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Rinwa P, Eriksson M, Cotgreave I, Bäckberg M. 3R-Refinement principles: elevating rodent well-being and research quality. Lab Anim Res 2024; 40:11. [PMID: 38549171 PMCID: PMC10979584 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-024-00198-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
This review article delves into the details of the 3R-Refinement principles as a vital framework for ethically sound rodent research laboratory. It highlights the core objective of the refinement protocol, namely, to enhance the well-being of laboratory animals while simultaneously improving the scientific validity of research outcomes. Through an exploration of key components of the refinement principles, the article outlines how these ethics should be implemented at various stages of animal experiments. It emphasizes the significance of enriched housing environments that reduce stress and encourage natural behaviors, non-restraint methods in handling and training, refined dosing and sampling techniques that prioritize animal comfort, the critical role of optimal pain management and the importance of regular animal welfare assessment in maintaining the rodents well-being. Additionally, the advantages of collaboration with animal care and ethics committees are also mentioned. The other half of the article explains the extensive benefits of the 3R-Refinement protocol such as heightened animal welfare, enhanced research quality, reduced variability, and positive feedback from researchers and animal care staff. Furthermore, it addresses avenues for promoting the adoption of the protocol, such as disseminating best practices, conducting training programs, and engaging with regulatory bodies. Overall, this article highlights the significance of 3R-Refinement protocol in aligning scientific advancement with ethical considerations along with shaping a more compassionate and responsible future for animal research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puneet Rinwa
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Safety, Division of Bioeconomy and Health, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Forskargatan 18, Södertälje, 151 36, Sweden
| | - Marie Eriksson
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Safety, Division of Bioeconomy and Health, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Forskargatan 18, Södertälje, 151 36, Sweden
| | - Ian Cotgreave
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Safety, Division of Bioeconomy and Health, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Forskargatan 18, Södertälje, 151 36, Sweden
| | - Matilda Bäckberg
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Safety, Division of Bioeconomy and Health, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Forskargatan 18, Södertälje, 151 36, Sweden.
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Yuan L, Jiang D, Pinkham A, Kirkland M. Development, validation and application of a capillary microsampling LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of BIIB131 (SMTP-7) in rat plasma. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 236:115752. [PMID: 37769527 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Capillary microsampling (CMS) is a technique that can significantly reduce the blood collection volume compared to conventional sampling methods, and thus is much preferred for studies in rats and mice. BIIB131 (SMTP-7) is a novel thrombolytic drug candidate currently under Phase 2 clinical development for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. To support the safety studies in rats, an accurate and reliable CMS LC-MS/MS assay for the quantification of BIIB131 in rat plasma was developed and validated. This method utilized stable-isotope labeled [13C515N2]-BIIB131 as the internal standard. The samples were extracted using acid-assisted liquid-liquid extraction with methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and formic acid. The chromatographic separation was achieved on an ACE Excel 3 Super C18 analytical column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 3.0 µm) using a gradient elution. The mass spectrometric detection of BIIB131 and its internal standard was achieved using positive ion electrospray multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). The standard curve ranged from 0.50 to 300 ng/mL for BIIB131 and was fitted to a 1/x2 weighted linear regression model. For regular QCs, the intra-assay precision was 1.7-6.1 % CV, the inter-assay precision was 2.7-11.0 % CV, and the intra-assay and inter-assay accuracy (%Bias) were -20.0-10.6 % and -7.8-6.3 %, respectively. For CMS QCs, the intra-assay and inter-assay precision were 2.2-13.6 % and 6.7-12.9 % CV, and the intra-assay and inter-assay accuracy (%Bias) were -13.2-15.0 % and -7.8-4.2 %, respectively. The validated CMS LC-MS/MS method has been successfully applied to a safety study in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Yuan
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen, 225 Binney St, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
| | - Di Jiang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen, 225 Binney St, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Andrew Pinkham
- Charles River Laboratories, 334 South Street, Shrewsbury, MA 01545, USA
| | - Melissa Kirkland
- Nonclinical Safety Science, Biogen, 225 Binney St, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
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3
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Li W, Picard F. Toxicokinetics in preclinical drug development of small-molecule new chemical entities. Biomed Chromatogr 2022:e5553. [PMID: 36415962 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.5553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Toxicokinetics (TK) is an integral part of nonclinical (preclinical) safety assessment of small-molecule new chemical entities in drug development. It is employed to describe the systemic exposure of a drug candidate and/or its important metabolite(s) achieved in study animals and elucidate the relationship (proportional, over-proportional, or under-proportional) between systemic exposure and dose administered and the associated differences/similarities between male and female animals along with the possible accumulation/induction. TK data and the derived parameters are employed to propose safe starting doses for clinical use of the new drug candidate through proper extrapolation of findings in study animals to humans. This review has attempted to highlight the health authority expectations on TK assessment in supporting preclinical safety profiling of new chemical entities. A robust TK assessment requires good understanding of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination processes of drug candidate, adequate TK sampling (e.g., controls where relevant), implementation of fit-for-purpose bioanalytical methods (validated or scientifically qualified) along with necessary measures to prevent mis-dosing or ex vivo contamination, and establishment of stability of the drug candidate and/or its metabolite(s) in the intended species matrix to ensure the reliability of bioanalytical and TK data. The latter provides a vital link between animal experiments and human safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenkui Li
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences-Drug Disposition, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, New Jersey, USA
| | - Franck Picard
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences-Drug Disposition, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
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4
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Guerra Valero Y, Dorofaeff T, Parker L, Coulthard MG, Sparkes L, Lipman J, Wallis SC, Roberts JA, Parker SL. Microsampling to support pharmacokinetic clinical studies in pediatrics. Pediatr Res 2022; 91:1557-1561. [PMID: 34023854 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-021-01586-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conventional sampling for pharmacokinetic clinical studies requires removal of large blood volumes from patients. This can result in a physiological/emotional burden for children. Microsampling to support pharmacokinetic clinical studies in pediatrics may reduce this burden. METHODS Parents/guardians and bedside nurses completed a questionnaire describing their perception of the use of microsampling compared to conventional sampling to collect blood samples, based on their child's participation or their own role within a paired-sample pharmacokinetic clinical study. Responses were based on a seven-point Likert scale and were analyzed using frequency distributions. RESULTS Fifty-one parents/guardians and seven bedside nurses completed a questionnaire. Parents/guardians (96%) and bedside nurses (100%) indicated that microsampling was highly acceptable and recommended as a method for collecting blood samples for pediatric patients. Responding to a question about the child indicating pain during the blood sampling procedure, 61% of parent/guardians reported no pain in their children, 14% remained neutral, and 26% reported that their child indicated pain; 71% of the bedside nurses slightly agreed that the children indicated pain. CONCLUSIONS This study strongly suggests that parents/guardians and bedside nurses prefer microsampling to conventional sampling to conduct pediatric pharmacokinetic clinical studies. Employing microsampling may support increased participation by children in these studies. IMPACT Pharmacokinetic clinical studies require the withdrawal of blood samples at multiple times during a dosing interval. This can result in a physiological or emotional burden, particularly for neonates or pediatric patients. Microsampling offers an important opportunity for pharmacokinetic clinical studies in vulnerable patient populations, where smaller sample volumes can be collected. However, microsampling is not commonly used in clinical studies. Understanding the perceptions of parents/guardians and bedside nurses about microsampling may ascertain if this technique offers an improvement to conventional blood sample collection to perform pharmacokinetic clinical studies for pediatric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yarmarly Guerra Valero
