Associations between Extracurricular Activity and Self-Regulation: A Longitudinal Study from 5 to 10 Years of Age

Behavioral regulation and approaches to learning: Moderators of the association between extracurricular involvement and academic readiness

Participation in organized extracurricular activities (EAs) has become increasingly common among preschool-aged children. Prior studies have shown inconsistent findings on the association between young children's involvement in EAs and their subsequent developmental outcomes. Moving beyond examining the main effects of EA participation, this study focused on whether children's behavioral regulation and approaches to learning-two important domain-general skills closely linked to learning-would moderate the association between EA participation and academic readiness. Participants included 317 Chinese preschoolers residing in Shanghai. The breadth of EA participation positively predicted children's early math skills, but only for those demonstrating relatively lower behavioral regulation or less positive approaches to learning. The findings provide support for the compensatory hypothesis that participation in EAs is more beneficial for children at greater developmental risk. Unexpectedly, the intensity of EA participation negatively predicted receptive vocabulary beyond certain thresholds among children with relatively poor behavioral regulation or approaches to learning (B = -2.272, p = .032, effect size (ES) = 0.423), but this relationship was not significant for children with better learning behaviors (B = 0.111, p = .712, ES = 0.021). According to the findings, children with worse behavioral regulation and approaches to learning were actually more vulnerable to the negative effects of intensive participation in EAs (B = -15.698, p = .022, ES = 1.797). EA participation did not predict children's Chinese word reading (ps > 0.05). The findings revealed a complex pattern of relationships between preschoolers' EA participation and academic readiness and have highlighted the importance of considering child characteristics when examining the developmental effects of EA involvement.

Measurement of Self-regulation in Preschool and Elementary Children: A Scoping Review

AIMS

This scoping review sought to identify and characterize measurement of self-regulation in preschool and elementary aged children.

METHODS

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses-Scoping Review (ScR) guidelines were applied. Databases from the fields of allied health, education, medicine, and social sciences were searched including: CINAHL, Education Database (ProQuest), Education Research Complete, EMBASE, ERIC, iNFORMIT Combined, Medline, PsychINFO, Social Sciences (ProQuest), Teacher Reference Center, and Web of Science. Articles published between 2015 and 2020 were included. Dual review was utilized at all stages and a third reviewer resolved any conflicts.

RESULTS

Sixty-seven studies were included in this review. A range of observational, self-report, teacher report, caregiver report, and observational measures of self-regulation were identified. Included studies were primarily published in education and psychology disciplines, with no studies by occupational therapists identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Although a range of measures were identified in this scoping review, the results highlight the lack of consensus regarding self-regulation measurement that occupational therapists use to design and implement therapy programs to address child emotional and behavioral needs.

Participation in organized sport and disruptive behavior in childhood: A prospective, population-based study

Child disruptive behavior refers to ongoing patterns of disorganized, uncooperative, and defiant behavior. Sport involvement promotes positive child development. However, few longitudinal studies have tested the association between organized sport participation and the behavioral components of disruptive behavior. First, we aim to examine the link between inattentive, hyperactive, aggressive, and oppositional behavior at age 4 years and trajectories of organized sport participation from ages 6 to 10 years. Then, we compare children, according to trajectory membership, on outcome differences on these same behaviors at age 12 years. Data are from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (N = 1492). Child behavior was assessed by questionnaires completed by mothers at age 4 years and teachers at age 12 years. Preschool child inattention as perceived by mothers, significantly reduced the odds of middle childhood organized sport participation by 7% (95% CI = 1.00-1.15). Low or inconsistent participation in organized sport was subsequently associated with increased inattention (d = 0.28) by the end of sixth grade. These findings are above and beyond individual and family characteristics and baseline behavior. No other associations were statistically significant. Inattentive children who participated less in organized sport showed a greater likelihood toward increases in attention deficit by the end of sixth grade. To improve engagement from these children, coaches and trainers should use strategies that support positive experiences such as developing a one-to-one alliance with the child, favoring social cooperation through team spirit, and focusing on the performance experience rather than the outcome of winning or losing.

