Drug delivery systems: An updated review

Calcium phosphates enhanced with liposomes - the future of bone regeneration and drug delivery

Effective healing and regeneration of various bone defects is still a major challenge and concern in modern medicine. Calcium phosphates have emerged as extensively studied bone substitute materials due to their structural and chemical resemblance to the mineral phase of bone, along with their versatile properties. Calcium phosphates present promising biological characteristics that make them suitable for bone substitution, but a critical limitation lies in their low osteoinductivity. To supplement these materials with properties that promote bone regeneration, prevent infections, and cure bone diseases locally, calcium phosphates can be biologically and therapeutically modified. A promising approach involves combining calcium phosphates with drug-containing liposomes, renowned for their high biocompatibility and ability to provide controlled and sustained drug delivery. Surprisingly, there is a lack of research focused on liposome-calcium phosphate composites, where liposomes are dispersed within a calcium phosphate matrix. This raises the question of why such studies are limited. In order to provide a comprehensive overview of existing liposome and calcium phosphate composites as bioactive substance delivery systems, the authors review the literature exploring the interactions between calcium phosphates and liposomes. Additionally, it seeks to identify potential interactions between calcium ions and liposomes, which may impact the feasibility of developing liposome-containing calcium phosphate composite materials. Liposome capacity to protect bioactive compounds and facilitate localized treatment can be particularly valuable in scenarios involving bone regeneration, infection prevention, and the management of bone diseases. This review explores the implications of liposomes and calcium phosphate material containing liposomes on drug delivery, bioavailability, and stability, offering insights into their advantages.

Artificial Intelligence in nanotechnology for treatment of diseases

Nano-based drug delivery systems have demonstrated the ability to address challenges posed by therapeutic agents, enhancing drug efficiency and reducing side effects. Various nanoparticles are utilized as drug delivery systems with unique characteristics, leading to diverse applications across different diseases. However, the complexity, cost, and time-consuming nature of laboratory processes, the large volume of data, and the challenges in data analysis have prompted the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) tools. AI has been employed in designing, characterizing, and manufacturing drug delivery nanosystems, as well as in predicting treatment efficiency. AI's potential to personalize drug delivery based on individual patient factors, optimize formulation design, and predict drug properties has been highlighted. By leveraging AI and large datasets, developing safe and effective drug delivery systems can be accelerated, ultimately improving patient outcomes and advancing pharmaceutical sciences. This review article investigates the role of AI in the development of nano-drug delivery systems, with a focus on their therapeutic applications. The use of AI in drug delivery systems has the potential to revolutionize treatment optimization and improve patient care.

Understanding Mucosal Physiology and Rationale of Formulation Design for Improved Mucosal Immunity

The oral and nasal cavities serve as critical gateways for infectious pathogens, with microorganisms primarily gaining entry through these routes. Our first line of defense against these invaders is the mucosal membrane, a protective barrier that shields the body's internal systems from infection while also contributing to vital functions like air and nutrient intake. One of the key features of this mucosal barrier is its ability to protect the physiological system from pathogens. Additionally, mucosal tolerance plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the pH and water balance within the body. Recognizing the importance of the mucosal barrier, researchers have developed various mucosal formulations to enhance the immune response. Mucosal vaccines, for example, deliver antigens directly to mucosal tissues, triggering local immune stimulation and ultimately inducing systemic immunity. Studies have shown that lipid-based formulations such as liposomes and virosomes can effectively elicit both local and systemic immune responses. Furthermore, mucoadhesive polymeric particles, with their prolonged delivery to target sites, have demonstrated an enhanced immune response. This Review delves into the critical role of material selection and delivery approaches in optimizing mucosal immunity.

Double-shelled, rattle-architecture covalent organic framework: harnessing morphological manipulation for enhanced synergistic multi-drug chemo-photothermal cancer therapy

Morphological modulation in covalent organic frameworks (COFs) with particular emphasis on the correlation between structure and target applications in biomedical fields, is currently in its early stage of evolution. Herein, a multifunctional rattle-architecture imine-based COF with a mobile core of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) and an outer polydopamine (PDA) shell, tailored for cancer treatment, has been developed to effectively integrate dual responsive release capabilities with the potential for multiple therapeutic applications. The engineered COF displays outstanding crystallinity, a suitable size and precisely controlled morphological characteristics. By leveraging COF and PDA attributes, the successful co-delivery of hydrophilic doxorubicin (DOX) and hydrophobic docetaxel (DTX) within discrete compartments is achieved responsive to both pH and near-infrared triggers. Designed nanocarrier outperforms prior COFs with a superior 83.7% DOX loading capacity, thanks to its expansive internal space and porous shell. Taking advantage of the inclusion of Au core and the concurrent presence of COF and PDA outer shells, the nanocarrier exhibits a significant photothermal-conversion capability. The rattle-architecture double-shelled Au@RCOF@PDA were functionalized with poly(ethylene glycol)-folic acid (PEG-FA) to confer the system with active-targeting capability and enhanced biocompatibility. Through in vitro and in vivo evaluations, the designed system demonstrates an exceptional synergistic anti-tumor effect, along with favorable biosafety and histocompatibility. This study not only sheds light on the remarkable merits offered by regulating the morphology of COF-based systems in cancer therapy but also highlights the potential for synergistic therapeutic approaches in advancing cancer treatment strategies.

Delayed administration of interleukin-4 coacervate alleviates the neurotoxic phenotype of astrocytes and promotes functional recovery after a contusion spinal cord injury

Objective. Macrophages and astrocytes play a crucial role in the aftermath of a traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Infiltrating macrophages adopt a pro-inflammatory phenotype while resident astrocytes adopt a neurotoxic phenotype at the injury site, both of which contribute to neuronal death and inhibit axonal regeneration. The cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4) has shown significant promise in preclinical models of SCI by alleviating the macrophage-mediated inflammation and promoting functional recovery. However, its effect on neurotoxic reactive astrocytes remains to be elucidated, which we explored in this study. We also studied the beneficial effects of a sustained release of IL-4 from an injectable biomaterial compared to bolus administration of IL-4.Approach. We fabricated a heparin-based coacervate capable of anchoring and releasing bioactive IL-4 and tested its efficacyin vitroandin vivo. Main results. We show that IL-4 coacervate is biocompatible and drives a robust anti-inflammatory macrophage phenotype in culture. We also show that IL-4 and IL-4 coacervate can alleviate the reactive neurotoxic phenotype of astrocytes in culture. Finally, using a murine model of contusion SCI, we show that IL-4 and IL-4 coacervate, injected intraspinally 2 d post-injury, can reduce macrophage-mediated inflammation, and alleviate neurotoxic astrocyte phenotype, acutely and chronically, while also promoting neuroprotection with significant improvements in hindlimb locomotor recovery. We observed that IL-4 coacervate can promote a more robust regenerative macrophage phenotypein vitro, as well as match its efficacyin vivo,compared to bolus IL-4.Significance. Our work shows the promise of coacervate as a great choice for local and prolonged delivery of cytokines like IL-4. We support this by showing that the coacervate can release bioactive IL-4, which acts on macrophages and astrocytes to promote a pro-regenerative environment following a SCI leading to robust neuroprotective and functional outcomes.

Transdermal Delivery System of Doxycycline-Loaded Niosomal Gels: Toward Enhancing Doxycycline Stability

Doxycycline (DOX) is an antimicrobial agent that is susceptible to photosensitivity and thermal degradation. It addition, it causes gastrointestinal side effects when taken orally. Therefore, the development of alternative formulations is necessary to improve drug stability and promote patient compliance. The aim of the present study was to encapsulate DOX in niosomes as a nanocarrier to deliver DOX transdermally and enhance its stability in the formulation. DOX niosomes were prepared using nonionic surfactants, cholesterol, and dihexadecyl phosphate (DCP). After that, niosomes were characterized in terms of practical size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), morphology, and entrapment efficacy (EE%). DOX niosomal gels were then prepared using Carbopol and penetration enhancers (poly(ethylene glycol) 400 (PEG 400) and propylene glycol (PG)). The flux of DOX from the optimized formula was 322.86 μg/cm2/h over 5 h, which equates to 71.2% of DOX. Furthermore, neither the DOX niosomal gel (D3) nor the comparable blank niosomal gel had a negative influence on human dermal fibroblast (HDF) cells. The findings of the antimicrobial effectiveness of DOX niosomes indicated that the niosomal formulation improved the antibacterial activity of DOX against E. coli. Permeation studies demonstrated significantly higher DOX permeation when the niosomal gel was applied to rat skin, compared to the conventional gel. Permeability parameters such as flux and the permeability coefficient increased more than 10-fold using the niosomal gels compared with those of conventional gels. In conclusion, a new niosomal gel formulation could serve as an effective alternative for the commercially available form of DOX.

