Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era

Terminologia Anatomica 2nd edition: perspectives from anatomy educators in the United Kingdom

English anatomical terminology has evolved over the long history of anatomical practice, with major influences from ancient Greek, classical Latin, Arabic, and post-classical Latin. Beginning in the nineteenth century, there have been various attempts to standardise and rationalise anatomical language, beginning in 1887, and culminating in the publication in 2019 of the second edition of the Terminologia Anatomica. This paper presents a brief historical overview of the development of anatomical terminology and usage in English, followed by a summary of the results of an anonymised survey of current practices that was sent out by email to anatomy educators at 45 medical schools in the United Kingdom. This is followed by personal reflections by six senior academics and/or clinicians, reviewing their extensive experience of teaching, researching, and communicating the language of anatomy within United Kingdom medical and clinical institutions.

A South African case study on anatomical embalming for human body donation programmes with toxicological considerations

Body embalming, a practice with deep historical roots across various cultures, forms the backbone of contemporary human body donation educational programmes. In this study, we explored current embalming practices within six South African human anatomical dissection programmes, focusing on the use and volumes of key chemicals-formalin, phenol, and alcohol-and their associated health risks and potential toxicity. We measured and compared aspects of embalming practices such as the duration of body preservation and the annual intake of bodies. Variations in embalming practices and chemical ratios across different South African universities were found. However, the consistent use of formalin, phenol and alcohol were observed across all six programmes. Formaldehyde concentrations used in South African dissection programmes were within the generally acceptable international range. Regarding arterial embalming, South African dissection programmes showed widespread adherence to international embalming practices, with one programme using a substantially lower concentration of formalin. The dual nature of formaldehyde as both an effective preservative and a recognised carcinogen was underscored in relation to human health regarding chemical toxicity. Phenol, like formaldehyde, was consistently used as it is important for the inhibition of bacterial and fungal growth. Alcohol was also consistently used, but there was much greater variation in its volume across South African institutions. Our data showed a slight positive relationship between storage duration and the volumes of formalin and phenol in human embalming fluid. South African regulators enforce stricter exposure limits than those set by the World Health Organisation and various European agencies. While South African institutions operate within internationally acceptable ranges of chemical use that both maximise preservation and minimise toxicity, we acknowledge that these data are preliminary. Further investigation is encouraged to ensure embalming practices effectively protect all those involved and support the educational goals of human anatomical dissection programmes in South Africa.

"I've got yer back": A community art and anatomy project

This article describes a community collaborative project, "I've got yer back," that utilized the craft of needle felting to raise awareness and develop understanding of the anatomy of the human spine. The project took place in 2023 and engaged with participants from across the United Kingdom and abroad and its completion was timed to coincide with National Back Health Awareness week in October 2023. We describe the process of creating a vertebra using needle felt and examine how the particularities of the process and the use of the sense of touch helped participants notice and understand the complex form of the human vertebra. We consider how the project encompassed creative processes of hands-on learning to enhance knowledge about this aspect of human anatomy. We discuss how the project evolved to include public and academic participation in a shared goal and argue for the effectiveness of seemingly simple and straightforward art or craft workshops in teaching relatively complex science. The article includes detailed feedback from participants who reflect on the process of learning through making and how it went on to affect individuals in very different, and sometimes very personal, ways.

Receiving a donation call to dissection tables: various aspects of whole-body donation in northern union territory region medical college of India

Body donation is the act of giving one's body to science for study, practice, and research. This selfless act contributed to the education and training of professionals in the field of medicine. Body donation programs allow medical students to learn about the different aspects of human anatomy, perfect their dissection skills, and develop a better understanding of the relationship between structure and function in the human body. The purpose of article is to improve body donation programs which meet ethical standards and best practices. This article emphasizes the significance of body donation to teaching medical institutions by discussing various aspects of body donation to medical colleges in India and the procedural steps followed, sample proformas and the obstacles faced during the whole process. The process of body donation varies among different countries pertaining to their legal frameworks and the challenges faced. A description of the problems faced in the process of body donation has been discussed with suggestions for potential solutions in this section. The sample formats of the forms filled by donors and the certificates issued by concerned organizations are also provided to clearly understand the process of body donation. The information compiled will pave the way for medical teaching institutions that have yet to start a body donation program.

Historical trends and current experiences of anatomical body donation in two Zimbabwean medical schools

BACKGROUND

Body donation is integral to anatomy education, but procurement can be ethically fraught. While voluntary donation is preferred, the use of unclaimed bodies, although considered unethical, is a primary means for body procurement in some countries. This mixed methods study examined historical trends and anatomy technical staff perspectives on body donation in two Zimbabwean medical schools.

METHODOLOGY AND MAIN FINDINGS

In Phase 1, 194 cadaver paper records from January 1984 to January 2021 were reviewed. Unclaimed bodies accounted for 67% while 33% (all white Zimbabweans) were voluntarily donated. Most cadavers were black Africans (62.4%) followed by white Zimbabweans (34.0%). Race was not indicated in seven (3.6%) records. In Phase 2, semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven technicians responsible for sourcing cadavers at the two institutions. Data were thematically analysed resulting in the development of eight themes, arranged into three domains. Cadaver procurement themes related to (1) cadaver source, (2) adherence to procurement guidelines, (3) screening for suitability, and (4) cultural and religious beliefs. Cadaver embalmment focused on (5) embalming practices, and (6) hospital mortuary-based embalming. Finally, (7) disposal processes and (8) resource constraints were found to influence cadaver disposal practices.

CONCLUSIONS

Contrary to best practice, there is continued reliance on the use of unclaimed bodies to support anatomy education in the two Zimbabwean medical schools. Improving the ethical sourcing of bodies requires increased efforts to educate all Zimbabweans, especially the black majority, about the role and importance of voluntary body donation in medical education. Additionally, well-structured, and well-resourced body donation programs could enhance ethical procurement.

Expressing the Complexities of the Student-Cadaver Relationship Through Visual Artwork

ABSTRACT

Many physician assistant (PA) students first encounter death in the earliest days of their training when working with cadavers in the gross anatomy laboratory. Developing a deep knowledge of human anatomy is fundamental to health profession training programs and modern medical practice. Despite decreased laboratory hours and integration of technology and diagnostic imaging into modern anatomy courses, there remains value in the cadaver dissection experience. Medical learners experience diverse and complex feelings toward cadavers; learning to regulate one's personal responses within the anatomy laboratory is a skill that can be extrapolated to clinical practice. Art is one way for students to process their experiences with cadavers, and creating art for cadaver memorial ceremonies is an opportunity for student emotional processing while honoring the lives of their cadaveric teachers. A PA program in New England incorporated student art into a cadaver memorial ceremony, with 4 pieces of artwork and corresponding artist statements from that ceremony included in this piece. The works of art are visually diverse, but there is a shared sentiment in the artist statements of reflection, awe, appreciation, and humanity. Encouraging students to process complex experiences artistically may provide an enduring practice throughout a career in medicine.