Healthy body, healthy mind: Long-term mutual benefits between classroom and sport engagement in children from ages 6 to 12 years

Past research suggests that the relationship between health and schooling is axiomatic. Physical activity, including sport participation, putatively facilitates school performance. However, the direction of this link lacks clarity. We examine the mutual links between sport and classroom engagement in 452 boys and 514 girls from ages 6 to 12 years. Participants are from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, a prospective-longitudinal birth cohort. First, trajectories of classroom engagement from ages 6 to 10 years, assessed by teachers, were generated using latent class analysis. Second, analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) compared leisure time physical activity, self-reported by children at age 12 years, across trajectories of classroom engagement. Third, ANCOVAs compared classroom engagement, measured by teachers at age 12 years, across trajectories of extracurricular sport between ages 6 to 10 years. We identified two classroom engagement trajectories: ‘High’ (77%) and ‘Moderate’ (23%). For girls, being in the ‘High’ trajectory predicted significantly higher levels of physical activity (F(1, 966) = 5.21, p < .05). For boys, being in the ‘Consistent participation’ extracurricular sport trajectory predicted significantly higher levels of classroom engagement (F(1, 966) = 6.29, p < .05). Our analyses controlled for pre-existing individual and family factors. Our findings suggest that sport participation and engaged classroom behavior positively influence each other during childhood. They support the pertinence of investing financial resources in youth intervention so that children can develop their potential both in sporting contexts and in the classroom to foster optimal growth and development.

Extracurricular Activities, Screen Media Activity, and Sleep May Be Modifiable Factors Related to Children's Cognitive Functioning: Evidence From the ABCD Study®

This study used a machine learning framework in conjunction with a large battery of measures from 9,718 school-age children (ages 9-11) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study to identify factors associated with fluid cognitive functioning (FCF), or the capacity to learn, solve problems, and adapt to novel situations. The identified algorithm explained 14.74% of the variance in FCF, replicating previously reported socioeconomic and mental health contributors to FCF, and adding novel and potentially modifiable contributors, including extracurricular involvement, screen media activity, and sleep duration. Pragmatic interventions targeting these contributors may enhance cognitive performance and protect against their negative impact on FCF in children.

Associations Between Executive Functions and Physical Fitness in Preschool Children

Considering the current agreement on the significance of executive functions, there is growing interest in determining factors that contribute to the development of these skills, especially during the preschool period. Although multiple studies have been focusing on links between physical activity, physical fitness and executive functions, this topic was more investigated in schoolchildren and adults than in preschoolers. The aim of the current study was to identify different levels of physical fitness among pre-schoolers, followed by an analysis of differences in their executive functions. Participants were 261 5–6-years old children. Inhibitory control and working memory were positively linked with physical fitness. Cognitive flexibility was not associated with physical fitness. The research findings are considered from neuropsychological grounds, Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, and the cultural-historical approach.

Distinct patterns of organized activity participation and their associations with school readiness among Chinese preschoolers

Organized extracurricular activities (EAs) constitute an important part of many young children's lives. However, the role of EAs in children's development during early childhood is poorly understood. The current study examined the associations between EA participation and a range of school readiness outcomes in a sample of 345 urban Chinese preschoolers. Using three waves of data collected on EA participation and applying growth mixture modeling, we discovered two distinct trajectory classes with respect to the breadth of EA participation as well as two classes for EA attendance intensity. With a series of covariates controlled for, children's greater initial levels of or rates of increase in EA breadth were related to better early math skills. Greater probabilities of belonging to the higher-intensity class were also associated with better early math skills in children. However, EA participation did not predict other aspects of children's school readiness, including Chinese reading, receptive vocabulary, expressive language, social skills, and problem behaviors. This study extends existing EA literature, which has primarily focused on school-aged populations in Western contexts, by demonstrating substantial individual variations in Chinese preschoolers' trajectories of EA participation. Our findings suggest that EAs seem to have little unique contribution to children's school readiness except for early math skills.

Kindergarten Readiness, Later Health, and Social Costs

OBJECTIVES

To estimate associations between kindergarten readiness and academic, psychological, and health risks by end of high school.

METHODS

This study is based on 966 Canadian children. At age 5, trained examiners assessed child number knowledge and receptive vocabulary. Teachers reported kindergarten classroom engagement. At age 17, participants reported academic grades, school connectedness, anxiety sensitivity, substance abuse, physical activity involvement, and height and weight. High school dropout risk was also estimated for each participant on the basis of grades, school engagement, and grade retention.