Nanogel: A versatile drug delivery system for the treatment of various diseases and their future perspective

Nanogel (NG) drug delivery systems have emerged as promising tools for targeted and controlled drug release, revolutionizing treatment approaches across various diseases. Their unique physicochemical properties, such as nano size, high surface area, biocompatibility, stability, and tunable drug release, make them ideal carriers for a wide range of therapeutic agents. Nanogels (NGs), characterized by their 3D network of crosslinked polymers, offer unique edges like high drug loading capacity, controlled release, and targeted delivery. Additionally, the diverse applications of NGs in medical therapeutics highlight their versatility and potential impact on improving patient outcomes. Their application spans cancer treatment, infectious diseases, and chronic conditions, allowing for precise drug delivery to specific tissues or cells, minimizing side effects, and enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Despite their potential, challenges such as scalability, manufacturing reproducibility, and regulatory hurdles must be addressed. Achieving clinical translation requires overcoming these obstacles to ensure therapeutic payloads' safe and efficient delivery. Strategies such as surface modification and incorporating stimuli-responsive elements enhanced NG performance and addressed specific therapeutic challenges. Advances in nanotechnology, biomaterials, and targeted drug design offer opportunities to improve the performance of NGs and address current limitations. Tailoring NGs for exploring combination therapies and integrating diagnostics for real-time monitoring represent promising avenues for future research. In conclusion, NG drug delivery systems have demonstrated tremendous potential in diverse disease applications. Overcoming challenges and leveraging emerging technologies will pave the way for their widespread clinical implementation, ushering in a new era of precision medicine and improved patient care.

Nanomedicines via the pulmonary route: a promising strategy to reach the target?

Over the past decades, research on nanomedicines as innovative tools in combating complex pathologies has increased tenfold, spanning fields from infectiology and ophthalmology to oncology. This process has further accelerated since the introduction of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. When it comes to human health, nano-objects are designed to protect, transport, and improve the solubility of compounds to allow the delivery of active ingredients on their targets. Nanomedicines can be administered by different routes, such as intravenous, oral, intramuscular, or pulmonary routes. In the latter route, nanomedicines can be aerosolized or nebulized to reach the deep lung. This review summarizes existing nanomedicines proposed for inhalation administration, from their synthesis to their potential clinical use. It also outlines the respiratory organs, their structure, and particularities, with a specific emphasis on how these factors impact the administration of nanomedicines. Furthermore, the review addresses the organs accessible through pulmonary administration, along with various pathologies such as infections, genetic diseases, or cancer that can be addressed through inhaled nanotherapeutics. Finally, it examines the existing devices suitable for the aerosolization of nanomedicines and the range of nanomedicines in clinical development.

Design and evaluation of fluorescent chitosan-starch hydrogel for drug delivery and sensing applications

Composite bio-based hydrogels have been obtaining a significant attention in recent years as one of the most promising drug delivery systems. In the present study, the preparation of composite chitosan-starch hydrogel using maleic acid as a cross-linker was optimized with the help of response surface methodology. The synthesized hydrogel was fluorescent owing to clustering of large number of functional groups. Different analytical techniques, including XRD, FTIR, SEM, XPS, fluorescence and BET were utilized to characterize the prepared hydrogel. XRD analysis confirmed the formation of non-crystalline hydrogel with random arrangement of macromolecular chains. The composite hydrogel exhibited good swelling percentage with pH sensitivity, hemocompatibility and degradability. BET analysis confirmed that the variation in concentration of crosslinker significantly influences the pore volume of the hydrogel. The synthesized composite chitosan-starch hydrogel was utilized as a prospective candidate for controlling drug release. Cefixime as a model drug was loaded onto the synthesized hydrogel utilizing the swelling diffusion method. SEM micrographs showed uniform distribution of drug molecules in the drug loaded hydrogel. In vitro drug release experiments indicated the swelling dependent drug release behaviour of chitosan-starch hydrogel with higher drug release at pH 7.4 (93.08 %) compared to pH 1.2 (67.85 %). The composite chitosan-starch hydrogel was able to prolong and control the drug release up to 12 h. The drug release from the hydrogel followed Korsmeyer-Peppas and Makoid-Banakar model with Fickian diffusion mechanism. Further, the composite hydrogel displayed excitation dependent fluorescence emission with most intense blue emission band at 425 nm with an excitation wavelength of 350 nm. The inclusion of cefixime drug in the hydrogel matrix significantly reduced the fluorescence intensity; the decrease was linearly correlated to the concentration of the drug. Moreover, the fluorescence emission the chitosan-starch hydrogel was found to be dependent upon pH. The synthesized hydrogel is expected to be a potential candidate for controlled drug release as well as for fluorescent sensing applications.

Amifostine loaded lipid-calcium carbonate nanoparticles as an oral drug delivery system for radiation protection

Amifostine (AMF) as the first-line radiation protection drug, usually suffered from low compliance and short half-life upon clinical applications. The development of oral drug delivery system (DDS) for AMF is a promising solution. However, the inherent shortages of AMF present significant challenges in the design of suitable oral DDS. Here in this study, we utilized the ability of calcium ions to bind with AMF and prepared AMF loaded calcium carbonate (CC) core, CC/AMF, using phase transferred coprecipitation method. We further modified the CC/AMF using phospholipids to prepare AMF loaded lipid-calcium carbonate (LCC) hybrid nanoparticles (LCC/AMF) via a thin-film dispersion method. LCC/AMF combines the oral advantages of lipid nanoparticles with the drug-loading capabilities of CC, which was shown as uniform nano-sized formulation with decent stability in aqueous solution. With favorable intestinal transport and absorption effects, it effectively enhances the in vivo radiation protection efficacy of AMF through oral administration. More importantly, we further investigated the cellular accumulation profile and intracellular transport mechanism of LCC/AMF using MDCK and Caco-2 cell lines as models. This research not only alters the current administration method of AMF to enhance its convenience and compliance, but also provides insights and guidance for the development of more suitable oral DDS for AMF in the future.

Synthesis of carboxymethyl chitosan-guar gum-poly(vinylpyrrolidone) ternary blended hydrogels with antibacterial/anticancer efficacy and drug delivery applications

Biopolymers have the utmost significance in biomedical applications and blending synthetic polymers has shown favorable characteristics versus individual counterparts. The utilization of the blends can be restricted through the use of toxic chemical agents such as initiators or crosslinkers. In this regard, a chemical agent-free ionizing irradiation is a beneficial alternative for preparing the hydrogels for biomedical applications. In this study, carboxymethyl chitosan (CM-CS), guar gum (GG), and poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) based ternary blends (TB) were crosslinked using various doses of ionizing irradiation to fabricate hydrogels. The prepared hydrogels were characterized for physicochemical properties, swelling analysis, biological assays, and drug delivery applications. Swelling analysis in distilled water revealed that the hydrogels exhibit excellent swelling characteristics. An in vitro cytocompatibility assay showed that the hydrogels have greater than 90% cell viability for the human epithelial cell line and a decreasing cell viability trend for the human alveolar adenocarcinoma cell line. In addition, the prepared hydrogels possessed excellent antibacterial characteristics against gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli). Finally, the release studies of anti-inflammatory Quercus acutissima (QA) loaded hydrogels exhibited more than 80% release in phosphate-buffered saline (pH = 7.4). These findings suggest that TB hydrogels can be used as suitable carrier media for different release systems and biomedical applications.