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
| | - Tavey Dorofaeff
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Lisa Parker
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Mark G Coulthard
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Mayne Academy of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Louise Sparkes
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Lipman
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Jameson Trauma Institute, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Steven C Wallis
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason A Roberts
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Jameson Trauma Institute, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Department of Pharmacy, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Suzanne L Parker
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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5
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Ingle RG, Zeng S, Jiang H, Fang WJ. Current development of bioanalytical sample preparation techniques in pharmaceuticals. J Pharm Anal 2022; 12:517-529. [PMID: 36105159 PMCID: PMC9463481 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2022.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sample preparation is considered as the bottleneck step in bioanalysis because each biological matrix has its own unique challenges and complexity. Competent sample preparation to extract the desired analytes and remove redundant components is a crucial step in each bioanalytical approach. The matrix effect is a key hurdle in bioanalytical sample preparation, which has gained extensive consideration. Novel sample preparation techniques have advantages over classical techniques in terms of accuracy, automation, ease of sample preparation, storage, and shipment and have become increasingly popular over the past decade. Our objective is to provide a broad outline of current developments in various bioanalytical sample preparation techniques in chromatographic and spectroscopic examinations. In addition, how these techniques have gained considerable attention over the past decade in bioanalytical research is mentioned with preferred examples. Modern trends in bioanalytical sample preparation techniques, including sorbent-based microextraction techniques, are primarily emphasized. Bioanalytical sampling techniques are described with suitable applications in pharmaceuticals. The pros and cons of each bioanalytical sampling techniques are described. Relevant biological matrices are outlined.
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Xu Y, Zhang SX, Guo J, Chen LJ, Liou YL, Rao T, Peng JB, Guo Y, Huang WH, Tan ZR, Ou-yang DS, Zhou HH, Zhang W, Chen Y. A Joint Technology Combining the Advantages of Capillary Microsampling with Mass Spectrometry Applied to the Trans-Resveratrol Pharmacokinetic Study in Mice. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2022; 2022:5952436. [PMID: 35083093 PMCID: PMC8786553 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5952436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Mice are the most frequently used animals in pharmacokinetic studies; however, collecting series of blood samples from mice is difficult because of their small sizes and tiny vessels. In addition, due to the small sample size, it is problematic to perform high required quantification. Thus, present work aims to find an effective strategy for overcoming these challenges using trans-resveratrol as a tool drug. Based on the idea of a joint technology, the capillary microsampling (CMS) was chosen for blood sample collection from mice after delivery of trans-resveratrol (150 mg/kg) by gavage, and a high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for the determination of trans-resveratrol and its main metabolites. All the mouse blood samples were exactly collected by CMS without obvious deviation. This provided credible samples for subsequent quantitative analysis. The HPLC-MS/MS method was found to be sensitive, accurate, and repeatable, and the pharmacokinetic parameters for all analytes were comparable with those reported in previous studies. However, the present joint technology offers the advantages of less animal damage, easy for sample preparation, and improved reliability. It has overcome some of the major limitations revealed in previous pharmacokinetic studies in mice and therefore provides a more effective option for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Song-xia Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jing Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Li-jie Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yu-ligh Liou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tai Rao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jing-bo Peng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ying Guo
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Wei-hua Huang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhi-rong Tan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Dong-sheng Ou-yang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Hong-hao Zhou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yao Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Changsha, Hunan, China
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7
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Hotta K, Ishida T, Noritake KI, Kita K, Mano Y. Quantitative and qualitative application of a novel capillary microsampling device, Microsampling Wing™ (MSW), using antiepileptic drugs in rats. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 194:113788. [PMID: 33281005 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A novel microsampling device, namely, the Microsampling Wing™ (MSW), was evaluated using three anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs): carbamazepine, lamotrigine, and phenytoin. A simultaneous assay method of the three AEDs was developed and qualified via liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Using 2.8 μL plasma, the three AEDs were quantifiable from 1 or 2 ng/mL. According to the intra-assay reproducibility assessment and additional validation parameters, the established method is reproducible. To apply the device to a pharmacokinetic (PK) study in rats, a cocktail of the three AEDs was orally administered to rats. Whole blood samples were serially collected using the MSW device and a glass capillary from the tail vein, and plasma samples (each 2.8 μL) from each device were assayed to compare PK parameters. The PK parameters of the three AEDs were similar between the two devices. A metabolite identification study was also conducted after oral administration of carbamazepine to rats. At least seven metabolites were detected in plasma, and the major metabolite was carbamazepine 10,11-epoxide, which is in accordance with the reported results. These findings suggest that the MSW device is a useful microsampling device for PK and metabolite identification studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichiro Hotta
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Eisai Co., Ltd., Tokodai 5-1-3, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 300-2635, Japan
| | - Tomomi Ishida
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Eisai Co., Ltd., Tokodai 5-1-3, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 300-2635, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Noritake
- Preclinical Safety Research Unit, Tsukuba R&D Supporting Division, Sunplanet Co., Ltd., Japan
| | - Kenji Kita
- Bioanalysis Unit, Tsukuba R&D Supporting Division, Sunplanet Co., Ltd., Tokodai 5-1-3, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 300-2635, Japan
| | - Yuji Mano
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Eisai Co., Ltd., Tokodai 5-1-3, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 300-2635, Japan.