Digging in the dark: Unveiling the unlikely protagonists in medical science advancements - The grave robbers!

This research article aims to shed light on the unconventional profession of grave robbers and explore their unexpected contribution to medical knowledge. While initially seen as villains, grave robbers have inadvertently played a significant role in advancing medical science. By examining historical instances and controversial cases, this study delves into the positive outcomes resulting from their unconventional activities.

"My Dead Body": Development, production, and reception of a documentary that publicly displays the dissection of a human donor

Recently, there has been an emphasis on keeping the study of anatomy using donor material confined to the domain of medical and allied healthcare professionals. Given the abundance of both accurate and inaccurate information online, coupled with a heightened focus on health following the COVID-19 pandemic, one may question whether it is time to review who can access learning anatomy using donors. In 2019, Brighton and Sussex Medical School (BSMS) obtained a Human Tissue Authority Public Display license with the aim of broadening the reach of who could be taught using donor material. In 2020, BSMS received its first full-body donor with consent for public display. Twelve workshops were delivered to student groups who do not normally have the opportunity to learn in the anatomy laboratory. Survey responses (10.9% response rate) highlighted that despite being anxious about seeing inside a deceased body, 95% felt more informed about the body. A documentary "My Dead Body" was filmed, focusing on the rare cancer of the donor Toni Crews. Viewing figures of 1.5 million, and a considerable number of social media comments highlighted the public's interest in the documentary. Thematic analysis of digital and social media content highlighted admiration and gratitude for Toni, the value of education, and that while the documentary was uncomfortable to watch, it had value in reminding viewers of life, their bodies, and their purpose. Fully consented public display can create opportunities to promote health-conscious life choices and improve understanding of the human body.

Challenges in sourcing bodies for anatomy education and research in Ethiopia: Pre and post COVID-19 scenarios

BACKGROUND

The relevance of anatomical dissection in instructing anatomy to medical, dental, and other health science students is indisputable. Ethiopian anatomists encountered challenges in obtaining human bodies for anatomy education and research, both prior to and following the COVID-19 outbreak. The challenges intensified during the pandemic, significantly affecting anatomy education in Ethiopia. This study seeks to investigate the sources of bodies for anatomy, spanning the periods before and after COVID-19, with a particular focus on identifying the primary challenges associated with sourcing of bodies in Ethiopia.

METHODS

Fifty (50) anatomists completed a survey distributed to ten (10) randomly chosen medical institutions in Ethiopia. The survey gathered information on the body profile (number of bodies, age, sex, sources, and methods of body disposal), and the challenges faced during the sourcing of bodies in the years 2018 and 2023.

RESULTS

A total of sixty-three (63) bodies were used by the sampled medical institutions between 2018 and 2023 academic years. All (100%) of the bodies used were unclaimed human bodies. Most (66.7%) of these bodies were males. The majority (65.5%) of these bodies were sourced from Tikur Anbessa hospital in Addis Ababa. None (0%) of the sampled medical institutions had body donation programs. Disposal of human tissues encompassed various methods, including the retention of skeletons, prosection of vital organs, and burial of remaining tissues. Economic constraints and the absence of a legal framework document were the main challenges in acquiring bodies in the pre-pandemic period. The COVID-19 pandemic prevention policies and the civil war further exacerbated the challenges in sourcing of bodies for anatomy dissections during the post-pandemic period.

CONCLUSION

The reliance on unclaimed human bodies for anatomy education and research in Ethiopian medical institutions mirrors a common practice across many African countries. The authors suggest the development of a legislative framework or operational guidelines, coupled with empowering the medical institutions to outsource their own funding that will ultimately lead to an increased number of bodies available for anatomical dissection. Over time, implementation and promotion of body donation programs may also resolve body shortages for anatomy education in Ethiopia.

Leading the transition to ethical human body sourcing in Africa: The South African experience

BACKGROUND

The use of human bodies for anatomy education and research forms an integral part of the training of health professionals around the world. However, the ethical acquisition of human remains for this purpose has been a challenge in many countries, particularly for those on the African continent. South African institutions have however, been able to progressively transition to a more ethical approach to human body acquisition. The aim of the current study was to investigate the provenance of human bodies and the number used in South African health sciences institutions during the period 2017-2021.

METHODS

an online self-administered anonymised questionnaire was circulated to all health sciences institutions in South Africa. Questions were focused on establishing the provenance and the associated number of bodies and body donor programmes.

RESULTS

responses were received from thirteen of the fourteen South African institutions. All thirteen institutions use human bodies for teaching and research, with the majority of the institutions being reliant on bequests (77%) and family donations (62%), and less on unclaimed remains (46%). Most institutions have established body donor programmes. Four institutions were negatively affected by the effects of the pandemic. Memorial services, which continued during the pandemic, were conducted by eight of the thirteen institutions.

CONCLUSION

South Africa is leading the transition to the ethical acquisition of human remains on the African continent. It is hoped that South African institutions will soon transform to the exclusive sourcing of bodies through willed donation and provide guidance and support for the other countries on the continent.

Commemoration of body donors in a religiously diverse society: A tale of two Korean medical schools

Although a diversity of religions exists in South Korea, with Buddhism and Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism) being the two main faiths, Korean beliefs are deeply rooted in Confucianism. Despite the notion that the Confucian norm of filial piety discourages body donation to medical science, there has been a mindset shift in favor of body donation, driven by a heightened awareness of the body bequest programs and the care and dignity accorded to the altruistic body donors, together with the institution of commemorative services to honor them. As spirituality and religion are known to be factors that influence body donation, how religious- and non-religious-based memorial services are held to honor the donors as exemplified by two Korean medical schools-from a public university with no religious affiliation and from a Protestant-based university-are described here. The key concept of expressing gratitude and respect for the donors and their family members has positively impacted body bequest programs in this multi-religious society. Commemorative services held to pay tribute to the altruistic body donors may play an important role in inspiring a humanistic spirit in students, regardless of religious or non-religious beliefs, as exemplified by the two Korean medical schools. The takeaway here is that the elevation of spirituality in memorial services effectively resonates with society, thereby demonstrating the impact of spiritual principles independent of religious influence.

Personalization above anonymization? A role for considering the humanity and spirituality of the dead in anatomical education

Clinical anatomy education is meant to prepare students for caring for the living, often by working with the dead. By their nature many clinical anatomy education programs privilege topographical form  over the donor's humanity. This inbalance between the living and the dead generates tensions between the tangible and the spiritual insofar as semblances of the humanity of donors endure even in depictions and derivatives. This article argues that considering the relevance of spirituality, and what endures of a donor's humanity after death, would enhance contemporary anatomy education and the ethical treatment of human body donors (and derivatives). In developing this argument, we (the authors) address the historical connection between spirituality and anatomy, including the anatomical locations of the soul. This serves as a basis for examining the role of the mimetic-or imitative-potential of deceased human donors as representations of the living. We deliberate on the ways in which the depersonalization and anonymization of those donating challenge the mimetic purpose of human body donors and the extent to which such practices are misaligned with the health care shift  from a biomedical to a biopsychosocial model. Weighing up the risks and opportunities of anonymization versus personalization of human body donors, we propose curricula that could serve to enhance the personalization of human donors to support students learning topographical form. In doing so, we argue that the personalization of human donors and depictions could prevent the ill effects of digital representations going "viral," and enhance opportunities for donors to help the general public learn more about the human form.