Supramolecular Nano-Tracker for Real-Time Tracking of Drug Release and Efficient Combination Therapy

Real-time tracking of drug release from nanomedicine in vivo is crucial for optimizing its therapeutic efficacy in clinical settings, particularly in dosage control and determining the optimal therapeutic window. However, most current real-time tracking systems require a tedious synthesis and purification process. Herein, a supramolecular nano-tracker (SNT) capable of real-time tracking of drug release in vivo based on non-covalent host-guest interactions is presented. By integrating multiple cavities into a single nanoparticle, SNT achieves co-loading of drugs and probes while efficiently quenching the photophysical properties of the probe through host-guest complexation. Moreover, SNT is readily degraded under hypoxic tumor tissues, leading to the simultaneous release of drugs and probes and the fluorescence recovery of probes. With this spatial and temporal consistency in drug loading and fluorescence quenching, as well as drug release and fluorescence recovery, SNT successfully achieves real-time tracking of drug release in vivo (Pearson r = 0.9166, R2 = 0.8247). Furthermore, the released drugs can synergize effectively with fluorescent probes upon light irradiation, achieving potent chemo-photodynamic combination therapy in 4T1-bearing mice with a significantly improved survival rate (33%), providing a potential platform to significantly advance the development of nanomedicine and achieve optimal therapeutic effects in the clinic.

Polymer nanotherapeutics: A promising approach toward microglial inhibition in neurodegenerative diseases

Nanoparticles (NPs) that target multiple transport mechanisms facilitate targeted delivery of active therapeutic agents to the central nervous system (CNS) and improve therapeutic transport and efficacy across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). CNS nanotherapeutics mostly target neurons and endothelial cells, however, microglial immune cells are the first line of defense against neuronal damage and brain infections. Through triggering release of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and proteases, microglia can however precipitate neurological damage-a significant factor in neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, microglial inhibitory agents are attracting much attention among those researching and developing novel treatments for neurodegenerative disorders. The most established inhibitors of microglia investigated to date are resveratrol, curcumin, quercetin, and minocycline. Thus, there is great interest in developing novel agents that can bypass or easily cross the BBB. One such approach is the use of modified-nanocarriers as, or for, delivery of, therapeutic agents to the brain and wider CNS. For microglial inhibition, polymeric NPs are the preferred vehicles for choice. Here, we summarize the immunologic and neuroinflammatory role of microglia, established microglia inhibitor agents, challenges of CNS drug delivery, and the nanotherapeutics explored for microglia inhibition to date. We also discuss applications of the currently considered "most useful" polymeric NPs for microglial-inhibitor drug delivery in CNS-related diseases.

Far-red light-triggered cargo release from liposomes b ound to a photosensitizer-cellulose nanofiber hydrogel

In our research we used the anionic nanofibrillar cellulose (ANFC) as a platform for far-red light-induced release of cargo from liposomes. In contrast to previous works, where photosensitizers are usually in the liposomal bilayers, we used a cellulose-binding dye. Our phthalocyanine derivative has been shown to bind very strongly to cellulose and cellulose nanofiber hydrogels, allowing us to place it outside of the liposomes. Both the sensitizer and cationic liposomes bind strongly to the ANFC after mixing, making the system easy to fabricate. Upon light activation, the photosensitizer generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the ANFC hydrogel, where the reactive oxygen species oxidize unsaturated lipids in the liposomal membrane, which makes the liposomes more permeable, resulting in on-demand cargo release. We were able to achieve ca. 70 % release of model hydrophilic cargo molecule calcein from the hydrogels with a relatively low dose of light (262 J/cm2) while employing the straightforward fabrication techniques. Our system was remarkably responsive to the far-red light (730 nm), enabling deep tissue penetration. Therefore, this very promising novel cellulose-immobilized photosensitizer liposomal platform could be used as a controlled drug delivery system, which can have applications in externally activated coatings or implants.

Recent advances in the development of poly(ester amide)s-based carriers for drug delivery

Biodegradable and biocompatible biomaterials have several important applications in drug delivery. The biomaterial family known as poly(ester amide)s (PEAs) has garnered considerable interest because it exhibits the benefits of both polyester and polyamide, as well as production from readily available raw ingredients and sophisticated synthesis techniques. Specifically, α-amino acid-based PEAs (AA-PEAs) are promising carriers because of their structural flexibility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Herein, we summarize the latest applications of PEAs in drug delivery systems, including antitumor, gene therapy, and protein drugs, and discuss the prospects of drug delivery based on PEAs, which provides a reference for designing safe and efficient drug delivery carriers.

Recent research progress on tumour-specific responsive hydrogels

Most existing hydrogels, even recently developed injectable hydrogels that undergo a reversible sol-gel phase transition in response to external stimuli, are designed to gel immediately before or after implantation/injection to prevent the free diffusion of materials and drugs; however, the property of immediate gelation leads to a very weak tumour-targeting ability, limiting their application in anticancer therapy. Therefore, the development of tumour-specific responsive hydrogels for anticancer therapy is imperative because tumour-specific responses improve their tumour-targeting efficacy, increase therapeutic effects, and decrease toxicity and side effects. In this review, we introduce the following three types of tumour-responsive hydrogels: (1) hydrogels that gel specifically at the tumour site; (2) hydrogels that decompose specifically at the tumour site; and (3) hydrogels that react specifically with tumours. For each type, their compositions, the mechanisms of tumour-specific responsiveness and their applications in anticancer treatment are comprehensively discussed.

Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery: Strengths and Opportunities in Medicine

There is a myriad of diseases that plague the world ranging from infectious, cancer and other chronic diseases with varying interventions. However, the dynamism of causative agents of infectious diseases and incessant mutations accompanying other forms of chronic diseases like cancer, have worsened the treatment outcomes. These factors often lead to treatment failure via different drug resistance mechanisms. More so, the cost of developing newer drugs is huge. This underscores the need for a paradigm shift in the drug delivery approach in order to achieve desired treatment outcomes. There is intensified research in nanomedicine, which has shown promises in improving the therapeutic outcome of drugs at preclinical stages with increased efficacy and reduced toxicity. Regardless of the huge benefits of nanotechnology in drug delivery, challenges such as regulatory approval, scalability, cost implication and potential toxicity must be addressed via streamlining of regulatory hurdles and increased research funding. In conclusion, the idea of nanotechnology in drug delivery holds immense promise for optimizing therapeutic outcomes. This work presents opportunities to revolutionize treatment strategies, providing expert opinions on translating the huge amount of research in nanomedicine into clinical benefits for patients with resistant infections and cancer.

A current era in pulsatile drug delivery system: Drug journey based on chronobiology

Almost all biological processes in the human body are regulated by circadian rhythm, which results in drastically different biochemical and physiological conditions throughout a 24 h period. Hence, suitable drug delivery systems should be efficiently monitored to attain the required therapeutic plasma concentration and therapeutic drug responses when needed as per chrono pharmacological concepts. "Chronotherapy" is the fast and transient release of a particular quantity of drug substance post a predetermined off-release period, termed as 'lag time'. Due to rhythmic variations, it is typically unnecessary to administer a medicine drug in an unhealthy condition constantly. Pulsatile drug delivery systems have received a lot of attention in pharmaceutical development because they give a quick or rate-controlled drug release after administration, followed by an anticipated lag period. Patients with various illnesses, such as asthma, hypertension, joint inflammation, and ulcers, can benefit from a pulsatile drug delivery system. Thus, a pulsatile drug delivery system may be a potential system for managing different diseases. This review mainly focuses on pulsatile drug delivery systems. It reviews and discusses the rationale, drug release mechanism, need, and system classification. In addition, it covers mainly externally regulated pulsatile drug delivery systems and recent advances in pulsatile systems like artificial intelligence and 3D printing. It also covers the ethical issues associated with pulsatile drug delivery systems.