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8
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Capillary microsampling in clinical studies: opportunities and challenges in two case studies. Bioanalysis 2020; 12:905-918. [PMID: 32628039 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2020-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Capillary microsampling of 15 μl whole blood from fingersticks or heelsticks was used to collect pharmacokinetic (PK) samples from pediatric subjects in two projects. Results: In a mebendazole multisite study in Ethiopia and Rwanda in subjects between 1 and 16 years old, complete PK profiles (7 timepoints) could be obtained, although some of the fingerstick samples were contaminated by the dosing formulation. In a multisite study with a respiratory syncytial virus drug in children between 1 and 24 months old, sparse PK sampling was done (2 samples). All samples were successfully analyzed even though some capillaries were not properly filled. Conclusion: CMS shows potential for PK sampling in pediatrics but may need further optimization.
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9
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Frey BS, Damon DE, Badu-Tawiah AK. Emerging trends in paper spray mass spectrometry: Microsampling, storage, direct analysis, and applications. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2020; 39:336-370. [PMID: 31491055 PMCID: PMC7875099 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Recent advancements in the sensitivity of chemical instrumentation have led to increased interest in the use of microsamples for translational and biomedical research. Paper substrates are by far the most widely used media for biofluid collection, and mass spectrometry is the preferred method of analysis of the resultant dried blood spot (DBS) samples. Although there have been a variety of review papers published on DBS, there has been no attempt to unify the century old DBS methodology with modern applications utilizing modified paper and paper-based microfluidics for sampling, storage, processing, and analysis. This critical review will discuss how mass spectrometry has expanded the utility of paper substrates from sample collection and storage, to direct complex mixture analysis to on-surface reaction monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Abraham K. Badu-Tawiah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210
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10
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Li W, Dugyala R, Devine PJ, Jardel M, Doherty J, Kubek K, Lapadula D, Flarakos J. Application of tail vein serial microsampling for plasma or dried plasma spots in toxicokinetic assessment in rats using acetaminophen as the model compound. Biomed Chromatogr 2020; 34:e4917. [PMID: 32543724 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In the current study, two groups of rats (five per group) were administered a single oral dose of 500 mg/kg acetaminophen. For toxicokinetic assessment, the Group 1 animals were bled via conventional sparse (two animals/time point) sublingual vein bleeding (~0.5 ml) with anesthesia, while the Group 2 animals were bled via serial tail vein microsampling (~0.075 ml) without anesthesia. All collected blood was processed for plasma. Each Group 2 plasma sample (~30 μl) was divided into 'wet' and 'dried' (dried plasma spots). All plasma samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for acetaminophen and its major metabolites acetaminophen glucuronide and acetaminophen sulfate. In addition, plasma and urine samples were collected for analysis of corticosterone and creatinine to assess stress levels. Comparable plasma exposure to acetaminophen and its two metabolites was observed in the plasma obtained via conventional sparse sublingual vein bleeding and serial tail vein microsampling and between the 'wet' and 'dried' plasma obtained by the latter. Furthermore, comparable corticosterone levels or corticosterone/creatinine ratios between the two groups suggested that serial microsampling without anesthesia did not increase the levels of stress as compared with conventional sampling with anesthesia, confirming the utility of microsampling for plasma or dried plasma spots in rodent toxicokinetic assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenkui Li
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | - Ravi Dugyala
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | - Patrick J Devine
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Matthew Jardel
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | - John Doherty
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | - Katie Kubek
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Daniel Lapadula
- Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
| | - Jimmy Flarakos
- Pharmacokinetic Sciences, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, East Hanover, NJ, USA
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Londhe V, Rajadhyaksha M. Opportunities and obstacles for microsampling techniques in bioanalysis: Special focus on DBS and VAMS. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 182:113102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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12
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Wang B, Wang L, Batog A, Brodie T, Ramaiah L, Chadwick KD, Su T, Mangipudy R, Pilutla RC, Ji QC. Investigation on the Effect of Capillary Microsampling on Hematologic and Toxicokinetic Evaluation in Regulatory Safety Studies in Mice. AAPS JOURNAL 2020; 22:55. [PMID: 32152888 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00438-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Microsampling techniques enable the minimization of blood collection volume from animals and subsequent handling of the blood samples or their derived plasma or serum samples. This offers advantages over conventional large-volume sampling, such as eliminating the need for satellite animals and improving animal welfare aspects, and providing the opportunity for additional assessments in small animals where blood volume constraints limit endpoints. This study evaluated the feasibility of implementation of capillary microsampling (CMS) in a single-dose study in mice with the ultimate goal of enabling its use in toxicology studies. The focus was on the impact of microsampling on toxicokinetic assessment and on the subsequent hematology assessment in the same animal. A seventy (70)-μL blood collection via CMS from the tail vein had a minimal effect on the hematology parameters of mice (strain C57BL/6) in samples taken within 24 h of blood collection. TK parameters were similar in plasma samples collected via CMS and cardiac puncture sampling. A bioanalytical assay was developed which enabled the quantification of concentration of both the parent drug and a metabolite using only 5-μL plasma sample per analysis. Incurred sample reanalysis (ISR), unexpected event investigation, and re-assay were successfully performed on the limited samples (≤ 20 μL) collected from CMS. The results of this study confirmed the feasibility of implementing CMS in regulated mouse toxicity studies and demonstrated that it is possible to eliminate or reduce satellite animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie Wang
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Linna Wang
- Bioanalytical Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, New Jersey, 08543, USA
| | - Alicja Batog
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Thomas Brodie
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Lila Ramaiah
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA.,Drug Safety Research and Development, Pfizer, Pearl River, New York, 10965, USA
| | - Kristina D Chadwick
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Ting Su
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Raja Mangipudy
- Drug Safety Evaluation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 08903, USA
| | - Renuka C Pilutla
- Bioanalytical Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, New Jersey, 08543, USA
| | - Qin C Ji
- Bioanalytical Science, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, New Jersey, 08543, USA.
