Update on pythiosis immunobiology and immunotherapy

Functional characterization of macrophages and change of Th1/Th2 balance in patients with pythiosis after Pythium insidiosum antigen immunotherapy

There has been limited research into the role of the Pythium insidiosum antigen (PIA) in modulating immune response in patients with pythiosis. This study investigated the balance of T helper type 2 (Th2) and T helper type 1 (Th1) responses after receiving PIA immunotherapy in patients with pythiosis. Next, the phagocytic activity and phagocytic index of IFN-γ primed PIA-treated macrophages were examined. Furthermore, the phagocytosis of infective P. insidiosum zoospores by macrophages was investigated. This work showed that the PIA vaccine induced Th1 response and M1 macrophages in patients with vascular pythiosis who survived and those with localized pythiosis. Phagocytic activity and phagocytic index were increased considerably in localized pythiosis patients compared to vascular pythiosis patients with hematological diseases. IFN-γ priming of PIA-treated macrophages against P. insidiosum zoospores enhanced the phagocytic activity and phagocytic index in vascular and localized pythiosis patients. Macrophages engulfed P. insidiosum zoospores, but the zoospores continued germination, resulting in macrophage death. Overall, our results suggest that PIA can modulate the immune responses, contributing to higher levels of Th1-type cytokine and potentially improving the survival of patients with vascular pythiosis. This study is the first to uncover that P. insidiosum zoospores can survive within macrophages.

Treating Pythiosis with Antibacterial Drugs Targeting Protein Synthesis: An Overview

This review article explores the effectiveness of antibacterial drugs that inhibit protein synthesis in treating pythiosis, a difficult-to-treat infection caused by Pythium insidiosum. The article highlights the susceptibility of P. insidiosum to antibacterial drugs, such as macrolides, oxazolidinones, and tetracyclines. We examine various studies, including in vitro tests, experimental infection models, and clinical case reports. Based on our synthesis of these findings, we highlight the potential of these drugs in managing pythiosis, primarily when combined with surgical interventions. The review emphasizes the need for personalized treatment strategies and further research to establish standardized testing protocols and optimize therapeutic approaches.

Successful management of colonic pythiosis in two dogs in Thailand using antifungal therapy

Gastrointestinal pythiosis is a severe, progressive and often a fatal disease, which is caused by the aquatic pathogen Pythium insidiosum. Treatment is challenging due to the disease's resistance to antifungal drugs. Surgical resection is frequently attempted in cases of pythiosis; however, it can be technically challenging. This report presents two dogs with decreased appetite, abdominal pain, progressive haematochezia, tenesmus and significant weight loss. With the medical histories of both being young canines, living in areas with access to natural water resources and with the main chronic gastrointestinal symptoms having not responded to symptomatic treatment, pythiosis was taken into consideration. Abdominal ultrasound revealed severe, diffuse thickening and loss of normal layering of the colonic wall. These findings led to a differential diagnosis between intestinal neoplasia and fungal disease. Full-thickness biopsies were later performed, and immunohistochemistry staining was suggested for colonic pythiosis. Medical treatment for pythiosis was successful with a combination of oral terbinafine and prednisolone. However, therapy with itraconazole in case 1 did not improve the clinical signs, and in case 2, itraconazole was used after all clinical signs have improved for clinical control. Since then, there has been no recurrence of clinical signs until the time of preparing this report (19 months for case 1, 11 months for case 2 since the cessation of treatment). The treatment was successful based on clinical signs and ultrasonographic data, and the disease remission was not confirmed by advance imaging, monitoring of pythiosis enzyme-linked immunosorbent essay concentration or repeat sampling.

Elevated levels of interleukins, leukocyte protein and cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide are strongly associated with early to mid-stage of Pythium insidiosum infection in rabbit corneas

PURPOSE

Corneal infection in humans caused by Pythium insidiosum can lead to blindness and the host ocular immune response to it is less studied. Herein, we investigate the expression of mediators of innate and adaptive immune responses in a rabbit model.

METHODS

P. insidiosum zoospores were injected intracorneally in right eye of the nine New Zealand White rabbits while left eye was injected with 1XPBS. RT-qPCR and multiplex ELISA (mELISA) were used to study the expression of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and immune mediators in infected cornea on 3rd, 7^th and 9^th day of post-infection(PI). STRING-11.0 analysis was used to predict the interactions of immune mediators. mRNA expressions of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) were determined in human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs) stimulated with P. insidiosum zoospores. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA with Post-Hoc Tukey HSD test and p-value <0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

mRNA expression assay for IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 and Cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAP)-18 showed significant upregulation (p-value <0.05) on 7^thday post-infection (PI) compared to 3^rd and 9^thday while Leukocyte protein (LeukoP) was elevated significantly on 3^rd day followed by 7^th and 9^th day PI . Only IL-17A among other adaptive immune cytokines showed significant upregulation on 7^thday compared to 9^thday PI. Expressed in pg/mL, mELISA showed significant higher levels (p-value <0.05) of IL-1β, IL-8 in infected tissue in each of the time points compared to control. STRING analysis revealed co-expression of IL-1β, IL-8 and IL-6. Among PRRs, Dectin 1 and TLR4 showed significant upregulation in HCECs at 12hrs compared to 6hrs.

CONCLUSION

In the rabbit P. insidiosum keratitis model, innate immune mediators: IL-1β, IL-8, IL-6, AMPs: LeukoP and CAP-18 are strongly associated in early to mid-stage of corneal infection. Dectin 1 and TLR4 were observed to be associated with recognition of P. insidiosum.