How Biodegradable Polymers Can be Effective Drug Delivery Systems for Cannabinoids? Prospectives and Challenges

Cannabinoids are compounds found in and derived from the Cannabis plants that have become increasingly recognised as significant modulating factors of physiological mechanisms and inflammatory reactions of the organism, thus inevitably affecting maintenance of homeostasis. Medical Cannabis popularity has surged since its legal regulation growing around the world. Numerous promising discoveries bring more data on cannabinoids' pharmacological characteristics and therapeutic applications. Given the current surge in interest in the medical use of cannabinoids, there is an urgent need for an effective method of their administration. Surpassing low bioavailability, low water solubility, and instability became an important milestone in the advancement of cannabinoids in pharmaceutical applications. The numerous uses of cannabinoids in clinical practice remain restricted by limited administration alternatives, but there is hope when biodegradable polymers are taken into account. The primary objective of this review is to highlight the wide range of indications for which cannabinoids may be used, as well as the polymeric carriers that enhance their effectiveness. The current review described a wide range of therapeutic applications of cannabinoids, including pain management, neurological and sleep disorders, anxiety, and cancer treatment. The use of these compounds was further examined in the area of dermatology and cosmetology. Finally, with the use of biodegradable polymer-based drug delivery systems (DDSs), it was demonstrated that cannabinoids can be delivered specifically to the intended site while also improving the drug's physicochemical properties, emphasizing their utility. Nevertheless, additional clinical trials on novel cannabinoids' formulations are required, as their full spectrum therapeutical potential is yet to be unravelled.

Stem cells derived exosomes as biological nano carriers for VCR sulfate for treating breast cancer stem cells

Due to vincristine sulfate's (VCR sulfate) toxicity and non-specific targeting, which might adversely damage healthy cells, its clinical application is restricted. In this study, we loaded VCR sulfate on exosomes generated from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to enhance its targeted distribution. Exosomes are able to deliver molecules to specific cells and tissues and have therapeutic potential. In this study, we isolated exosomes from MSCs, and using probe-sonication approach loaded them with VCR sulfate. Using SRB assay, the cytotoxicity of VCR sulfate-Exo was assessed in T47D breast cancer cells, and the results were contrasted with those of free VCR sulfate. Then We labeled markers (CD44+/CD24-) in the cell line to assess the targeting effectiveness of VCR sulfate-Exo using flow cytometry. Our results showed that the cytotoxicity of VCR sulfate-Exo was nearly the same as that of VCR sulfate. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that VRC sulfate-Exo was more effectively targeted to MSCs than free VCR sulfate. Our study shows that loading VCR sulfate to MSCs-derived exosomes can improve their targeted delivery and lessen their side effects. Additional research is required to determine VCR sulfate-Exo's in vivo effectiveness and safety and improve the loading and delivery strategies.

Drug Integrating Amphiphilic Nano-Assemblies: 2. Spatiotemporal Distribution within Inflammation Sites

The need for chronic systemic immunosuppression, which is associated with unavoidable side-effects, greatly limits the applicability of allogeneic cell transplantation for regenerative medicine applications including pancreatic islet cell transplantation to restore insulin production in type 1 diabetes (T1D). Cell transplantation in confined sites enables the localized delivery of anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory drugs to prevent graft loss by innate and adaptive immunity, providing an opportunity to achieve local effects while minimizing unwanted systemic side effects. Nanoparticles can provide the means to achieve the needed localized and sustained drug delivery either by graft targeting or co-implantation. Here, we evaluated the potential of our versatile platform of drug-integrating amphiphilic nanomaterial assemblies (DIANAs) for targeted drug delivery to an inflamed site model relevant for islet transplantation. We tested either passive targeting of intravenous administered spherical nanomicelles (nMIC; 20-25 nm diameter) or co-implantation of elongated nanofibrils (nFIB; 5 nm diameter and >1 μm length). To assess the ability of nMIC and nFIB to target an inflamed graft site, we used a lipophilic fluorescent cargo (DiD and DiR) and evaluated the in vivo biodistribution and cellular uptake in the graft site and other organs, including draining and non-draining lymph nodes, after systemic administration (nMIC) and/or graft co-transplantation (nFIB) in mice. Localized inflammation was generated either by using an LPS injection or by using biomaterial-coated islet-like bead implantation in the subcutaneous site. A cell transplant inflammation model was used as well to test nMIC- and nFIB-targeted biodistribution. We found that nMIC can reach the inflamed site after systemic administration, while nFIB remains localized for several days after co-implantation. We confirmed that DIANAs are taken up by different immune cell populations responsible for graft inflammation. Therefore, DIANA is a useful approach for targeted and/or localized delivery of immunomodulatory drugs to decrease innate and adaptive immune responses that cause graft loss after transplantation of therapeutic cells.

A review of DNA nanoparticles-encapsulated drug/gene/protein for advanced controlled drug release: Current status and future perspective over emerging therapy approaches

In the last ten years, the field of nanomedicine has experienced significant progress in creating novel drug delivery systems (DDSs). An effective strategy involves employing DNA nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers to encapsulate drugs, genes, or proteins, facilitating regulated drug release. This abstract examines the utilization of DNA NPs and their potential applications in strategies for controlled drug release. Researchers have utilized the distinctive characteristics of DNA molecules, including their ability to self-assemble and their compatibility with living organisms, to create NPs specifically for the purpose of delivering drugs. The DNA NPs possess numerous benefits compared to conventional drug carriers, such as exceptional stability, adjustable dimensions and structure, and convenient customization. Researchers have successfully achieved a highly efficient encapsulation of different therapeutic agents by carefully designing their structure and composition. This advancement enables precise and targeted delivery of drugs. The incorporation of drugs, genes, or proteins into DNA NPs provides notable advantages in terms of augmenting therapeutic effectiveness while reducing adverse effects. DNA NPs serve as a protective barrier for the enclosed payloads, preventing their degradation and extending their duration in the body. The protective effect is especially vital for delicate biologics, such as proteins or gene-based therapies that could otherwise be vulnerable to enzymatic degradation or quick elimination. Moreover, the surface of DNA NPs can be altered to facilitate specific targeting towards particular tissues or cells, thereby augmenting the accuracy of delivery. A significant benefit of DNA NPs is their capacity to regulate the kinetics of drug release. Through the manipulation of the DNA NPs structure, scientists can regulate the rate at which the enclosed cargo is released, enabling a prolonged and regulated dispensation of medication. This control is crucial for medications with limited therapeutic ranges or those necessitating uninterrupted administration to attain optimal therapeutic results. In addition, DNA NPs have the ability to react to external factors, including alterations in temperature, pH, or light, which can initiate the release of the payload at precise locations or moments. This feature enhances the precision of drug release control. The potential uses of DNA NPs in the controlled release of medicines are extensive. The NPs have the ability to transport various therapeutic substances, for example, drugs, peptides, NAs (NAs), and proteins. They exhibit potential for the therapeutic management of diverse ailments, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases. In addition, DNA NPs can be employed for targeted drug delivery, traversing biological barriers, and surpassing the constraints of conventional drug administration methods.

Revolutionizing neurotherapeutics: blood-brain barrier-on-a-chip technologies for precise drug delivery

Introduction

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a critical neurovascular unit regulating substances' passage from the bloodstream to the brain. Its selective permeability poses significant challenges in drug delivery for neurological disorders. Conventional methods often fail due to the BBB's complex structure.

Aim

The study aims to shed light on their pivotal role in revolutionizing neurotherapeutics and explores the transformative potential of BBB-on-a-Chip technologies in drug delivery research to comprehensively review BBB-on-a-chip technologies, focusing on their design, and substantiate advantages over traditional models.

Methods

A detailed analysis of existing literature and experimental data pertaining to BBB-on-a-Chip technologies was conducted. Various models, their physiological relevance, and innovative design considerations were examined through databases like Scopus, EbscoHost, PubMed Central, and Medline. Case studies demonstrating enhanced drug transport through BBB-on-a-Chip models were also reviewed, highlighting their potential impact on neurological disorders.

Results

BBB-on-a-Chip models offer a revolutionary approach, accurately replicating BBB properties. These microphysiological systems enable high-throughput screening, real-time monitoring of drug transport, and precise localization of drugs. Case studies demonstrate their efficacy in enhancing drug penetration, offering potential therapies for diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.