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Wang H, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Li J, Lin Z, Huang Z, Chang J, Zhang Y, Wang J, Zhang C, Rao Y. An LC-MS/MS method for comparing the stability of ethanol's non-oxidative metabolites in dried blood spots during 90 days. Alcohol 2020; 83:29-35. [PMID: 31175945 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2019.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Problems of stability were found for biomarkers of alcohol consumption: ethyl glucuronide (EtG), ethyl sulfate (EtS), phosphatidylethanols (PEths), and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) in whole blood. The purpose of this study was to establish a method for the determination of these four kinds of ethanol's non-oxidative metabolites in dried blood spots (DBS) by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and to evaluate their stability. In this method, 50 μL of human blood was spotted onto a filter paper for DBS analysis. Samples were extracted by methanol, reconstituted by 2-propanol, and injected into the LC-MS/MS system. Limits of detection were among 0.5-50 ng/mL, and deviations in accuracy and precision were all lower than 15% at three quality control levels. The stability of the four kinds of ethanol non-oxidative metabolites in DBS was investigated during a 90-day range under three temperatures, -20 °C, 4 °C, and 25 °C. EtG and EtS showed a high level of stability in DBS in the 90-day range, regardless of the temperature. FAEEs were unstable after three days. PEths showed stability within 15 days in postmortem DBS and 60 days in antemortem DBS, respectively, at all temperatures.
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Microsampling: considerations for its use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and development. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:1015-1038. [PMID: 31218897 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2019-0041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in the implementation of microsampling approaches for the quantitation of circulating concentrations of analytes in biological samples derived from nonclinical and clinical studies involved in drug development. This interest is partly due to the ethical advantages of taking smaller blood volumes, particularly for studies in rodents, children and the critically ill. In addition, these technologies facilitate sampling to be performed in previously intractable locations and occasions. Further, they enable the collection of samples for additional purposes (extra time points, biomarkers, sampling during a clinical event, etc). This article gives a comprehensive insight to the utilization of these approaches in drug discovery and development, and provides recommendations for best practice for nonclinical, clinical and bioanalytical aspects.
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15
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Raje AA, Mahajan V, Pathade VV, Joshi K, Gavali A, Gaur A, Kandikere V. Capillary microsampling in mice: effective way to move from sparse sampling to serial sampling in pharmacokinetics profiling. Xenobiotica 2019; 50:663-669. [PMID: 31638457 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2019.1683259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacokinetic studies are an integral part of drug discovery and development. Mice are the commonly used species for pharmacokinetics studies during early discovery studies. Conventionally, composite PK profiles are obtained from mice studies due to the physiological limitations of the total blood volume that can be drawn over a certain period.With advancements in bioanalytical instrumentation and in blood sampling techniques, analysis with small volume (<50 µL) became feasible enabling serial blood sampling from the mouse for PK studies. The objective of the current study was to develop and establish a serial blood sampling technique in mouse and compare it with the conventional sparse sampling method (composite PK) following oral administration of widely used NSAIDs, diclofenac, celecoxib and tenoxicam, into Swiss Albino mice.The pharmacokinetic parameters of all three probe drugs by serial blood sampling were comparable with that of sparse sampling method. There was no significant difference between the whole blood concentration time profiles of all three drugs between serial sampling and sparse sampling suggesting serial blood sampling method can be easily implemented for mice PK studies.Serial blood sampling technique requires use of fewer number of animals, less quantity of test compound and reduces the possible dosing errors as fewer number of animals need to be dosed resulting in quality PK data and enabling comparison of inter-animal differences in PK profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol A Raje
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Vallabh Mahajan
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Vishal V Pathade
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Kaushal Joshi
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Ashutosh Gavali
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Ashwani Gaur
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
| | - Vishwottam Kandikere
- Drug Metabolism Pharmacokinetics and Clinical Pharmacology, Eurofins Advinus Ltd., (Formerly known as Advinus Therapeutics Ltd), Bengaluru, India
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Fit-for-Purpose Validation of a Ligand Binding Assay for Toxicokinetic Study Using Mouse Serial Sampling. Pharm Res 2019; 36:169. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-019-2699-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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17
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Kumar P, Agrawal P, Chatterjee K. Challenges and opportunities in blood flow through porous substrate: A design and interface perspective of dried blood spot. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 175:112772. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Comparison of toxicokinetic parameters of a drug and two metabolites following traditional and capillary microsampling in rat. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:1233-1242. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2019-0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: Following the request of a regulatory authority, a rat study was conducted to compare pharmacokinetic parameters from traditional large volume sampling and capillary microsampling. Materials & methods: Rats were dosed with a proprietary compound in three dose groups and blood samples were collected via capillary microsampling (32 μl), immediately followed by traditional large volume sampling (300 μl) up to 24 h postdose. Resulting plasma samples were analyzed for parent drug and two metabolites. AUCs were compared between sampling techniques. Results: There was no statistical difference between AUCs from traditional and microsampling across different doses and analytes. Conclusion: Toxicokinetic parameters generated from plasma collected as a capillary microsample or traditional large volume sample are highly comparable.