Do religious and cultural considerations militate against body donation? An overview and a Christian perspective

The development of anatomy as a scientific undertaking appears to have left little room for religious and cultural input into the conduct of anatomical investigations. This has been brought to the fore by questionnaires regarding the willingness or otherwise of individuals to donate their bodies for dissection, with higher levels of willingness from those without religious affiliations. This has led to the assumption that there is inherent opposition to body donation by those with a religious stance, although there has been little exploration of this. This is increasingly important with growing awareness that anatomy is an international discipline, leading to increasing attention to the religious and cultural contexts within which it is practiced. There is a diversity of responses toward body donation within different countries, as well as by those influenced by Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Additionally, there are diverse cultural attitudes within Confucianism in Asia, Zulu in Africa, and Māori in New Zealand. Even those within the Christian church are influenced by a variety of values, some of which are in tension, with emphasis on the sacredness of life and the significance of burial being negative toward body donation, with informed consent and altruism pointing in a positive direction. The challenge for anatomists is to understand those within their communities, seek to appreciate their perspectives, and also make known the potential of body donation and dissection for enhancing medical practice and improving the education of future health workers.

Public human dissection and societal connect of anatomical sciences: A glorious association in the past but ethically forbidden practice at present

Under the futuristic vision of anatomical sciences, a strong societal connection is mandatory. The anatomical practice experienced robust societal participation through public human dissection from the 16th century onward. With a perspective to explore the intersection of spirituality with anatomy, the present study analyzed this momentous period. From a spiritual perspective, the study also reflects on two relevant but presently uncoupled entities of public human dissection and societal connection through the prism of current regulations. Strong representation from the general public during public human dissection was primarily driven by spiritual proclivity and an endorsement from religious authorities. To regulate large gatherings and maintain academic sanctity, anatomical theaters emerged as dedicated spaces for such a merger. With time and growing financial support, the theaters transformed from temporary structures to elaborate architectural marvels, further propelling already robust societal connections associated with the practice. Nevertheless, a confluence of multiple factors led to the violation of spiritual principles and a consequent decrease in societal participation from the early 18th century, eventually culminating in the demise of such spectacle. Presently, public human dissection-when done-is mostly conducted for commercial gains and in contravention of ethical norms. It is against the essence of spirituality and harbors a bleak prospect for societal connection. Contrastingly, measures adopted to promote societal participation (mostly related to body donation) were quite effective and followed the principles of spirituality. Societal connections served anatomy in the past and can lead to its advancement if approached through a righteous path.

Whole body donation for teaching in Ghana: The perspectives of medical doctors

Historically, both donated bodies and unclaimed bodies have been the sources of human bodies for anatomy dissection globally with the latter discouraged for ethical reasons. Ghana lacks well-established body-donation programs, thus relying heavily on unclaimed bodies. Medical doctors benefit foremost from human bodies in their training and therefore should have a better disposition toward body bequeathal. This study assessed the perception, knowledge, and attitude of medical doctors in a Ghanaian institution toward body donation. As the first Ghanaian study on the subject, it provides the foundation for systematic study of the subject in Ghana. An internet-based questionnaire was administered to volunteering medical doctors requesting information on their perception of, knowledge of, and attitude toward whole-body donation. Data were summarized as frequencies. The 200 respondents comprised 1 consultant, 4 specialists, 14 residents, 63 medical officers, and 118 house officers. About 194 (97.0%) were familiar with body donation while 6 (3.0%) were not. Also, 39 (19.5%) were willing to donate their bodies, 98 (49.0%) were unwilling, and 63 (31.5%) undecided. Religion, culture, mishandling of bodies, and lack of awareness were barriers to body donation. Finally, 178 (89.0%) viewed human body dissection as relevant and should remain as part of medical curriculum. Doctors were aware of body donation though only few were willing to donate. Cultural and religious factors were major hindrances to body donation for anatomy education and research, though they were willing to persuade others to participate. Deliberate public education on the subject is required to grow body donation in Ghana.

Acquisition of cadavers for anatomy education and research in Malawi

BACKGROUND

The use of human cadaveric dissection forms an essential part of teaching anatomy to health sciences students in Malawi. Despite worldwide struggles in acquiring sufficient human cadavers for anatomy education, the current recommendations on the best anatomy practices require the use of cadavers exclusively from the body donation programs. The current study aims to describe the sources of cadaveric bodies used for anatomy education in the Malawian context and reflect on the feasibility of using cadavers from the body donation program only.

METHODS

A retrospective audit of the cadaveric records for the 2006-2022 academic years at the Kamuzu University of Health Sciences was done. The perceived challenges when sourcing the cadavers were identified and described based on the authors experiences in Malawi.

RESULTS

The majority (97.3%) of the cadavers used between 2006 and 2022 were unclaimed bodies. The mean age of the cadavers was 45 years. Most (95.6%) of the unclaimed bodies were males. All the unclaimed bodies were sourced from hospitals. The body donation program in Malawi was patronized by populations of European descent only. Strongly held sociocultural and religious beliefs as well as economic reasons were perceived as significant barriers to acquiring cadavers of the indigenous Malawians through the body donation program.

CONCLUSION

Cadavers for anatomy education in Malawi are mainly from unclaimed bodies, similar to other African countries. The authors support the transition from using "mostly unclaimed bodies (and, less often, body donation)" to using "mostly body donation (and, less often, unclaimed bodies)" through awareness campaigns that are targeted to address the prevailing challenges.

The overshadowed scientific endeavours of Berengario Da Carpi, a renaissance physician and the Forerunner of neurosurgery: a historical vignette

Jacopo Berengario da Carpi was Renaissance-era physician, surgeon, and anatomy lecturer who transformed medieval anatomy and surgery-which were, at the time, dominated mostly by religious dogma-into a modern science based on direct observation, experience, and cadaveric dissection. He was an accomplished and innovative neuroanatomist and educator, a prolific researcher and publisher, and a successful practicing surgeon who treated the head injuries of many renowned patients of that period. He published a landmark commentary on skull fractures that was the first printed book in history devoted to head injuries, which became a model of new medical understanding. Nonetheless, Berengario's achievements in anatomy, medicine, neuroanatomy, and what would later become neurotraumatology and neurosurgery, would have been more widely known had his work and research not been surpassed by Andreas Vesalius and Ambroise Paré, both of whom advanced anatomic and medical knowledge even further. In this historical vignette, we discuss the political conditions of sixteenth Century Italy and pay a homage to Berengario da Carpi, emphasizing his work in establishing neuroanatomy as a field of medicine that became a precursor to modern neuroscience. We also describe the improvements he made in neurotraumatology technique and instrumentation, and his explanations of skull fractures and other brain injuries outlined in ground-breaking clinical books he published. Finally, we try to elucidate possible reasons why his scientific and professional achievements-despite of their enormous impact-were overshadowed by the achievements of his more famous immediate successors.