RESULTS

Kindergarten math skills contributed to better end-of high school grades (β = .17, P < .01) and lower dropout risk (β = -.20, P < .001), whereas receptive vocabulary predicted lower anxiety sensitivity (β = -.11, P < .01). Kindergarten classroom engagement predicted higher end of high school grades (β = .17, P < .001), lower dropout risk (β = -.20, P < .01), better school connectedness (β = .15, P < .01), lower risk of substance abuse (β = -.21, P < .001), and more physical activity involvement (β = .09, P < .05). Kindergarten classroom engagement was also associated with a 65% reduction (odds ratio = 0.35) in the odds of being overweight at age of 17. Analyses were adjusted for key child (sex, weight per gestational age, nonverbal IQ, and internalizing and externalizing behaviors) and family (parental involvement, maternal depression and immigrant status, family configuration, and socioeconomic status) characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

Early childhood readiness forecasts a protective edge by emerging adulthood. With these findings, we build links between education and health indicators, suggesting that children who start school prepared gain a lifestyle advantage. Promoting kindergarten readiness could reduce the health burden generated by high school dropout.

Extracurricular Activities and Chinese Children's School Readiness: Who Benefits More?

Organized extracurricular activities (EAs) are prevalent among Chinese preschoolers, yet their role in children's development is poorly understood. This study investigated the relations between EA participation and Chinese preschoolers' school readiness (N = 343; M_age  = 55.14 months) among a predominantly middle-class sample. EA breadth had positive linear relations with children's early math and social skills, while attendance intensity demonstrated nonlinear associations, partially supporting the overscheduling hypothesis. EA breadth had stronger associations with early reading and math skills among lower socioeconomic status children, as well as greater benefits for math skills in children with less exposure to home learning activities, indicating a compensatory role of EAs. The findings highlight the interplay between EA and family contexts in relation to child development.

Consistent participation in organized physical activity predicts emotional adjustment in children

BACKGROUND

The objectives of this study were to derive trajectories of childhood participation in organized physical activity (PA) and to examine how these trajectories are associated with pre-existing and subsequent emotional adjustment.

METHODS

Trajectories of mother-reported participation in organized PA were derived from age 6 to 10 for 1492 children from the Québec Longitudinal Study of Child Development birth cohort. Parents and teachers reported on internalizing behavior (emotional distress, anxiety, shyness, social withdrawal) at ages 4 and 12, respectively.

RESULTS

Longitudinal latent class analysis identified two typical trajectories of participation in organized PA. The Consistent Participation trajectory (61%) included children with elevated probability of participation at all ages. The Low-Inconsistent Participation trajectory (39%) included children who did not participate or participated only once or twice, generally in late childhood. Pre-existing internalizing behavior at age 4 did not predict trajectory membership. However, children in the Low-Inconsistent Participation trajectory showed higher subsequent emotional distress (B = 0.87, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.46-1.28), anxiety (B = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.18-1.04), shyness (B = 0.92, 95% CI = 0.39-1.44), and social withdrawal (B = 0.86, 95% CI = 0.37-1.34) at age 12 than those in the Consistent Participation trajectory.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that early and sustained involvement in organized PA is beneficial for children's emotional development.

Associations between organised sport participation and classroom behaviour outcomes among primary school-aged children

Introduction

Physical activity is positively associated with children’s classroom behaviour. However, less is known about how different types of physical activity contribute to these outcomes. This study examines associations between sport participation and classroom behaviour among primary school-aged children.

Methods

Parents of 568 children aged 9–11 years reported child sport participation and classroom behaviour outcomes (school functioning, inattention, classroom behaviour (fidgetiness), acting without thinking and poor concentration). Sport participation included: duration (hours/week) and type (individual; team; team and individual). Regression analyses assessed associations between sport participation and classroom behaviour outcomes. Analyses adjusted for maternal education, and objectively-measured overall physical activity, and accounted for clustering by recruitment centre. Sex differences in associations were explored as a secondary aim.

Results

In comparison to children who did not participate in sport, children who participated in sport displayed less inattention/hyperactivity (individual sport: B = -1.00;95%CI:-1.90, -0.00; team sport:-0.88;95%CI:-1.73, -0.03) and less acting without thinking (individual sport: OR = 0.35;95%CI:0.13,0.98), after adjusting for overall physical activity. There were no sex differences in associations.

Conclusions

Findings indicated sport participation, one form of physical activity, was associated with less inattention/hyperactivity and acting without thinking, over and above the influence of overall physical activity levels. Parents may consider sport as one way to contribute to their child’s overall physical activity levels, although the impact of organised sport on classroom behaviour is modest at best.