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Gu H, Zhao Y, DeMichele M, Zheng N, Zhang YJ, Pillutla R, Zeng J. Eliminating Preparation of Multisample External Calibration Curves and Dilution of Study Samples Using the Multiple Isotopologue Reaction Monitoring (MIRM) Technique in Quantitative LC-MS/MS Bioanalysis. Anal Chem 2019; 91:8652-8659. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huidong Gu
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Yue Zhao
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Marissa DeMichele
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Naiyu Zheng
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Yan J. Zhang
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Renuka Pillutla
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Jianing Zeng
- Bioanalytical Sciences, Research & Development, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
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Instrumental and technical evolution over the past decade in bioanalysis. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:601-606. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2018-0327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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21
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Microsampling for quantitative bioanalysis, an industry update: output from an AAPS/EBF survey. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:619-628. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2019-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
There is continuing interest in the development and application of various microsampling technologies for drug development. The AAPS bioanalytical community microsampling subgroup and the European Bioanalysis Forum conducted a survey of their members (39 individual organizations). This gives a snapshot of current practices and demonstrates that implementation of microsampling approaches is becoming increasingly commonplace, but not universal. Greater adoption was observed for nonclinical studies, particularly nonregulatory. A number of respondents reported that they have included microsampling data in regulatory submissions. Another important observation was that where microsampling is employed for clinical studies, dried blood approaches predominate, reflecting the interest in their use where they enable sample collection which is not feasible with standard approaches or to derive richer data sets.
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Feedback from the European Bioanalysis Forum liquid microsampling consortium: microsampling: assessing accuracy and precision of handheld pipettes and capillaries. Bioanalysis 2019; 11:533-542. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2019-0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: Microsampling in preclinical pharmacokinetics (PK) studies is currently widely adopted across the pharmaceutical industry. Materials & methods: The European Bioanalysis Forum liquid microsampling consortium member companies assessed the accuracy and precision of handheld pipettes and microcapillaries at volumes of less than 10 μl. The following key factors on pipetting performance were also evaluated: Pipette type (positive displacement, air displacement and microcapillary), experience of user and the liquid type. Water was selected as a best-case scenario for accuracy and precision determination and blood plasma as a ‘real world’ bioanalysis sample type. Conclusion: Accuracy and precision on the pipetted volume decreased at lower volumes and experienced laboratory technicians performed better compared with the infrequent users. With respect to the pipetting devices used, microcapillaries showed better or equivalent accuracy and precision compared with handheld pipettes across the volume range 1–8 μl independent of the matrix used.
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Abstract
Aim: The result of investigation on the procedure of sample handling and bioanalysis of small volume of plasma sample for nonclinical studies stored in 0.5-ml micronic tubes was reported. Results/methodology: Sample integrity of the small volume (25 μl) during long-term storage and the feasibility and data reliability of performing multiple re-assays on the small volume sample using 5 μl aliquot per analysis was evaluated. Conclusion: Integrity was maintained in samples (25 μl) stored for up to 1 month in 0.5-ml micronic tubes at -20°C. A 25 μl sample is sufficient for four-times of re-assays. This evaluation demonstrated the feasibility of this workflow of handling and bioanalysis on small volume plasma sample for GLP studies under the US FDA guidance.
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Juvenile rat and pediatric trazodone studies: how to gain extra sensitivity to overcome bioanalytical challenges. Bioanalysis 2018; 11:21-32. [PMID: 30525928 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2018-0236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Trazodone (TZD) is used for the treatment of depression in adults and, off-label, as a sleep medication in adult and pediatric populations. The off-label use is well documented, however further clinical studies are needed to confirm its efficacy and safety for the treatment of sleep disorders. In this scenario, we developed a bioanalytical method to quantify low TZD concentrations in samples collected by capillary microsampling (CMS) to support dose finding, Good Laboratory Practice juvenile rat toxicokinetic and upcoming pediatric studies. METHODOLOGY A method using only 8 μl of plasma was developed and successfully used for analyzing CMS samples from juvenile rats throughout toxicokinetic study. CONCLUSION By harmoniously maximizing each analytical step, we achieved a sensitive method to quantify TZD in CMS samples.
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Clinical application of microsampling versus conventional sampling techniques in the quantitative bioanalysis of antibiotics: a systematic review. Bioanalysis 2018; 10:407-423. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2017-0269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional sampling techniques for clinical pharmacokinetic studies often require the removal of large blood volumes from patients. This can result in a physiological or emotional burden, particularly for neonates or pediatric patients. Antibiotic pharmacokinetic studies are typically performed on healthy adults or general ward patients. These may not account for alterations to a patient’s pathophysiology and can lead to suboptimal treatment. Microsampling offers an important opportunity for clinical pharmacokinetic studies in vulnerable patient populations, where smaller sample volumes can be collected. This systematic review provides a description of currently available microsampling techniques and an overview of studies reporting the quantitation and validation of antibiotics using microsampling. A comparison of microsampling to conventional sampling in clinical studies is included.
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Incorporating dried blood spot LC–MS/MS analysis for clinical development of a novel oncolytic agent. Bioanalysis 2018; 10:341-356. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2017-0231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: Design and execution of a dried blood spot (DBS-LC–MS/MS) assay for pharmacokinetic analyses in oncology patients. Results & discussion: The methodology was validated to collect and store DBS samples from multiple clinical sites, and analyze blood with diverse hematocrit ranges (25–55) to match the potential patient population. Bridging data comparing DBS and plasma showed high degree of concordance with DBS:plasma ratios of 0.81, demonstrating no preferential uptake or association with cellular components of the blood. Pharmacokinetic analysis supporting clinical development was performed using 20 μl of blood collected as DBS. Incurred sample reanalysis showed high correlation. Conclusion: Successful validation of a DBS method and implementation in the clinic enabled pharmacokinetic analysis during the clinical development of a novel oncolytic agent in oncology patients.