Investigating the status of whole-body donation across the United States of America

Dissection of human body donors is a valuable part of anatomical education, research, and clinical training. In the United States, deceased human bodies are predominantly sourced through whole-body donation programs (BDPs) housed by academic institutions. Due to the lack of information regarding BDPs, the aim of this study was to gather information from US BDPs through a survey to better understand the donation process and standard operating procedures of these programs. In 2021, a Qualtrics survey was distributed to 125 BDPs and yielded responses from 72 program leaders. Collectively, these programs received more than 26,000 whole-body donations annually. Findings show that 70% typically receive enough donations to fit the needs of their institutions, 17% receive a surplus of donations, and 13% receive too few donations. Sixty-eight percent of programs permit next of kin body donation regularly or in times of need, and 44% allow next of kin to make changes to a donor's donation form after death. On average, over 85% of the registered donor population is composed of white individuals, and only 6 institutions have methods in place to promote diversity among their donor population. Overall, there is considerable variability in the operation of BDPs across the United States. These findings can be used to make recommendations about donor enrollment and program operations to ultimately improve the donation process. Future research needs to investigate the opinions and preferences of body donors along with their next of kin on the body donation process and associated policies.

Late Middle Ages-Europe

At the end of the late Middle Ages, there had been changes in indications for surgery, with prophylactic trepanation falling out of favor. The management of wounds and the methods for opening the cranium had become fairly standardized. Narrow non-plunging trepans were the preferred drills, and cranial openings were widened by the use of multiple drill holes connected with chisels of which the lenticular was preferred. Concerns about damaging the dura led Theodoric to delay trepanation until the clinical changes reflected separation of the dura from the cranium, at least in his view. Draining pus remained the main indication for trepanation. In no case was the level of consciousness considered in determining the need to open the cranium.

Evolution of staining methods in neuroanatomy: Impetus for emanation of neuron doctrine during the turn of 20th century

The nervous system is distinctive as compared to other tissue systems in human body owing to intricate structural organization. Histological studies played a key role in unveiling complex details of nervous tissue. However, the process of developing suitable staining method for nerve cells was arduous and spanned across almost half a century. The present study explored details of the journey involving quest for propitious staining method in neuroanatomy culminating in promulgation of neuron doctrine at the onset of 20th century. Initial efforts involving hematoxylin (including its diverse modifications) and subsequent adoption of analogous dye-based stains (like Nissl's method) had limited success in visualization of different parts of a nerve cell and structural details of nervous tissue. This was due to inability of dye-based stains to penetrate the connective tissue sheath of nervous tissue. Eventually, advent of metallic stains in form of silver impregnation method (Golgi stain), reduced silver impregnation method with gold stain (Cajal's stain) and silver carbonate staining method of Río-Hortega unraveled the structure of nervous tissue. The evolution of staining methods catalyzed the refinement of theories pertinent to constitution of nervous tissue. Golgi's staining led to emergence of reticular theory (neurons exist as a network) and Nissl's staining was the basis of the concept of Nervösen Grau (nerve cells and glial cells are embedded in mass of gray matter). Finally, Cajal's staining method successfully elucidated the complex anatomy of nerve terminals and resulted in emanation of neuron doctrine (neurons exists as individual units with adjacent connections).

Minimally invasive autopsy - endoscopic approach to post-mortem diagnostics

The noticeable decline in the number of autopsies performed in recent years requires investigation into the causes of the phenomenon and attempts to prevent it. One potential cause of this trend is fear of disfiguring the body. Carrying out autopsies using a minimally invasive method may reduce the decrease in the number of autopsies performed. The first work on the development of the method and its continuation gave promising results. This allows us to start a discussion on attempts to introduce the method. The solution seems especially justified when the alternative is to completely abandon post-mortem examinations using the traditional method. Laparoscopy and thoracoscopy are tools that allow for accurate imaging and analysis of organ changes. Enriching them with additional tests using endoscopic techniques may have a positive impact on the accuracy of autopsy diagnoses. The development of a clear protocol for minimally invasive post-mortem diagnosis requires further research to determine the accuracy of the method.

The Heart Renaissance

Ancient societies believed the heart was the most important organ in the body. Ancient religions held that only through the heart could one connect with God. During Europe's Middle Ages there was little to no advances regarding the heart's workings. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Renaissance, scientists and physicians began questioning long-standing theories on the heart. The first accurate descriptions of the heart and its function were written, and the first anatomically correct representations of the heart were drawn.

From generosity to gratitude: Exploring Islamic views on body donation, human dissection, and honoring the gift of life

Human dissection is an ancient pedagogical method that is still relevant in modern anatomy curricula. The body procurement process for dissection purposes has undergone significant evolution from the medieval era until now, whereby body donation has become the main source for human bodies in medical education. The appreciation ceremony for body donors is an excellent way to promote a body donation program, whereby both dissection and appreciation ceremonies are effective in inculcating professional behaviors and altruism among medical students. Despite the benefits of dissection and such ceremonies, conflicting ideas about the acceptability of these methods exist among Muslim scholars and students. Hence, this article provides a theological Islamic interpretation of human dissection, body donation, and appreciation ceremonies from four sources of Islamic law-the Qur'an, Hadith, Idjmaa, and Qiyas-to justify Muslims' involvement in the aforementioned. It is important to note that the fundamentals of Islam are submission to the will of the one and only God, Allah Subhanahu wa ta'ala (SWT) and recognition of Prophet Muhamad (peace be upon him) as the last messenger of God. Therefore, the actions of a Muslim are strongly based on faith and virtue.

Challenges to sourcing human bodies for teaching and research in Africa: Are the challenges insurmountable?

The teaching and learning of human anatomy by dissection has existed for thousands of years. Over the centuries, evolving ethical considerations for the sourcing of human bodies for dissection have resulted in a transition from the use of unconsented individuals to that of body donors and the institution of body donation programmes around the world. However, major challenges on the African continent have resulted in the continued use of unconsented or unclaimed bodies and the ethical dilemma for African anatomy departments regarding their use. Some of the key difficulties in sourcing donor bodies which exist on the African continent emanate from religious, cultural, societal trust and other confounding factors. This manuscript explores the challenges and suggests ways in which some of these constraints may be overcome.