Conclusion

BBB-on-a-Chip models represent a transformative milestone in drug delivery research. Their ability to replicate BBB complexities, offer real-time monitoring, and enhance drug transport holds immense promise for neurological disorders. Continuous research and development are imperative to unlock BBB-on-a-Chip models' full potential, ushering in a new era of targeted, efficient, and safer drug therapies for challenging neurological conditions.

Formulation and optimization of pH-sensitive nanocrystals for improved oral delivery

The challenge of low water solubility in pharmaceutical science profoundly impacts drug absorption and therapeutic effectiveness. Nanocrystals (NC), consisting of drug molecules and stabilizing agents, offer a promising solution to enhance solubility and control release rates. In the pharmaceutical industry, top-down techniques are favored for their flexibility and cost-effectiveness. However, increased solubility can lead to premature drug dissolution in the stomach, which is problematic due to the acidic pH or enzymes. Researchers are exploring encapsulating agents that facilitate drug release at customized pH levels as a valuable strategy to address this. This study employed wet milling and spray drying techniques to create encapsulated NC for delivering the drug to the intestinal tract using the model drug ivermectin (IVM). Nanosuspensions (NS) were efficiently produced within 2 h using NanoDisp®, with a particle size of 198.4 ± 0.6 nm and a low polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.184, ensuring uniformity. Stability tests over 100 days at 4 °C and 25 °C demonstrated practical viability, with no precipitation or significant changes observed. Cytotoxicity evaluations indicated less harm to Caco-2 cells compared to the pure drug. Furthermore, the solubility of the NC increased by 47-fold in water and 4.8-fold in simulated intestinal fluid compared to the pure active compound. Finally, dissolution tests showed less than 10% release in acidic conditions and significant improvement in simulated intestinal conditions, promising enhanced drug solubility and bioavailability. This addresses a long-standing pharmaceutical challenge in a cost-effective and scalable manner.

Sub-100 nm carriers by template polymerization for drug delivery applications

Size-controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical sciences due to their potential to enhance drug efficacy, minimize side effects, and improve patient compliance. This review provides a concise overview of the preparation method, advancements, and applications of size-controlled drug delivery systems focusing on the sub-100 nm size DDSs. The importance of tailoring the size for achieving therapeutic goals is briefly mentioned. We highlight the concept of "template polymerization", a well-established method in covalent polymerization that offers precise control over molecular weight. We demonstrate the utility of this approach in crafting a monolayer of a polymer around biomolecule templates such as DNA, RNA, and protein, achieving the generation of DDSs with sizes ranging from several tens of nanometers. A few representative examples of small-size DDSs that share a conceptual similarity to "template polymerization" are also discussed. This review concludes by briefly discussing the drug release behaviors and the future prospects of "template polymerization" for the development of innovative size-controlled drug delivery systems, which promise to optimize drug delivery precision, efficacy, and safety.

Biomedical Trends in Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels with Emphasis on Chitosan-Based Formulations

Biomedicine is constantly evolving to ensure a significant and positive impact on healthcare, which has resulted in innovative and distinct requisites such as hydrogels. Chitosan-based formulations stand out for their versatile utilization in drug encapsulation, transport, and controlled release, which is complemented by their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-immunogenic nature. Stimuli-responsive hydrogels, also known as smart hydrogels, have strictly regulated release patterns since they respond and adapt based on various external stimuli. Moreover, they can imitate the intrinsic tissues' mechanical, biological, and physicochemical properties. These characteristics allow stimuli-responsive hydrogels to provide cutting-edge, effective, and safe treatment. Constant progress in the field necessitates an up-to-date summary of current trends and breakthroughs in the biomedical application of stimuli-responsive chitosan-based hydrogels, which was the aim of this review. General data about hydrogels sensitive to ions, pH, redox potential, light, electric field, temperature, and magnetic field are recapitulated. Additionally, formulations responsive to multiple stimuli are mentioned. Focusing on chitosan-based smart hydrogels, their multifaceted utilization was thoroughly described. The vast application spectrum encompasses neurological disorders, tumors, wound healing, and dermal infections. Available data on smart chitosan hydrogels strongly support the idea that current approaches and developing novel solutions are worth improving. The present paper constitutes a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners in the currently evolving field.

Preparation of UiO-66 loaded Letrozole nano-drug delivery system: enhanced anticancer and apoptosis activity

The use of drug delivery systems in targeting and achieving the targeting of drugs in treating diseases, especially cancer, has attracted the attention of researchers. Letrozole is one of the drugs for the treatment of breast cancer. In this study, the organic-metallic pharmaceutical porous nanostructure based on zirconium UiO-66 loaded letrozole was synthesized. Its cytotoxicity and effect on apoptosis and migration against breast cancer cell line were investigated. In this experimental study, the UiO-66 nanoparticle-loaded letrozole was synthesized using zirconium chloride (ZrCl4), dimethylformamide (DMF), and HCl. Its characteristics were determined by scanning electron microscopy, and its average size was determined by the DLS method. Also, the rate of letrozole drug release from the nanoparticle was investigated in 24, 48, and 72 h. In addition, its cytotoxicity effects were investigated using the MTT colorimetric method at concentrations of 3.125-100 µg/ml against the breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) in the periods of 48 and 72 h. Also, the expression level of apoptotic genes Bax and Bcl2 was investigated by the Real-Time PCR method. Also, the amount of cell migration was done by the migration assay method. The results showed that UiO-66 bound to letrozole had a spherical morphology and an average size of 9.2 ± 160.1. Also, the letrozole drug was loaded by 62.21 ± 1.80% in UiO-66 nanoparticles and had a slower release pattern than free letrozole in the drug release test, so within 72 h, 99.99% of free letrozole was released in If in UiO-66 containing letrozole, 57.55% of the drug has been released. Also, the cytotoxicity results showed that UiO-66 bound to letrozole has more significant cytotoxic effects than free letrozole (p < 0.05). Also, the results of Bax and Bcl2 gene expression showed that the treatment of MCF-7 cells with UiO-66 nanoparticles attached to letrozole increased the expression of Bax and Bcl2 genes compared to the reference gene Beta-actin in MCF-7 cell line, respectively. (p < 0.05) increased by 3.71 ± 0.42 and (p < 0.01) decreased by 0.636 ± 0.034 (p < 0.05). Cell migration results showed that the concentration of 50 µg/ml of UiO-66 bound to letrozole decreased the migration of MCF-7 cells. Generally, the results of this study showed that UiO-66 loaded letrozole can be used as a suitable drug carrier for cellular purposes, as it has increased the effects of cytotoxicity and the rate of apoptosis in breast cancer cell line (MCF-7), so it can be used with more studies used nanocarriers as a drug delivery system.

Plasma Gel Matrix as a Promising Carrier of Epigallocatechin Gallate for Regenerative Medicine

Plasma gel (PG) is a protein matrix prepared from platelet-poor plasma and can be utilized as a drug carrier for controlled release. We previously demonstrated its applicability as a carrier of polyphosphate. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the main flavonoid found in green tea and functions as a strong antioxidant. To explore the applicability of PG as an EGCG carrier, we examined the release of EGCG from the PG matrix using an in vitro system. Pooled platelet-poor plasma (PPP) was prepared from four healthy adult male donors, mixed with EGCG, and heated at 75 °C for 10 or 20 min to prepare the PG matrix. The PG-EGCG matrix was incubated in PBS at 37 °C, and the EGCG released into PBS was determined using spectrophotometry. The antioxidant capacity was determined based on the principle of the iodine decolorization reaction. EGCG precipitated and incorporated into the PG matrix during thermal preparation. Trypsin, used to simulate the in vivo degradation of PG, released EGCG from the PG matrix over time. The released EGCG maintained its antioxidant capacity during incubation. These results indicate that thermally prepared PG matrices can be utilized as a promising EGCG carrier in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Liposomes, transfersomes and niosomes: production methods and their applications in the vaccinal field

One of the most effective strategies to fight viruses and handle health diseases is vaccination. Recent studies and current applications are moving on antigen, DNA and RNA-based vaccines to overcome the limitations related to the conventional vaccination strategies, such as low safety, necessity of multiple injection, and side effects. However, due to the instability of pristine antigen, RNA and DNA molecules, the use of nanocarriers is required. Among the different nanocarriers proposed for vaccinal applications, three types of nanovesicles were selected and analysed in this review: liposomes, transfersomes and niosomes. PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar databases were used for searching recent papers on the most frequently used conventional and innovative methods of production of these nanovesicles. Weaknesses and limitations of conventional methods (i.e., multiple post-processing, solvent residue, batch-mode processes) can be overcome using innovative methods, in particular, the ones assisted by supercritical carbon dioxide. SuperSomes process emerged as a promising production technique of solvent-free nanovesicles, since it can be easily scaled-up, works in continuous-mode, and does not require further post-processing steps to obtain the desired products. As a result of the literature analysis, supercritical carbon dioxide assisted methods attracted a lot of interest for nanovesicles production in the vaccinal field. However, despite their numerous advantages, supercritical processes require further studies for the production of liposomes, transfersomes and niosomes with the aim of reaching well-defined technologies suitable for industrial applications and mass production of vaccines.