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27
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Nys G, Kok MG, Servais AC, Fillet M. Beyond dried blood spot: Current microsampling techniques in the context of biomedical applications. Trends Analyt Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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28
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Beekhuijzen M, de Lange Y, Lambregts A, Peter B, Wenker M, Emmen H. Satellite rats are redundant in embryo-fetal development studies. Reprod Toxicol 2017; 72:122-128. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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29
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An LC-MS/MS method to determine vancomycin in plasma (total and unbound), urine and renal replacement therapy effluent. Bioanalysis 2017; 9:911-924. [PMID: 28617036 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2017-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Critical illness and medical interventions, such as renal replacement therapy, can cause changes to vancomycin pharmacokinetics and lead to suboptimal dosing. To comprehensively characterize vancomycin pharmacokinetic a method must measure vancomycin in a range of clinical matrices. RESULTS A LC-MS/MS method was developed using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography and microsample volumes, where possible. For all matrices, the linear concentration range was 1-100 μg/ml, interassay accuracy and precision was within 15%, and recovery above 80%. No matrix effects were observed. Calibration equivalence may be applied for some matrix combinations. CONCLUSION A method for the analysis of vancomycin in plasma (total, unbound), urine and renal replacement therapy effluent, suitable for use in any patient pharmacokinetic study, has been developed and validated.
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Beekhuijzen M. The era of 3Rs implementation in developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) testing: Current overview and future perspectives. Reprod Toxicol 2017; 72:86-96. [PMID: 28552675 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2017] [Revised: 05/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Since adoption of the first globally implemented guidelines for developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) testing for pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals and agrochemicals, many years passed without major updates. However in recent years, significant changes in these guidelines have been made or are being implemented. These changes have been guided by the ethical drive to reduce, refine and replace (3R) animal testing, as well as the addition of endocrine disruptor relevant endpoints. Recent applied improvements have focused on reduction and refinement. Ongoing scientific and technical innovations will provide the means for replacement of animal testing in the future and will improve predictivity in humans. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of ongoing global DART endeavors in respect to the 3Rs, with an outlook towards future advances in DART testing aspiring to reduce animal testing to a minimum and the supreme ambition towards animal-free hazard and risk assessment.
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31
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Capillary microsampling in nonclinical safety assessment: practical sampling and bioanalysis from a CRO perspective. Bioanalysis 2017; 9:787-798. [PMID: 28524734 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2017-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Microsampling has the 3R benefits of refining blood collection techniques while reducing the number of animals required for rodent safety assessment studies. There are significant scientific benefits of correlating study findings with systemic exposure and consequently, there is an industry drive to utilize microsampling in regulatory toxicology studies. This article will focus on capillary microsampling and will discuss the initial considerations before using capillary microsampling, study design and some practicalities of sample collection. From a bioanalytical perspective, the impact of different sample collection and storage workflows on the design of method validation experiments, the suitability of using microsampling for unstable analytes and aspects supporting analysis of peptides, large molecules and for biomarker applications will be discussed.
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Abstract
Aim: Capillary microsampling (CMS) to collect microplasma volumes is gradually replacing traditional, larger volume sampling from rats in GLP toxicology studies. Methodology: About 32 µl of blood is collected with a capillary, processed to plasma and stored in a 10- or 4-µl capillary which is washed out further downstream in the laboratory. CMS has been standardized with respect to materials, assay validation experiments and application for sample analysis. Conclusion: The implementation of CMS has resulted in blood volume reductions in the rat from 300 to 32 µl per time point and the elimination of toxicokinetic satellite groups in the majority of the rat GLP toxicology studies. The technique has been successfully applied in 26 GLP studies for 12 different projects thus far.
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David Hopper L. Automated Microsampling Technologies and Enhancements in the 3Rs. ILAR J 2017; 57:166-177. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilw020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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Harstad E, Andaya R, Couch J, Ding X, Liang X, Liederer BM, Messick K, Nguyen T, Schweiger M, Tarrant J, Zhong S, Dean B. Balancing Blood Sample Volume with 3Rs: Implementation and Best Practices for Small Molecule Toxicokinetic Assessments in Rats. ILAR J 2017; 57:157-165. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilw023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
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Abstract
A pediatric assessment is now a required component of every drug marketing application in North America, Europe, and Japan, unless a waiver has been granted previously. Nonclinical juvenile toxicity studies are often required as part of this assessment. The protocols for juvenile toxicity studies are best devised in consultation with the regulatory authorities. It is important to submit the pediatric investigation plan (PIP) or pediatric study plan (PSP) early, in order not to delay the marketing authorization of the drug in adults. The choice of species and the design of juvenile toxicity studies are based on a series of complex considerations, including the therapeutic use of the drug, age at which children will be treated, duration of treatment, and potential age- or species-specific differences in efficacy, pharmacokinetics, or toxicity.