Cadaver Dissection Experience for First-Time Dissectors: a Hypothetical Three-Pronged Approach for Student Preparation

This systematic review synthesized evidence for the development of a preparatory process for first-time dissectors, geared toward improving cadaver dissection (CD) experiences. Eleven studies focused on pre-CD intervention were selected from a literature search in PubMed, the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC), Google Scholar, PsycNET, and the Cochrane Library. A three-pronged preparatory process was formulated for first-time dissectors based on the evidence from the review. The process includes (1) background assessment; (2) pre-CD education; and (3) gradual exposure and desensitization. The preparatory process shows some hypothetical potential for decreasing negative CD-related experiences, but it still needs validation before implementation.

Perceptions of Students and Teachers Regarding the Impact of Cadaver-Less Online Anatomy Education on Quality of Learning, Skills Development, Professional Identity Formation, and Economics in Medical Students

Anatomy is one of the most important basic sciences in medical education and is the foundation for doctors to develop clinical skills. In the last few years, anatomy teaching has been transformed from hands-on practice into online modalities. In this study, we aimed to determine the perceptions of students and teachers about learning anatomy without using cadavers (cadaver-less) from a knowledge, technological, and humanistic perspective. The research was carried out in the Faculty of Medicine at Hasanuddin University, located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, over a period from June to August 2021. A focus group discussion was extended to all medical students in their first year of study following their completion of online anatomy lessons. Furthermore, educators responsible for instructing anatomy in the initial year were sent an invitation to participate in a one-on-one interview with the principal investigator. In general, the results of the study complied with what has been known from the literature about the quality of online learning and its advantages and disadvantages. However, our discussions with students and interviews with teachers revealed that anatomy education without the use of cadavers is perceived as undesirable as it negatively impacts the identity formation of the future physician. It also takes away the opportunity for students to develop empathy for humanity.

The legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe - 2nd update on current practice

BACKGROUND

In 2008, members of the TEPARG provided first insights into the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe. In 2012, a first update followed. This paper is now the second update on this topic and tries to extend the available information to many more European countries.

METHODS

For this second update, we have asked authors from all European countries to contribute their national perspectives. By this enquiry, we got many contributions compiled in this paper. When we did not get a personal contribution, one of us (EB) searched the internet for relevant information.

RESULTS

Perspectives on the legal and ethical framework governing body donation in Europe.

CONCLUSIONS

We still see that a clear and rigorous legal framework is still unavailable in several countries. We found national regulations in 18 out of 39 countries; two others have at least federal laws. Several countries accept not only donated bodies but also utilise unclaimed bodies. These findings can guide policymakers in reviewing and updating existing laws and regulations related to body donation and anatomical studies.

First patient project: Engaging pathology through the donor dissection experience and its role in professionalism

The peer-reviewed anatomical education literature thoroughly describes the benefits and drawbacks of donor dissection. Gross anatomy laboratory environments utilizing donor dissection are generally considered to be a premier environment where students foster non-traditional discipline-independent skills (NTDIS), including the acquisition of professionalism, empathy, resilience, emotional intelligence, and situational awareness. Therefore, this IRB-approved study explored the impact of a formal humanism and pathology thread, the first patient project (FPP), on the personal and professional development of pre-professional undergraduate students in a gross anatomy dissection-based course. Five reflections from each student were collected across four cohorts (n = 74 students, 370 reflections). A post-course questionnaire collected data on student perceptions of the project. The framework method was used to analyze reflection and free response data and descriptive statistics were performed on Likert-style items using Excel. Three themes were identified to encompass the impacts of the FPP on professional development and include: Socialization (through collective dissection experience and pathology), Humanistic Qualities (respect for the donor and their history, and introspection), and Content and Skills (technical and NTDIS, anatomical knowledge). The end of course FPP survey was completed by 29 students across three cohorts (65%) and their perspectives were generally favorable regarding the promotion of respect, empathy, and humanization of their donors. This study underscores the value of incorporating humanism, pathology, and reflection, facilitated through formal curriculum for pre-professional undergraduate students. It provides evidence of the positive impact on their personal and professional development, supporting the integration of NTDIS in curricula across various disciplines.

The impact of human cadaveric dissection on professional identity formation in medical students

BACKGROUND

As technology advances, some schools are moving away from human cadaveric dissection to teach anatomy, leading to concern regarding the possible loss of a professional identity building experience. This study explored the role of dissection in students' professional identity formation.

METHODS

A mixed-methods study was conducted using survey methodology and semi-structured interviews of medical students at an American-style graduate-entry medical school in Singapore. The questionnaire adopted the conceptual framework of the Ring Theory of Personhood and the MacLeod-Clark Professional Identity Scale was used to measure professional identity, followed by semi-structured interviews of students using Braun and Clarke's six-phase reflexive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Respondents did not differ substantively from non-respondents by age, nationality, or ethnicity, and year of entering medical school, however, they were slightly more female dominant. The number of hours of hands-on participation in dissection showed no significant relationship (r2 = 0.010; p = 0.424) with professional identity formation measured by the MacLeod-Clark Professional Identity Scale. Despite the survey results, semi-structured interviews revealed rich and nuanced findings suggesting the influence of dissection in participants' professional identity formation through deepening students' appreciation of humanistic values and enhancing their notions of patients' personhood. Notably, students without dissection experience did not express these sentiments and were orientated towards knowledge acquisition.

CONCLUSION

While our findings do not suggest that dissection strongly impacts students' professional identity formation, students shared thought-provoking experiences which suggest some level of its contribution. Careful consideration of this phenomenon should be exercised prior to removing dissection in favour of technological alternatives.

The Sun Also Rises: Tracing the evolution of humanistic values in anatomy pedagogy and research, including cadaveric acquisition practices

Anatomy has always been at the intersection of the socio-cultural and political landscape, where new ideas constantly replace older wisdom. From ancient Egyptians through the Greeks, and then the Romans, finally culminating into the European Renaissance-all the significant eras of human civilisation have left their insignia and distinct marks on the evolution of anatomical practices. Despite its utility as a tool for anatomy pedagogy and research that has proven its worth over millennia, cadaveric dissection has particularly been subject to political and social vicissitudes. A major debate about anatomical dissection lay with the ethical considerations, or its lack thereof, while acquiring corpses for demonstration in the dissection halls. From antiquity, anatomical dissection-often synonymous with medical studies-had typically been carried out on the dead bodies of executed criminals with certain laws, such as the Murder Act of 1752, facilitating such uses. Gradually, the uses of unclaimed bodies, resourced primarily from the impoverished sections of society, were also introduced. However, these body acquisition protocols often missed the crucial element of humanism and ethical considerations, while knowledge augmentation was taken as sufficient reasoning. Unfortunately, a gross disregard towards humanistic values promulgated heinous and illegal practices in acquiring corpses, including grave robbery and even murders like in the case of Burke and Hare murders of 1828. Follow-up legislation, such as the Anatomy Act of 1832, and comparable laws in other European nations were passed to curb the vile. What distils from such a historical discourse on humane values in anatomy dissection, or medical science in general, is that the growth and integration of humanism in anatomy have never been linear, but there were intermittent and, yet, significant disruptions in its timeline. For example, there were serious human rights violations in anatomical practices during the Third Reich in Germany that perpetrated the holocaust. The medical community has kept evolving and introducing new moral values and principles while using such egregious events as lessons, ultimately resulting in the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964. This article revisits the heterogeneous journey of integrating humanistic values in anatomy practice. Such humanistic traits that, like medical science, have also developed over centuries through the inputs of physicians, researchers, and philosophers-from Greece to modernity with an important stopgap at the Renaissance-are a fascinating lore that deserves to be re-envisioned through the lens of contemporary values and ethos. In parallel to human medicine, humanistic values continue to influence veterinary medicine, a welcome development, as our society condemns animal cruelty in any form. There are lessons to be learned from this historical journey of how humanism shaped many of the concepts that anatomists use now. Finally, and most importantly, it might prevent the medical community from repeating the same mistakes by cautioning against the traps that are there, and in a convoluted world where morality as such is eroding from our social fabric, will always be there. Such historical account acts as a righteous, ethical, and contextual compass to guide the existing and upcoming anatomists in discerning between light and dark, right and wrong, and roads-to be or not to be-taken.