Prospective associations between participation in leisure-time physical activity at age 6 and academic performance at age 12

For many children, leisure time represents a privileged moment to engage in physical activity. This study aims to examine prospective associations between kindergarten participation in leisure-time physical activity and academic performance by the end of sixth grade. Gender-specific associations are also explored. Participants are from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development, a 1997-1998 birth cohort from the province of Quebec, Canada (n = 2837). When children were age 6 (2004), mothers reported on their child's participation in three types of leisure-time physical activity (sports, other structured physical activities, and unstructured physical activities). At age 12 (2010), children's academic indicators were reported by teachers and by children themselves. Academic outcomes were then linearly regressed on leisure-time physical activity participation, while controlling for individual and family confounders. Unstructured physical activities were the most popular among both girls and boys. Sports were the second most popular activity among boys, whereas other structured physical activities were the second most popular among girls. Higher overall participation in leisure-time physical activity at age 6 was associated with better teacher-reported grades in language and math (β = 0.075 and β = 0.102, respectively) and self-reported grades in language (β = 0.103), as well as with higher classroom engagement (β = 0.077,) at age 12. Regression coefficients are standardized. All the associations were significant (p ≤ .05). Promoting leisure-time physical activity may be an effective way to encourage children to be active and to help them improve their academic performance, both leading to long-term wider benefits.

Examining the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth

BACKGROUND

Research has shown that sports participation is positively related to youth developmental outcomes, but it is still unknown if sports participation relates to these outcomes among socially vulnerable youth. Hence, this research aimed to examine the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes (i.e., problem behaviour, pro-social behaviour, school performance, subjective health, well-being, self-regulation skills, and sense of coherence) for socially vulnerable youth. In addition, the stability of the relationship between sports participation and the youth developmental outcomes were investigated with a six-month interval.

METHODS

Two identical questionnaires were administered with a six-month interval by youth professionals from four youth organisations, measuring the youth developmental outcomes and sports participation rates of socially vulnerable youth. In total, 283 socially vulnerable youths (average 14.68 years old) participated at baseline and 187 youths after six months.

RESULTS

The results showed that sports participation was positively related to pro-social behaviour, subjective health, well-being, and sense of coherence at both measurements. We found no evidence for the relationship between sports participation and problem behaviour and the self-regulatory skills. In addition, sports participation was only positively related to school performance at the first, but not at the second, measurement.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study show that there are positive relationships between sports participation and several youth developmental outcomes. Based on the current data no conclusions can be drawn about the causal relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes. Given the focus of policymakers and health professionals on sport as a means to achieve wider social and educational outcomes for young people, including in the Netherlands, further research is needed to shed light on the relationship between sports participation and youth developmental outcomes for socially vulnerable youth, with a special focus on this group's heterogeneity.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trialregister.nl NTR4621 Date of Registration: 2 June 2014 (retrospectively registered).

Prospective associations between toddler televiewing and subsequent lifestyle habits in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Watching television is a common pastime for very young children. High exposure may negatively influence physical and mental health outcomes. Not much is known about how early exposure relates to lifestyle choices in adolescence.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate how toddler televiewing is subsequently associated with lifestyle indicators at adolescence.

METHODS

Participants are 986 girls and 999 boys from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development birth cohort (Canada). Child self-reports lifestyle habits at age 13 that were linearly regressed on parent-reported televiewing at age 2 while adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Every 1 h 13 m increase in daily televiewing was prospectively associated with a 8.2% increased risk of unhealthy eating habits (unstandardized b = 0.05; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.07), 10.1% decrease in eating breakfast on weekdays (unstandardized b = -0.06; 95% CI, -0.09 to -0.04), 13.3% increase in BMI (unstandardized b = 0.38; 95% CI, 0.26 to 0.50), 4.7% decrease in student engagement (unstandardized b = -0.07; 95% CI, -0.14 to -0.004), and 5.8% increase in concurrent screen time (unstandardized b = 0.06; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.11). Post hoc simulations of noncompliance with AAP recommendations support their implementation.

CONCLUSIONS

Excessive toddlerhood televiewing was prospectively associated with less optimal health and self-invested behavioral dispositions. Lifestyle habits not only affect metabolic risk but may also influence personal success outcomes. These independent relationships, observed more than a decade later, suggest a need for better parental awareness of the way children invest their limited waking hours could affect their long-term life course trajectories.