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Poitout-Belissent F, Aulbach A, Tripathi N, Ramaiah L. Reducing blood volume requirements for clinical pathology testing in toxicologic studies-points to consider. Vet Clin Pathol 2016; 45:534-551. [DOI: 10.1111/vcp.12429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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ANIMAL WELFARE FROM MOUSE TO MOOSE--IMPLEMENTING THE PRINCIPLES OF THE 3RS IN WILDLIFE RESEARCH. J Wildl Dis 2016; 52:S65-77. [PMID: 26845301 DOI: 10.7589/52.2s.s65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The concept of the 3Rs (replacement, reduction, and refinement) was originally developed for improving laboratory animal welfare and is well known in biomedical and toxicologic research. The 3Rs have so far gained little attention in wildlife research, and there could be several reasons for this. First, researchers may prioritize the welfare of populations and ecosystems over the welfare of individual animals. The effects of research on individual animals can, however, impact welfare and research quality at group and population levels. Second, researchers may find it difficult to apply the 3Rs to studies of free-living wildlife because of the differences between laboratory and wild animals, species, research environment, and purpose and design of the studies. There are, however, several areas where it is possible to transfer the 3R principles to wildlife research, including replacement with noninvasive research techniques, reduction with optimized experimental design, and refinement with better methods of capture, anesthesia, and handling. Third, researchers may not have been trained in applying the 3Rs in wildlife research. This training is needed since ethics committees, employers, journal publishers, and funding agencies increasingly require researchers to consider the welfare implications of their research. In this paper, we compare the principles of the 3Rs in various research areas to better understand the possibilities and challenges of the 3Rs in wildlife research. We emphasize the importance of applying the 3Rs systematically throughout the research process. Based on experiences from laboratory research, we suggest three key factors to enhance implementation of the 3Rs in wildlife research: 1) organizational structure and management, 2) 3R awareness, and 3) research innovation, validation, and implementation. Finally, we encourage an interdisciplinary approach to incorporate the 3R principles in wildlife research. For improved animal welfare and increased research quality, researchers have moral obligations to include the 3Rs into all research areas, including wildlife research.
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Niu X, Beekhuijzen M, Schoonen W, Emmen H, Wenker M. Effects of Capillary Microsampling on Toxicological Endpoints in Juvenile Rats. Toxicol Sci 2016; 154:69-77. [PMID: 27511943 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood sampling during juvenile rat toxicology studies is required to determine the toxicokinetic (TK) profile of compounds. Juvenile rats are too small to undergo repeated blood sampling using conventional methods, which collect 200-300 μl blood at each time point. Recently, capillary microsampling (CMS) gained interest because sample sizes are almost 10 times smaller enabling multi-sample collection from 1 rat. Here, we evaluated the use of CMS in juvenile rats in support of reduced animal usage. Juvenile rats at postnatal day (PND) 4, 10, and 17 underwent CMS via the submandibular, tail, and jugular veins. The CMS methods for pups at different ages were evaluated based on sample quality and technical practicality as well as on acute and chronic changes of toxicological parameters. The best location for CMS was the submandibular vein for PND 4 and 10 pups and the tail vein for PND 17 pups. No effects were found on clinical signs, body and organ weights and biochemistry parameters when 2 × 32 μl of blood was withdrawn from PND 4 pups or when 3 × 32 μl was taken from PND 10 and 17 pups within 24 h. Significant changes in several hematology parameters were observed 24 h after CMS due to a decrease of red blood cells and renewed production. These values had recovered to normal 7 days after CMS. CMS is feasible in juvenile rats for TK assessment. Utilizing this method could decrease the number of additional animals by 75%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Niu
- WIL Research Europe B.V, Hambakenwetering 7, 5231 DD 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Manon Beekhuijzen
- WIL Research Europe B.V, Hambakenwetering 7, 5231 DD 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Willem Schoonen
- WIL Research Europe B.V, Hambakenwetering 7, 5231 DD 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Harry Emmen
- WIL Research Europe B.V, Hambakenwetering 7, 5231 DD 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
| | - Mira Wenker
- WIL Research Europe B.V, Hambakenwetering 7, 5231 DD 's-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands
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Discovery bioanalysis and in vivo pharmacology as an integrated process: a case study in oncology drug discovery. Bioanalysis 2016; 8:1481-98. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2016-0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: A bioanalytical team dedicated to in vivo pharmacology was set up to accelerate the selection and characterization of compounds to be evaluated in animal models in oncology. Results: A DBS-based serial microsampling procedure was optimized from sample collection to extraction to obtain a generic procedure. UHPLC–high-resolution mass spectrometer configuration allowed for fast quantitative and qualitative analysis. Using an optimized lead compound, we show how bioanalysis supported in vivo pharmacology by generating blood and tumor exposure, drug monitoring and PK/PD data. Conclusion: This process provided unique opportunities for the characterization of drug properties, selection and assessment of compounds in animal models and to support and expedite proof-of-concept studies in oncology.
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Abstract
Boston Society's 11th Annual Applied Pharmaceutical Analysis conference, Hyatt Regency Hotel, Cambridge, MA, USA, 14-16 September 2015 The Boston Society's 11th Annual Applied Pharmaceutical Analysis (APA) conference took place at the Hyatt Regency hotel in Cambridge, MA, on 14-16 September 2015. The 3-day conference affords pharmaceutical professionals, academic researchers and industry regulators the opportunity to collectively participate in meaningful and relevant discussions impacting the areas of pharmaceutical drug development. The APA conference was organized in three workshops encompassing the disciplines of regulated bioanalysis, discovery bioanalysis (encompassing new and emerging technologies) and biotransformation. The conference included a short course titled 'Bioanalytical considerations for the clinical development of antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs)', an engaging poster session, several panel and round table discussions and over 50 diverse talks from leading industry and academic scientists.
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Incorporation of capillary microsampling into whole body plethysmography and modified Irwin safety pharmacology studies in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 73:19-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Evaluation of two blood microsampling approaches for drug discovery PK studies in rats. Bioanalysis 2015; 7:2345-2359. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.15.126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Serial sampling in discovery rat PK studies could be performed via capillary microsampling (CMS) of blood or by using the Mitra™ device to collect dried blood samples. Results: Blood CMS results were compared with Mitra sampling results for four test compounds dosed in rat PK studies. The PK profiles obtained from CMS sampling were found to be very similar to those obtained from the Mitra sampling. For 15-µl blood CMS samples, freezing before the dilution step was found to be acceptable. Conclusion: Blood CMS using 15-µl glass capillary microsamples works well for serial blood sampling in rat PK studies. The Mitra microsampling device provides an alternative method for collecting 10 µl of blood as a dried blood sample.