A Know-Brainer: The Power of Cadaver-Based Instruction to Teach Clinical Neuroanatomy

PURPOSE

Learning experiences that incorporate cadaver prosection or dissection of the brain have shown to enhance the acquisition and retention of neuroanatomy and improve standardized examination scores when included within medical curriculum. However, the role of cadaver-based instruction within allied health fields, and particularly in the field of communication sciences and disorders (CSD), remains limited and less understood.

METHOD

The effectiveness of a cadaver-based lab compared to lecture to teach neuroanatomy within an undergraduate/postbaccalaureate clinical neuroscience course for CSD majors was explored within a crossover design. Fifty-four participants were stratified by class rank between two initial training sessions: lab-first versus lecture-first. Neuroanatomical knowledge was tested via labeling tasks at baseline, after the first allocated training, and at 1-week follow-up after crossover training had been completed.

RESULTS

Both cohorts demonstrated significant gains in neuroanatomical knowledge following training, yet after the initial training session, students that received cadaver-based instruction produced a significantly greater number (p < .001) and more accurate (p < .001) anatomical labels than students that received lecture. After completion of the crossover design, students receiving cadaver-based instruction prior to lecture continued to demonstrate superior labeling accuracy at follow-up testing (p = .022).

CONCLUSIONS

Cadaver-based instruction was more effective in improving students' ability to identify neuroanatomy compared to lecture for CSD students. Interestingly, cadaver-based demonstrations were also most effective in bolstering students' retention of structural knowledge when conducted before, instead of after, a lecture. Clinical training programs, specifically student learning outcomes, benefit from cadaver-based instruction that provides both three-dimensional orientation and a deep appreciation of the human elements of clinical anatomy. Furthermore, both the acquisition and retention of anatomical concepts may be enhanced through strategic instructional design, particularly in regard to the order of lecture and lab experiences.

Undergraduate medical student perceptions and learning outcomes related to anatomy training using Thiel- and ethanol-glycerin-embalmed tissues

Anatomical dissection is known to serve as an integral tool in teaching gross anatomy, including postgraduate training. A variety of embalming techniques exist, resulting in different haptic and optical tissue properties. This study aimed to objectify learning outcomes and medical student perceptions related to the use of two widely used embalming techniques, namely Thiel and ethanol-glycerin embalming. Between 2020 and 2022, first- and second-year medical students enrolled in the course on topographic anatomy participated in this study. Objective structured practical examinations were carried out for the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and extremity regions following regional dissection just before the oral examinations began. Six to ten numbered tags were marked in prosections of each region in Thiel- and ethanol-glycerin-embalmed specimens. Following the examinations, the students were surveyed regarding the suitability of the two embalming techniques with respect to preservation, colorfastness, tissue pliability, and the suitability in preparing for their anatomy examinations. Consistently higher scores were achieved for the thoracic and abdominal regions in ethanol-glycerin-embalmed specimens when compared to Thiel. No benefit was found for Thiel-embalmed upper or lower extremities. Tissues embalmed with ethanol-glycerin were rated higher for preservation and suitability to achieve the learning objectives, tissue pliability was rated higher for Thiel-embalmed tissues. Ethanol-glycerin embalming appears to offer certain advantages for undergraduate students in recognizing visceral structures, which may align with students' ideas on tissue suitability for their learning. Consequently, the benefits reported for Thiel embalming for postgraduate study unlikely reflect its suitability for novices.

Focus on evidence-based anatomy in contemporary anatomy education: Arguments in favor of a pragmatic approach

The concept of evidence-based anatomy (EBA) emerged in 2014 and has become a significant element in contemporary anatomy education. The evolving fabric of the medical education curriculum has necessitated critical changes in practice. EBA enables these changes to be incorporated seamlessly and implemented congruently into anatomy education programs. However, in parallel, non-evidence-based (classical) knowledge that has been built up through centuries of anatomical practice continues to be the core element of anatomy education in some countries/regions. Its inherent limitations hinder integration with clinical practice, leading to a rise in misadventures in the clinical setting. This viewpoint commentary highlights the strengths of EBA vis-à-vis the related attributes of classical anatomy. Appropriate arguments show that EBA helps to reduce cognitive load and enables knowledge to be delivered through innovative education tools. EBA also helps to create an inclusive learning environment in a technology-driven era. Moreover, empowered by robust resources, it is driving the pertinent amalgamation of anatomy knowledge with clinical practice. This viewpoint article endorses the adoption of EBA in contemporary anatomy education on the basis of its potential for shaping future anatomical practice.

New Challenges for Anatomists in the Era of Omics

Anatomic studies have traditionally relied on macroscopic, microscopic, and histological techniques to investigate the structure of tissues and organs. Anatomic studies are essential in many fields, including medicine, biology, and veterinary science. Advances in technology, such as imaging techniques and molecular biology, continue to provide new insights into the anatomy of living organisms. Therefore, anatomy remains an active and important area in the scientific field. The consolidation in recent years of some omics technologies such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics allows for a more complete and detailed understanding of the structure and function of cells, tissues, and organs. These have been joined more recently by "omics" such as radiomics, pathomics, and connectomics, supported by computer-assisted technologies such as neural networks, 3D bioprinting, and artificial intelligence. All these new tools, although some are still in the early stages of development, have the potential to strongly contribute to the macroscopic and microscopic characterization in medicine. For anatomists, it is time to hitch a ride and get on board omics technologies to sail to new frontiers and to explore novel scenarios in anatomy.