Characterizing regional drug delivery within the nasal airways

INTRODUCTION

The nose has been receiving increased attention as a route for drug delivery. As the site of deposition constitutes the first point of contact of the body with the drug, characterization of the regional deposition of intranasally delivered droplets or particles is paramount to formulation and device design of new products.

AREAS COVERED

This review article summarizes the recent literature on intranasal regional drug deposition evaluated in vivo, in vitro and in silico, with the aim of correlating parameters measured in vitro with formulation and device performance. We also highlight the relevance of regional deposition to two emerging applications: nose-to-brain drug delivery and intranasal vaccines.

EXPERT OPINION

As in vivo studies of deposition can be costly and time-consuming, researchers have often turned to predictive in vitro and in silico models. Variability in deposition is high due in part to individual differences in nasal geometry, and a complete predictive model of deposition based on spray characteristics remains elusive. Carefully selected or idealized geometries capturing population average deposition can be useful surrogates to in vivo measurements. Continued development of in vitro and in silico models may pave the way for development of less variable and more effective intranasal drug products.

Cancer treatment with biosimilar drugs: A review

Biosimilars are biological drugs created from living organisms or that contain living components. They share an identical amino-acid sequence and immunogenicity. These drugs are considered to be cost-effective and are utilized in the treatment of cancer and other endocrine disorders. The primary aim of biosimilars is to predict biosimilarity, efficacy, and treatment costs; they are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and have no clinical implications. They involve analytical studies to understand the similarities and dissimilarities. A biosimilar manufacturer sets up FDA-approved reference products to evaluate biosimilarity. The contribution of next-generation sequencing is evolving to study the organ tumor and its progression with its impactful therapeutic approach on cancer patients to showcase and target rare mutations. The study shall help to understand the future perspectives of biosimilars for use in gastro-entero-logic diseases, colorectal cancer, and thyroid cancer. They also help target specific organs with essential mutational categories and drug prototypes in clinical practices with blood and liquid biopsy, cell treatment, gene therapy, recombinant therapeutic proteins, and personalized medications. Biosimilar derivatives such as monoclonal antibodies like trastuzumab and rituximab are common drugs used in cancer therapy. Escherichia coli produces more than six antibodies or antibody-derived proteins to treat cancer such as filgrastim, epoetin alfa, and so on.

Injectable and Multifunctional Hydrogels Based on Poly(N-acryloyl glycinamide) and Alginate Derivatives for Antitumor Drug Delivery

Chemotherapy is a conventional treatment that uses drugs to kill cancer cells; however, it may induce side effects and may be incompletely effective, leading to the risk of tumor recurrence. To address this issue, we developed novel injectable thermal/near-infrared (NIR)-responsive hydrogels to control drug release. The injectable hydrogel formulation was composed of biocompatible alginates, poly(N-acryloyl glycinamide) (PNAGA) copolymers with an upper critical solution temperature, and NIR-responsive cross-linkers containing coumarin groups, which were gelated through bioorthogonal inverse electron demand Diels-Alder reactions. The hydrogels exhibited quick gelation times (120-800 s) and high drug loading efficiencies (>90%). The hydrogels demonstrated a higher percentage of drug release at 37 °C than that at 25 °C due to the enhanced swelling behavior of temperature-responsive PNAGA moieties. Upon NIR irradiation, the hydrogels released most of the entrapped doxorubicin (DOX) (97%) owing to the cleavage of NIR-sensitive coumarin ester groups. The hydrogels displayed biocompatibility with normal cells, while induced antitumor activity toward cancer cells. DOX/hydrogels treated with NIR light inhibited tumor growth in nude mice bearing tumors. In addition, the injected hydrogels emitted red fluorescence upon excitation at a green wavelength, so that the drug delivery and hydrogel degradation in vivo could be tracked in the xenograft model.

Lithocholic acid-based oligomers as drug delivery candidates targeting model of lipid raft

This study presents a new approach to designing a lithocholic acid functionalized oligomer (OLithocholicAA-X) that can be used as a drug carrier with additional, beneficial activity. Namely, this novel oligomer can incorporate an anti-cancer drug due to the application of an effective backbone as its component (lithocholic acid) alone is known to have anticancer activity. The oligomer was synthesized and characterized in detail by nuclear magnetic resonance, attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and mass spectrometry analysis. We selected lipid rafts as potential drug carrier-membrane binding sites. In this respect, we investigated the effects of OLithocholicAA-X on model lipid raft of normal and altered composition, containing an increased amount of cholesterol (Chol) or sphingomyelin (SM), using Langmuir monolayers and liposomes. The surface topography of the studied monolayers was additionally investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The obtained results showed that the investigated oligomer has affinity for a system that mimics a normal lipid raft (SM:Chol 2:1). On the other hand, for systems with an excess of SM or Chol, thermodynamically unfavorable fluidization of the films occurs. Moreover, AFM topographies showed that the amount of SM determines the bioavailability of the oligomer, causing fragmentation of its lattice.

Stimuli responsiveness of recent biomacromolecular systems (concept to market): A review

Stimuli responsive delivery systems, also known as smart/intelligent drug delivery systems, are specialized delivery vehicles designed to provide spatiotemporal control over drug release at target sites in various diseased conditions, including tumor, inflammation and many others. Recent advances in the design and development of a wide variety of stimuli-responsive (pH, redox, enzyme, temperature) materials have resulted in their widespread use in drug delivery and tissue engineering. The aim of this review is to provide an insight of recent nanoparticulate drug delivery systems including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, lipid-based nanoparticles and the design of new polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs), with a major emphasis on natural along with synthetic commercial polymers used in their construction. Special focus has been placed on stimuli-responsive polymeric materials, their preparation methods, and the design of novel single and multiple stimuli-responsive materials that can provide controlled drug release in response a specific stimulus. These stimuli-sensitive drug nanoparticulate systems have exhibited varying degrees of substitution with enhanced in vitro/in vivo release. However, in an attempt to further increase drug release, new dual and multi-stimuli based natural polymeric nanocarriers have been investigated which respond to a mixture of two or more signals and are awaiting clinical trials. The translation of biopolymeric directed stimuli-sensitive drug delivery systems in clinic demands a thorough knowledge of its mechanism and drug release pattern in order to produce affordable and patient friendly products.