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Caron A, Lelong C, Bartels T, Dorchies O, Gury T, Chalier C, Benning V. Clinical and anatomic pathology effects of serial blood sampling in rat toxicology studies, using conventional or microsampling methods. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2015; 72:429-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Korfmacher W, Luo Y, Ho S, Sun W, Shen L, Wang J, Wu Z, Guo Y, Snow G, O'Shea T. Utility of capillary microsampling for rat pharmacokinetic studies: Comparison of tail-vein bleed to jugular vein cannula sampling. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2015; 76:7-14. [PMID: 26164093 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 06/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Serial sampling methods have been used for rat pharmacokinetic (PK) studies for over 20 years. Currently, it is still common to take 200-250 μL of blood at each timepoint when performing a PK study in rats and using serial sampling. While several techniques have been employed for collecting blood samples from rats, there is only limited published data to compare these methods. Recently, microsampling (≤ 50 μL) techniques have been reported as an alternative process for collecting blood samples from rats. METHODS In this report, five compounds were dosed orally into rats. For three proprietary compounds, jugular vein cannula (JVC) sampling was used to collect whole blood and plasma samples and capillary microsampling (CMS) was used to collect blood samples from the tail vein of the same animal. For the two other compounds, marketed drugs fluoxetine and glipizide, JVC sampling was used to collect both whole blood and blood CMS samples while tail-vein sampling from the same rats was also used to collect both whole blood and blood CMS samples. RESULTS For the three proprietary compounds, the blood AUC as well as the blood concentration-time profile that were obtained from the tail vein were different from those obtained via JVC sampling. For fluoxetine, the blood total exposure (AUC) was not statistically different when comparing tail-vein sampling to JVC sampling, however the blood concentration-time profile that was obtained from the tail vein was different than the one obtained from JVC sampling. For glipizide, the blood AUC and concentration-time profile were not statistically different when comparing the tail-vein sampling to the JVC sampling. For both fluoxetine and glipizide, the blood concentration profiles obtained from CMS were equivalent to the blood concentration profiles obtained from the standard whole blood sampling, collected at the same sampling site. DISCUSSION The data in this report provide strong evidence that blood CMS is a valuable small volume blood sampling approach for rats and that it provides results for test compound concentrations that are equivalent to those obtained from traditional whole blood sampling. The data also suggest that for some compounds, the concentration-time profile that is obtained for a test compound based on sampling from a rat tail vein may be different from that obtained from rat JVC sampling. In some cases, this shift in the concentration-time profile will result in different PK parameters for the test compound. Based on these observations, it is recommended that a consistent blood sampling method should be used for serial microsampling in discovery rat PK studies when testing multiple new chemical entities. If the rat tail vein sampling method is selected for PK screening, then conducting a bridging study on the lead compound is recommended to confirm that the rat PK obtained from JVC sampling is comparable to the tail-vein sampling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yongyi Luo
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Stacy Ho
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Wei Sun
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Liduo Shen
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Jie Wang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Zhongtao Wu
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Yang Guo
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
| | | | - Thomas O'Shea
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Sanofi, Waltham, MA, USA
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Current strategies for coping with the hematocrit problem in dried blood spot analysis. Bioanalysis 2015; 6:1871-4. [PMID: 25158957 DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
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Applied Pharmaceutical Analysis India 2014 conference report. Bioanalysis 2015; 6:1891-6. [PMID: 25158960 DOI: 10.4155/bio.14.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Applied Pharmaceutical Analysis (APA) India 23-26 February 2014, Ahmedabad, India The fifth Applied Pharmaceutical Analysis (APA) India meeting was held in February 2014 at Hyatt Ahmedabad, India. With the theme of 'The Science of Measurement: Current status and Future trends in Bioanalysis, Biotransformation and Drug Discovery Platforms', the conference was attended by over 160 delegates. The agenda comprised advanced and relevant research topics in the key areas of bioanalysis and drug metabolism. APA India 2014 provided a unique platform for networking and professional linking to participants, innovators and policy-makers. As part of the global research community, APA India continues to grow and receive considerable attention from the drug discovery and development community of India.
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Rundlöf M, Andersson GKS, Bommarco R, Fries I, Hederström V, Herbertsson L, Jonsson O, Klatt BK, Pedersen TR, Yourstone J, Smith HG. Seed coating with a neonicotinoid insecticide negatively affects wild bees. Nature 2015; 521:77-80. [DOI: 10.1038/nature14420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 668] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Denniff P, Parry S, Dopson W, Spooner N. Quantitative bioanalysis of paracetamol in rats using volumetric absorptive microsampling (VAMS). J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 108:61-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Dried blood spot analysis for rat and dog studies: validation, hematocrit, toxicokinetics and incurred sample reanalysis. Bioanalysis 2015; 7:869-83. [DOI: 10.4155/bio.15.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Execution of experiments to introduce dried blood spot (DBS) sampling for preclinical GLP studies and subsequent clinical studies. Results: Bridging data showed high concordance with DBS:plasma ratios of 0.9 in rats and 1.1 in dogs, demonstrating no preferential uptake or association with cellular components of the blood. The DBS methodology was fully validated incorporating additional experiments pertinent to DBS sampling, storage and analysis. Individual hematocrit (Hct) values in the test animals (rats and dogs) were within the validated Hct range. DBS concentration data and the resulting TK profiles were not impacted by an Hct bias. Incurred sample reanalysis showed high correlation in dogs (97%) and rats (100%) meeting acceptance criteria. Conclusion: Successfully validated and adopted DBS for preclinical GLP studies.
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Abstract
Methods started in discovery are optimized as they progress through preclinical and clinical development. Making a robust assay includes testing individual steps for consistency and points of failure. Assays may be transferred, optimized and revalidated several times. A rugged assay will not only meet regulatory requirements, but will execute with a low failure rate and confirm results under repeat analysis. Challenging aspects such as differential recovery, sample stabilization, resolution of isomers or conjugate analysis must be tackled and made routine. The proper selection of the IS can overcome limitations. It is best to know the potential points of failure before a study has started, but lessons learned from each study also provide invaluable insights to improve assay ruggedness.
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