Foundations and guidelines for high-quality three-dimensional models using photogrammetry: A technical note on the future of neuroanatomy education

Hands-on dissections using cadaveric tissues for neuroanatomical education are not easily available in many educational institutions due to financial, safety, and ethical factors. Supplementary pedagogical tools, for instance, 3D models of anatomical specimens acquired with photogrammetry are an efficient alternative to democratize the 3D anatomical data. The aim of this study was to describe a technical guideline for acquiring realistic 3D anatomic models with photogrammetry and to improve the teaching and learning process in neuroanatomy. Seven specimens with different sizes, cadaveric tissues, and textures were used to demonstrate the step-by-step instructions for specimen preparation, photogrammetry setup, post-processing, and display of the 3D model. The photogrammetry scanning consists of three cameras arranged vertically facing the specimen to be scanned. In order to optimize the scanning process and the acquisition of optimal images, high-quality 3D models require complex and challenging adjustments in the positioning of the specimens within the scanner, as well as adjustments of the turntable, custom specimen holders, cameras, lighting, computer hardware, and its software. MeshLab® software was used for editing the 3D model before exporting it to MedReality® (Thyng, Chicago, IL) and SketchFab® (Epic, Cary, NC) platforms. Both allow manipulation of the models using various angles and magnifications and are easily accessed using mobile, immersive, and personal computer devices free of charge for viewers. Photogrammetry scans offer a 360° view of the 3D models ubiquitously accessible on any device independent of operating system and should be considered as a tool to optimize and democratize the teaching of neuroanatomy.

Spine Biomechanics in the Work of Aristotle (384 - 322 BC)

Background: Spine biomechanics is a field of applied research aiming to unravel the biomechanical understanding of the spine and its disorders and to understand the implications of their interventional therapy to improve clinical practice, physical performance and daily living. Its scientific whereabouts can be traced in the work of Aristotle, who discussed physical and biological concepts of spine biomechanics in a series of treatises.Results: The authors searched the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae archive for original texts written in Greek and attributed to Aristotle and selected excerpts of medical and biological treatises that elaborate on spine biomechanics.Discussion: While many of his theories have become outdated, his methodology and rationale remain relevant for contemporary researchers and clinicians. Here, the relevant content of passages of the corpus aristotelicum related to spine biomechanics and discuss their practical implications are presented.

The impact of enhancing publicity and commemoration of body donors at Zhengzhou University, China

As a fundamental subject of medical education, human anatomy plays a critical role in the development of medical science. However, because of multiple factors including cultural conservativism and limited social understanding, China is facing a particularly severe shortage of bodies donated for anatomy education. Zhengzhou University (ZZU) has continued to uphold whole-body dissection as the preferred method for medical students to learn anatomy. For this study, records of registered individuals (who have signed a body donation agreement) and donors (whose bodies have been received) from 2001 to 2020 were collected and analyzed. The aim of this study was to explore the factors influencing the body donation program (BDP) at ZZU, and then reinforce the social understanding for the BDP. The results showed a significant increase in the numbers of both registered individuals and donors since 2015, which is the year the publicity and commemoration in honor of donors were increased. There were no significant differences between the biological male and female sexes in the registered individuals, but the number of male donors (12.85 ± 10.86, per year) was significantly higher than that of female donors (4.75 ± 4.53, per year). The current donor profile at ZZU is male in his 60/70s, while the profile of registered individuals is male or female in their 60s. Strengthening the publicity and commemoration in honor of donors may contribute to the implementation of BDPs.

Profiting from public dissection: A new era of unethical practices

Historically, adverse events have reflected poorly on both the practice of dissection and the perception of the discipline of anatomy. The recent public dissection of a body donor is a regression to an unethical historical practice and was strongly denounced by anatomists around the world. The individual whose donated body was sourced from a 'for-profit" company in the United States had not given consent for a public dissection. This violates the ethics surrounding consent and body donation and potentially places the future of body donor programs in jeopardy as it compromises community frameworks around epistemic trust. Recent guiding frameworks by international anatomical associations on the ethical use of bodies have cemented the way in which body donor programs should operate. This viewpoint reflects on past and current events pertaining to public dissections and questions how these indignities may influence the public's interaction with human bodies. The authors argue that public dissection should be prohibited as it is against social mores. Social pressure should be applied to individuals or companies who wish to profit from unethical anatomical practice and legislation prohibiting public dissection should be introduced in those countries where it does not yet exist.

Knowledge levels and attitudes of medical faculty students related to whole body donation in Türkiye

BACKGROUND

Cadaver is a very important educational material for medical faculty students, students of health sciences, residents of any specialty in medicine and specialists. In developed countries, cadavers are mainly obtained by individual donations. However, like in other developing or underdeveloped countries, whole-body donations for cadaveric use in Türkiye are extremely scarce. This study sought to investigate the knowledge and awareness levels of medical faculty students about body donation and the factors that might influence their attitudes to body donation. The aim of the study is, with the results of the questionnaire, to raise public awareness for whole-body donation by creating public spots and by giving place in the official website of the Ministry of Health and make medical faculties to put lectures about body donation and its importance into their anatomy curriculum.

METHODS

A 31-item questionnaire with close-ended statements was administered to 291 students at Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Cerrahpaşa Medical Faculty.

RESULTS

Only two of the participants (0.7%) stated that they had already donated their bodies to be used as a cadaver. Of note, those who reported considering whole body donation had higher maternal education levels (p = 0.002). The presence or absence of religious belief and the degree of religiosity were also significant factors, for significantly higher rates of non-believers and those who defined themselves as having a low degree of religiosity were in favor of body donation (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

According to the religion of Islam, we should inform the relevant media that there is no harm in donating a body. In addition, considering the effect of mother's education level on the decisions of young people on this issue, we can state that we see once again how important women's education is in order to make progress in every field.

Quantitative medicine: Tracing the transition from holistic to reductionist approaches. A new "quantitative holism" is possible?

The practice of medicine has evolved significantly over time, from a more holistic to a reductionist or mechanistic approach. This paper briefly traces the history of medicine and the transition to quantitative medicine, which has enabled more personalized and targeted treatments, and improved understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms of disease. However, this shift has also presented some challenges and criticisms, including the danger of losing sight of the patient as a unique, whole individual. This paper explores the underlying principles and key contributions of quantitative medicine, as well as the context for its rise, including the development of new technologies and the influence of reductionist philosophies. The challenges and criticisms of this approach, and the need to balance reductionist and holistic approaches in order to achieve a comprehensive understanding of human health will be discussed. Ultimately, by integrating insights from philosophy, physics, and other fields, we may be able to develop new and innovative approaches that bridge the gap between reductionism and holism and improve patient outcomes with the new "quantitative holism."

Fewer medical students are open to body donation after dissecting human cadavers

INTRODUCTION

Cadaver dissection has long been hailed as a vital component of medical education. Although most physicians acknowledge positive impacts of cadaver dissection on their learning, they are less likely to will their bodies for anatomical dissection than the general public. This study aims to determine whether the proportion of medical students open to willed body donation changes after completing cadaver dissection.

METHODS

We conducted a longitudinal study surveying 323 medical students across three cohorts before and after anatomical dissection of human cadavers. Through the survey, students indicated whether they would will their body for anatomical dissection. Additionally, students responded to items regarding the rationale underlying their decision, demographics and perceived effects of anatomical dissection on medical education.