Innovative Nanoparticulate Strategies in Colon Cancer Treatment: A Paradigm Shift

As a major public health issue, colorectal cancer causes 9.4% of total cancer-related deaths and comprises 10% of new cancer diagnoses worldwide. In the year 2023, an estimated 153,020 people are expected to receive an identification of colorectal cancer (CRC), resulting in roughly 52,550 fatalities anticipated as a result of this illness. Among those impacted, approximately 19,550 cases and 3750 deaths are projected to occur in individuals under the age of 50. Irinotecan (IRN) is a compound derived from the chemical structure of camptothecin, a compound known for its action in inhibiting DNA topoisomerase I. It is employed in the treatment strategy for CRC therapies. Comprehensive in vivo and in vitro studies have robustly substantiated the anticancer efficacy of these compounds against colon cancer cell lines. Blending irinotecan in conjunction with other therapeutic cancer agents such as oxaliplatin, imiquimod, and 5 fluorouracil enhanced cytotoxicity and improved chemotherapeutic efficacy. Nevertheless, it is linked to certain serious complications and side effects. Utilizing nano-formulated prodrugs within "all-in-one" carrier-free self-assemblies presents an effective method to modify the pharmacokinetics and safety portfolio of cytotoxic chemotherapeutics. This review focuses on elucidating the mechanism of action, exploring synergistic effects, and innovating novel delivery approaches to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of irinotecan.

The application strategy of liposomes in organ targeting therapy

Liposomes-microscopic phospholipid bubbles with bilayered membrane structure-have been a focal point in drug delivery research for the past 30 years. Current liposomes possess a blend of biocompatibility, drug loading efficiency, prolonged circulation and targeted delivery. Tailored liposomes, varying in size, charge, lipid composition, and ratio, have been developed to address diseases in specific organs, thereby enhancing drug circulation, accumulation at lesion sites, intracellular delivery, and treatment efficacy for various organ-specific diseases. For further successful development of this field, this review summarized liposomal strategies for targeting different organs in series of major human diseases, including widely studied cardiovascular diseases, liver and spleen immune diseases, chronic or acute kidney injury, neurodegenerative diseases, and organ-specific tumors. It highlights recent advances of liposome-mediated therapeutic agent delivery for disease intervention and organ rehabilitation, offering practical guidelines for designing organ-targeted liposomes. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures.

Revolutionizing targeting precision: microfluidics-enabled smart microcapsules for tailored delivery and controlled release

As promising delivery systems, smart microcapsules have garnered significant attention owing to their targeted delivery loaded with diverse active materials. By precisely manipulating fluids on the micrometer scale, microfluidic has emerged as a powerful tool for tailoring delivery systems based on potential applications. The desirable characteristics of smart microcapsules are associated with encapsulation capacity, targeted delivery capability, and controlled release of encapsulants. In this review, we briefly describe the principles of droplet-based microfluidics for smart microcapsules. Subsequently, we summarize smart microcapsules as delivery systems for efficient encapsulation and focus on target delivery patterns, including passive targets, active targets, and microfluidics-assisted targets. Additionally, based on release mechanisms, we review controlled release modes adjusted by smart membranes and on/off gates. Finally, we discuss existing challenges and potential implications associated with smart microcapsules.

Structure-activity characteristics of phenylalanine analogs selectively transported by L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1)

L-type amino acid transporter 1 (LAT1) is a transmembrane protein responsible for transporting large neutral amino acids. While numerous LAT1-targeted compound delivery for the brain and tumors have been investigated, their LAT1 selectivity often remains ambiguous despite high LAT1 affinity. This study assessed the LAT1 selectivity of phenylalanine (Phe) analogs, focusing on their structure-activity characteristics. We discovered that 2-iodo-L-phenylalanine (2-I-Phe), with an iodine substituent at position 2 in the benzene ring, markedly improves LAT1 affinity and selectivity compared to parent amino acid Phe, albeit at the cost of reduced transport velocity. L-Phenylglycine (Phg), one carbon shorter than Phe, was found to be a substrate for LAT1 with a lower affinity, exhibiting a low level of selectivity for LAT1 equivalent to Phe. Notably, (R)-2-amino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthoic acid (bicyclic-Phe), with an α-methylene moiety akin to the α-methyl group in α-methyl-L-phenylalanine (α-methyl-Phe), a known LAT1-selective compound, showed similar LAT1 transport maximal velocity to α-methyl-Phe, but with higher LAT1 affinity and selectivity. In vivo studies revealed tumor-specific accumulation of bicyclic-Phe, underscoring the importance of LAT1-selectivity in targeted delivery. These findings emphasize the potential of bicyclic-Phe as a promising LAT1-selective component, providing a basis for the development of LAT1-targeting compounds based on its structural framework.

3D printed polylactic acid-based nanocomposite scaffold stuffed with microporous simvastatin-loaded polyelectrolyte for craniofacial reconstruction

Critical sized craniofacial defects are among the most challenging bone defects to repair, due to the anatomical complexity and aesthetic importance. In this study, a polylactic acid/hardystonite-graphene oxide (PLA/HTGO) scaffold was fabricated through 3D printing. In order to upgrade the 3D printed scaffold to a highly porous scaffold, its channels were filled with pectin-quaternized chitosan (Pec-QCs) polyelectrolyte solution containing 0 or 20 mg/mL of simvastatin (Sim) and then freeze-dried. These scaffolds were named FD and FD-Sim, respectively. Also, similar PLA/HTGO scaffolds were prepared and dip coated with Pec-QCs solution containing 0 or 20 mg/mL of Sim and were named DC and DC-Sim, respectively. The formation of macro/microporous structure was confirmed by morphological investigations. The release of Sim from DC-Sim and FD-Sim scaffolds after 28 days was measured as 77.40 ± 5.25 and 86.02 ± 3.63 %, respectively. Cytocompatibility assessments showed that MG-63 cells had the highest proliferation, attachment and spread on the Sim containing scaffolds, especially FD-Sim. In vivo studies on a rat calvarial defect model revealed that an almost complete recovery occurred in the group treated with FD-Sim scaffold after 8 weeks and the defect was filled with newly formed bone. The results of this study acknowledge that the FD-Sim scaffold can be a perfect candidate for calvarial defect repair.

Piperacillin/Tazobactam Co-Delivery by Micellar Ionic Conjugate Systems Carrying Pharmaceutical Anions and Encapsulated Drug

Previously obtained amphiphilic graft copolymers based on [2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride (TMAMA) ionic liquid were used as the matrices of three types of nanocarriers, i.e., conjugates with ionic piperacillin (PIP) and micelles with tazobactam (TAZ), which represented single systems, and dual systems bearing PIP anions and encapsulated TAZ for co-delivery. The exchange of Cl anions in TMAMA units with PIP ones resulted in a yield of 45.6-72.7 mol.%. The self-assembling properties were confirmed by the critical micelle concentration (CMC), which, after ion exchange, increased significantly (from 0.011-0.020 mg/mL to 0.041-0.073 mg/mL). The amphiphilic properties were beneficial for TAZ encapsulation to reach drug loading contents (DLCs) in the ranges of 37.2-69.5 mol.% and 50.4-80.4 mol.% and to form particles with sizes of 97-319 nm and 24-192 nm in the single and dual systems, respectively. In vitro studies indicated that the ionically conjugated drug (PIP) was released in quantities of 66-81% (7.8-15.0 μg/mL) from single-drug systems and 21-25% (2.6-3.9 μg/mL) from dual-drug systems. The release of encapsulated TAZ was more efficient, achieving 47-98% (7.5-9.0 μg/mL) release from the single systems and 47-69% (9.6-10.4 μg/mL) release from the dual ones. Basic cytotoxicity studies showed non-toxicity of the polymer matrices, while the introduction of the selected drugs induced cytotoxicity against normal human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) with the increase in concentration.

Orally Administered Drugs and Their Complicated Relationship with Our Gastrointestinal Tract

Orally administered compounds represent the great majority of all pharmaceutical compounds produced for human use and are the most popular among patients since they are practical and easy to self-administer. Following ingestion, orally administered drugs begin a "perilous" journey down the gastrointestinal tract and their bioavailability is modulated by numerous factors. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract anatomy can modulate drug bioavailability and accounts for interpatient drug response heterogeneity. Furthermore, host genetics is a contributor to drug bioavailability modulation. Importantly, a component of the GI tract that has been gaining notoriety with regard to drug treatment interactions is the gut microbiota, which shares a two-way interaction with pharmaceutical compounds in that they can be influenced by and are able to influence administered drugs. Overall, orally administered drugs are a patient-friendly treatment option. However, during their journey down the GI tract, there are numerous host factors that can modulate drug bioavailability in a patient-specific manner.

