the chewing muscles during sports activity. Objective: To evaluate the oral health status of a group of Brazilian rowers and to identify the main risk factors influencing their oral health. Methods: One hundred and twenty rowers (84 men and 36 women) with an age of 24.16 ± 5.74 years participated in this study; an average height of 1.79 ± 0.09 cm and body mass of 75.02 ± 11.64 kg were detected by means of a questionnaire focused on the main factors that influence the deterioration in athletes’ oral health. Results: The dental results revealed a significant number of rowers with the oral breathing pattern (46.7%), malocclusion (65.8%), bruxism (33.3%) and noise and/or pain in the TMJ (temporomandibular joint) (20.8%). The use of supplements and isotonic drinks (48.3%) and the incidence of bleeding gums (30.83%) were also found. Conclusion: The results show the importance of making rowers aware of the relevance of oral health and the need for prevention systems, ideally including sports dentistry specialists within the sports medicine departments of rowing clubs. Level of evidence II; Retrospective study.

Review: questionnaires as measures for low energy availability (LEA) and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) in athletes

BACKGROUND

A sustained mismatch between energy intake and exercise energy expenditure (EEE) can lead to Low Energy Availability (LEA), health and performance impairments characteristic of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). Questionnaires can conveniently identify symptoms and/or LEA/ RED-S risk factors. This study aimed to systematically identify, and critique questionnaires used or developed to measure LEA/ RED-S risk in athletic populations.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted using PubMed database. Full text articles were included if: (i) the questionnaire(s) in the study identified LEA and/or RED-S risk; (ii) studies developed questionnaires to identify LEA and/or RED-S risk; (iii) participants belonged to athletic population(s); and (iv) in English.

RESULTS

Thirty-three articles met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed, 13 questionnaires were identified. Eight questionnaires had undergone validation procedures, and three questionnaires included questions related to EEE. The most widely used validated questionnaires were Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q) (48% articles) and Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) (12% articles). The LEAF-Q determines LEA risk from symptoms but cannot be used in males as nearly half of the items (n = 12) relate to menstrual function. The EDE-Q serves as a surrogate marker of LEA risk in both sexes, as it measures a major risk factor of LEA, disordered eating. Better validation is needed for many questionnaires and more are needed to address LEA/RED-S risk in male athletes.

CONCLUSION

These questionnaires may be effective in identifying intentional energy restriction but less valuable in identifying inadvertently failure to increase energy intake with increased EEE.

The Prevalence of Mental Health Conditions Among High School and Collegiate Student-Athletes: A Systematic Review

The physical impacts of overtraining, sport specification, and burnout are well documented in the literature; however, the state of the student-athlete’s (SA’s) mental health is something that needs to be investigated more comprehensively. Literature on SA mental health has gained prevalence within the last 5 years. The combination of pressure from sport and academics, as well as the stigmatization of clinical mental health treatment, can have a significant effect on the SA’s psyche. This review explores the prevalence of mental health conditions (MHCs) in high school and collegiate SAs. This includes signs and symptoms of mental health diagnoses to include substance- and alcohol-related addictive disorders and risk factors of such. A systematic review of the CINAHL, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, APA PsycINFO, and Rehabilitation & Sports Medicine resource databases was conducted. The initial search yielded 855 results. Following double screening, 22 studies were included, all of which were deemed medium to high quality. The findings indicate an alarming presence of MHCs ranging from risk factors of alcohol use and major depressive disorders among SAs. There was a high prevalence of mental health issues among SAs who are Black, Indigenous, people of color (BIPOC), and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer (LGBTQ). In most cases, participation in competitive athletics (varsity) did not contribute to additional MHCs for SAs. Sport psychologists should play a role in mental health programming within athletic departments. Athletic departments should develop proactive, targeted strategies to address MHCs for SAs.