RESULTS

The proportion of students who expressed openness to willed body donation decreased by 25% after cadaver dissection. Of the 171 students who initially stated they would will their body, 61 (35%) changed their response after completing cadaver dissection. Those who cited religion as a motivating factor were less likely to show openness to body donation, whereas those who cited ethical factors were more likely.

CONCLUSIONS

This study documents a substantial decrease in the proportion of students open to willed body donation after completion of cadaver dissection. Despite this, students almost universally report educational benefits of cadaver dissection. This raises interesting questions regarding the emotional impact of cadaver dissection and the ethical implications of willed body donation.

Johannes Nathanael Lieberkühn (1711-1756): luminary eighteenth century anatomist and his illuminating discovery of intestinal glands

Johannes Nathanael Lieberkühn was a prodigious anatomist whose meticulous experiments and precise detailing helped in comprehending the microscopic anatomy of digestive system during early part of eighteenth century. Notably, his inventions in the field of microscopy aptly complemented his quest for anatomical knowledge at microscopic level. He designed a reflector (Lieberkühn reflector) which enhanced the amount of focussed light leading to bright illumination of tissue specimen. He invented the solar microscope which provided excellent resolution of minute anatomical details. Lieberkühn discovered the digestive juice secreting tubular glands (glands of Lieberkühn) present at the base of intestinal villi producing epithelial invaginations (crypts of Lieberkühn). He also described the intricate juxtaposition of blood vessels in relation to a single intestinal villi. Moreover, through empirically designed experimental set up, Lieberkühn was able to demonstrate the flow of lymph from intestinal villi to collecting lymphatic vessels. Also, his grandiose collection of laboratory specimens involving vascular anatomy are a testimony of his untiring efforts in academia. His contributions were seminal in comprehending the anatomy of digestive system and paved the way for future revelations. His work unveiled the enormous scope of microanatomy in medical science and catalysed the advent of histological staining methods a century later.

Anatomy acts concerning body and organ donations across the globe: past, present and future with a special emphasis on the indian scenario

From the era of pre-historic times, the ancient Indians and the Greeks highlighted the importance of body and organ donations thereby emphasizing the need for anatomical sciences in medicine through the use of effective dissections for the same. However, after the Renaissance, there was a surge in dissections throughout the world, particularly in Europe, as a result of which various laws were enacted by governments concerning the procurement of bodies for the purpose of scientific dissections, which were later promulgated throughout the world through various anatomical acts. The situation in India was quite similar to that of Britain until its independence in 1947, after which different Indian states formulated their own anatomy acts that had their own merits and pitfalls. Hence, this literature review serves to highlight the various acts throughout history and would serve as a guide to emphasize the future perspectives of formulating a centralized unified anatomy act for the Indian nation that could possibly be the need of the hour.

"A whole new perspective on how the body fits together"-An evaluation of a cadaver laboratory experience for high school students

The Center for Anatomy and Physiology Education has hosted interactive human cadaver laboratory tours for local high schools (ages 14-18) and undergraduate university students since 2014 to expose students to healthcare careers. Students receive information on the history of body donation and healthcare careers and observe human anatomy on prosections and with isolated organs. The goal of this study was to evaluate students' perceptions of the anatomy laboratory tours and their impact on students' interests in healthcare careers. Students completed pre- and post-tour questionnaires. Responses were analyzed using thematic analysis and linguistic inquiry. Of the 261 students who completed pre-tour questionnaires, 204 (78%) completed the post-tour questionnaire. Before the tour, students anticipated learning about human anatomy and expected to only see but not touch a cadaver. Most students expressed excitement and/or nervousness. A few students viewed the laboratory tour as an opportunity to test if they could see themselves in a healthcare career. After the tour, most students indicated that the tour either met or exceeded their expectations. Students found the laboratory tour to be educational and interesting and were surprised by the opportunity to interact with the donor. Numerous students expressed an increased interest in healthcare careers after the tour. Overall, students perceived the tour as an engaging experience that improved their anatomical knowledge and reinforced/increased their interest in healthcare careers. Academic institutions can positively impact local students by implementing an anatomy tour, sharing access to their in-house human cadaver laboratory, and recruiting instructors to share their anatomy expertise.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Students' Motivation in Relation to Asynchronous Anatomy Video Lectures

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate medical students' motivation in relation to asynchronous anatomy video lectures, carried out during COVID-19 remote teaching.

METHODS

Repeated cross-sectional modified Instructional Materials Motivation Survey questionnaire, validated in Brazil, was applied to 255 students attending the first semester of the undergraduate medical course at the José do Rosário Vellano University, in June 2020 and November 2020. The data were analyzed considering the 95% confidence level as significant (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

The overall score of motivation attributed by the students was moderate to high (3.7/5, 74%). The same occurred in relation to all dimensions of the instrument: Interest (3.6/5, 72%), Confidence (3.7/5, 74%), Attention (3.5/5, 70%), and Expectation (3.7/5, 74%). Cluster analysis showed that 78% (n = 168) of the students had moderate (72% of the maximum score) or high (86% of the maximum score) degrees of motivation. The influence of social isolation on the students' emotional state did not affect the overall motivation scores (p = 0.217) or the dimensions of motivation: Interest (p = 0342), Confidence (p = 0.061), Attention (p = 0.625), and Expectation (p = 0.094).

CONCLUSIONS

The students showed high motivation for the asynchronous video lectures of human anatomy. Although the majority of students are highly affected regarding their emotional state, due to the social isolation imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, this fact did not interfere with the motivation for video lectures, probably due to the high intrinsic motivation that students in the first year have in relation to anatomy. These findings alert to the importance of asynchronous video lectures as an adequate strategy for the teaching and learning of human anatomy.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40670-022-01714-7.

New virtual platform for teaching comparative animal neuroanatomy based on metameric slices of the central nervous system

With the limitations imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, new technologies were used as methods to continue teaching and learning activities. This scenario brought forth the need to develop online tools for teaching. Therefore, this research aimed to develop a digital platform linking the knowledge about the central nervous system (CNS) anatomy from feline, equine, and sheep models. The platform was produced from the analysis of a collection of mesoscopic slides made from the sequenced cross-section of the CNS of a feline, an equine, and a sheep. All sections were analysed and stained using the Paul-Wiegert modified technique. The platform was organized in four modules: (1) Neuroanatomy of the Central Nervous System; (2) Neuroanatomy of Feline; (3) Neuroanatomy of Equine; and (4) Neuroanatomy of sheep. For each module, an explanatory document in PDF was developed, as well as video lectures and a descriptive atlas identifying the structures present in the encephalon and in the cervical part of the spinal cord. Even though there are numerous online platforms that allow the study of veterinary anatomy of different species and organs, the veterinary neuroanatomy platform presented here is the first platform that conjointly addresses the CNS anatomy of felines, equines, and sheep. Future research applying this platform as an aid to the study of neuroanatomy by students, teachers, and veterinary professionals should validate its use as a complementary tool for teaching and learning animal neuroanatomy.