Targeted Therapeutic Strategies for the Treatment of Cancer

Extensive research is underway to develop new therapeutic strategies to counteract therapy resistance in cancers. This review presents various strategies to achieve this objective. First, we discuss different vectorization platforms capable of releasing drugs in cancer cells. Second, we delve into multitarget therapies using drug combinations and dual anticancer agents. This section will describe examples of multitarget therapies that have been used to treat solid tumors.

Structure-activity relationships of bioactive polysaccharides extracted from macroalgae towards biomedical application: A review

Macroalgae are valuable and structurally diverse sources of bioactive compounds among marine resources. The cell walls of macroalgae are rich in polysaccharides which exhibit a wide range of biological activities, such as anticoagulant, antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antitumor activities. Macroalgae polysaccharides (MPs) have been recognized as one of the most promising candidates in the biomedical field. However, the structure-activity relationships of bioactive polysaccharides extracted from macroalgae are complex and influenced by various factors. A clear understanding of these relationships is indeed critical in developing effective biomedical applications with MPs. In line with these challenges and knowledge gaps, this paper summarized the structural characteristics of marine MPs from different sources and relevant functional and bioactive properties and particularly highlighted those essential effects of the structure-bioactivity relationships presented in biomedical applications. This review not only focused on elucidating a particular action mechanism of MPs, but also intended to identify a novel or potential application of these valued compounds in the biomedical field in terms of their structural characteristics. In the last, the challenges and prospects of MPs in structure-bioactivity elucidation were further discussed and predicted, where they were emphasized on exploring modern biotechnology approaches potentially applied to expand their promising biomedical applications.

Conductive and Eco-friendly Biomaterials-based Hydrogels for Noninvasive Epidermal Sensors: A Review

As noninvasive wearable electronic devices, epidermal sensors enable continuous, real-time, and remote monitoring of various human physiological parameters. Conductive biomaterials-based hydrogels as sensor matrix materials have good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and efficient stimulus response capabilities and are widely applied in motion monitoring, healthcare, and human-machine interaction. However, biomass hydrogel-based epidermal sensing devices still need excellent mechanical properties, prolonged stability, multifunctionality, and extensive practicality. Therefore, this paper reviews the common biomass hydrogel materials for epidermal sensing (proteins, polysaccharides, polyphenols, etc.) and the various types of noninvasive sensing devices (strain/pressure sensors, temperature sensors, glucose sensors, electrocardiograms, etc.). Moreover, this review focuses on the strategies of scholars to enhance sensor properties, such as strength, conductivity, stability, adhesion, and self-healing ability. This work will guide the preparation and optimization of high-performance biomaterials-based hydrogel epidermal sensors.

Release studies of the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil from chitosan-banana peel extract films

5-F-lourouracil is an anticancer drug used for the treatment of different types of cancers. 5-flourouracil loaded chitosan-banana peel extract films were prepared for the in vitro drug release studies. Solvent casting technique was employed to prepare the films. The structure and morphology of the prepared films were analysed by FTIR, XRD and SEM methods and confirmed the presence of drug in the films. The drug loaded films show excellent thermal stability and good shelf life. Studies revealed that the percentage of banana peel extract influences the swelling properties of the film, thickness of the films and release of the drug from the films. Increase in the concentration of chitosan and banana peel extract decreases the swelling properties of the film and rate of release of the drug from the film. The release rate of 5-fluorouracil from the drug loaded chitosan-banana peel extract films were followed spectrophotometrically at λmax 266 nm and the film derived from 1 % chitosan solution and 1 mL aqueous banana peel extract (saturated) exhibited maximum drug release. Cytotoxicity studies proved that the films are non-toxic in nature and augurs well for their applications as excellent drug delivery systems. Antimicrobial studies show that the drug loaded chitosan-banana peel extract films were found to be active against microbes E. coli, Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger and inactive against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Novel Targets and Drug Delivery System in the Treatment of Postoperative Pain: Recent Studies and Clinical Advancement

Pain is generated by a small number of peripheral targets. These can be made more sensitive by inflammatory mediators. The number of opioids prescribed to the patients can be reduced dramatically with better pain management. Any therapy that safely and reliably provides extended analgesia and is flexible enough to facilitate a diverse array of release profiles would be useful for improving patient comfort, quality of care, and compliance after surgical procedures. Comparisons are made between new and traditional methods, and the current state of development has been discussed; taking into account the availability of molecular and cellular level data, preclinical and clinical data, and early post-market data. There are a number of benefits associated with the use of nanotechnology in the delivery of analgesics to specific areas of the body. Nanoparticles are able to transport drugs to inaccessible bodily areas because of their small molecular size. This review focuses on targets that act specifically or primarily on sensory neurons, as well as inflammatory mediators that have been shown to have an analgesic effect as a side effect of their anti- inflammatory properties. New, regulated post-operative pain management devices that use existing polymeric systems were presented in this article, along with the areas for potential development. Analgesic treatments, both pharmacological and non-pharmacological, have also been discussed.

Tofacitinib in dermatology: a potential opportunity for topical applicability through novel drug-delivery systems

Tofacitinib is a first-generation JAK inhibitor approved by the US FDA for treating rheumatoid arthritis. It exhibits a broad-spectrum inhibitory effect with abilities to block JAK-STAT signalling. The primary objective of this review is to obtain knowledge about cutting-edge methods for effectively treating a variety of skin problems by including tofacitinib into formulations that are based on nanocarriers. The review also highlights clinical trials and offers an update on published clinical patents. Nanocarriers provide superior performance compared to conventional treatments in terms of efficacy, stability, drug bioavailability, target selectivity and sustained drug release. Current review has the potential to make significant contributions to the ongoing discussion involving dermatological treatments and the prospective impact of nanotechnology on transforming healthcare within this field.

Novel Strategies Using Sagacious Targeting for Site-Specific Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer Treatment: Clinical Potential and Applications

For more than a decade, researchers have been working to achieve new strategies and smart targeting drug delivery techniques and technologies to treat breast cancer (BC). Nanotechnology presents a hopeful strategy for targeted drug delivery into the building of new therapeutics using the properties of nanomaterials. Nanoparticles are of high regard in the field of diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. The use of these nanoparticles as an encouraging approach in the treatment of various cancers has drawn the interest of researchers in recent years. In order to achieve the maximum therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of BC, combination therapy has also been adopted, leading to minimal side effects and thus an enhancement in the quality of life for patients. This review article compares, discusses and criticizes the approaches to treat BC using novel design strategies and smart targeting of site-specific drug delivery systems.

Evaluation of Doxorubicin-loaded Echogenic Macroemulsion for Targeted Drug Delivery

BACKGROUND

The latest technology trend in targeted drug delivery highlights stimuliresponsive particles that can release an anticancer drug in a solid tumor by responding to external stimuli.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to design, fabricate, and evaluate an ultrasound-responsive drug delivery vehicle for an ultrasound-mediated drug delivery system.

METHODS

The drug-containing echogenic macroemulsion (eME) was fabricated by an emulsification method using the three phases (aqueous lipid solution as a shell, doxorubicin (DOX) contained oil, and perfluorohexane (PFH) as an ultrasound-responsive agent). The morphological structure of eMEs was investigated using fluorescence microscopy, and the size distribution was analyzed by using DLS. The echogenicity of eME was measured using a contrast-enhanced ultrasound device. The cytotoxicity was evaluated using a breast cancer cell (MDA-MB-231) via an in vitro cell experiment.

RESULTS

The obtained eME showed an ideal morphological structure that contained both DOX and PFH in a single particle and indicated a suitable size for enhancing ultrasound response and avoiding complications in the blood vessel. The echogenicity of eME was demonstrated via an in vitro experiment, with results showcasing the potential for targeted drug delivery. Compared to free DOX, enhanced cytotoxicity and improved drug delivery efficiency in a cancer cell were proven by using DOX-loaded eMEs and ultrasound.

CONCLUSION

This study established a platform technology to fabricate the ultrasound-responsive vehicle. The designed drug-loaded eME could be a promising platform with ultrasound technology for targeted drug delivery.