Pythiosis in Equidae in Northeastern Brazil: 1985-2020

The epidemiologic, clinical, pathologic, microbiological and immunohistochemical findings of pythiosis in equidae in northeastern Brazil are described. From January 1985 to December 2020 the Laboratory of Animal Pathology of the Federal University of Campina Grande received 1,331 tissue samples of equidae, 202 (15.17%) of which were diagnosed as pythiosis. Equidae of both sexes with ages varying from 4 months to 25 years were affected. Most animals were mixed breed (79.7%) and reared in an extensive system (73.26%). The disease occurred throughout the year but the highest incidence (70.29%) was noted after the rainy season. The clinical course was always chronic. The lesions were preferentially located on the limbs and ventral thoracoabdominal wall and characterized by nodules or tumor-like masses with ulcerations and serosanguineous discharge. The cut surface showed fistulous tracts containing kunkers. The direct examination of the kunkers and microbiological culture revealed sparsely septate and branched hyaline hyphae. Histopathology revealed a marked inflammatory infiltrate of eosinophils with multifocal well-defined areas of eosinophil necrosis and collagenolysis and intralesional negatively-stained hyphal profiles; in the donkey, a pyogranulomatous inflammatory infiltrate was noted surrounding these areas. Immunohistochemistry for Pythium insidiosum revealed strong immunolabelling of the hyphae. Pythiosis occurs endemically in equidae in northeastern Brazil, with seasonal variation in the incidence. The intralesional kunkers establishes an accurate presumptive diagnosis, but confirmation should preferably be performed through histopathology associated with immunohistochemistry, culture-based or molecular methods.

History and Perspective of Immunotherapy for Pythiosis

The fungus-like microorganism Pythium insidiosum causes pythiosis, a life-threatening infectious disease increasingly reported worldwide. Antimicrobial drugs are ineffective. Radical surgery is an essential treatment. Pythiosis can resume post-surgically. Immunotherapy using P. insidiosum antigens (PIA) has emerged as an alternative treatment. This review aims at providing up-to-date information of the immunotherapeutic PIA, with the focus on its history, preparation, clinical application, outcome, mechanism, and recent advances, in order to promote the proper use and future development of this treatment modality. P. insidiosum crude extract is the primary source of immunotherapeutic antigens. Based on 967 documented human and animal (mainly horses) pythiosis cases, PIA immunotherapy reduced disease morbidity and mortality. Concerning clinical outcomes, 19.4% of PIA-immunized human patients succumbed to vascular pythiosis instead of 41.0% in unimmunized cases. PIA immunotherapy may not provide an advantage in a local P. insidiosum infection of the eye. Both PIA-immunized and unimmunized horses with pythiosis showed a similar survival rate of ~70%; however, demands for surgical intervention were much lesser in the immunized cases (22.8% vs. 75.2%). The proposed PIA action involves switching the non-protective T-helper-2 to protective T-helper-1 mediated immunity. By exploring the available P. insidiosum genome data, synthetic peptides, recombinant proteins, and nucleic acids are potential sources of the immunotherapeutic antigens worth investigating. The PIA therapeutic property needs improvement for a better prognosis of pythiosis patients.

Immunotherapy based on Pythium insidiosum mycelia drives a Th1/Th17 response in mice

Pythium insidiosum is an oomycete that affects mammals, especially humans and horses, causing a difficult-to-treat disease. Typically, surgical interventions associated with antimicrobial therapy, immunotherapy, or both are the preferred treatment choices. PitiumVac® is a therapeutic vaccine prepared from the mycelial mass of P. insidiosum and is used to treat Brazilian equine pythiosis. To better understand how PitiumVac® works, we analyzed the composition of PitiumVac® and the immune response triggered by this immunotherapy in mice. We performed an enzymatic quantification that showed a total glucan content of 21.05% ± 0.94 (α-glucan, 6.37% ± 0.77 and (1,3)(1,6)-β-glucan, 14.68% ± 0.60) and mannose content of 1.39% ± 0.26; the protein content was 0.52 mg ml-1 ± 0.07 mg ml-1. Healthy Swiss mice (n = 3) were subcutaneously preimmunized with one, two, or three shots of PitiumVac®, and immunization promoted a relevant Th1 and Th17 responses compared to nonimmunization of mice. The highest cytokine levels were observed after the third immunization, principally for IFN-γ, IL-17A, IL-6, and IL-10 levels. Results of infected untreated (Pythiosis) and infected treated (Pythiosis + PVAC) mice (n = 3) showed that PitiumVac® reinforces the Th1/Th17 response displayed by untreated mice. The (1,3)(1,6)-β-glucan content can be, at least in part, related to this Th1/Th17 response.

Efficacy of miltefosine therapy against subcutaneous experimental pythiosis in rabbits

We evaluated the in vitro activity of miltefosine against 29 Pythium spp. and the in vivo therapeutic response of 2mg/kg/day of miltefosine given orally to rabbit with pythiosis induced experimentally. The MICs (in μg/mL) of miltefosine was medium-dependent and ranged from 0.5 to 2 and 32-64 on RPMI 1640 and Mueller Hinton broth, respectively. The treatment with miltefosine demonstrated significantly lower subcutaneous lesion areas compared to the control group but was not sufficient for the complete remission of the lesions. This study indicates that miltefosine has limited efficacy against pythiosis and furthers in vitro and in vivo studies are necessary to determine the possible potential of this drug in the treatment of pythiosis.

Evaluation of intravenous regional perfusion with amphotericin B and dimethylsulfoxide to treat horses for pythiosis of a limb

BACKGROUND

Treatment for horses with pythiosis of a limb is challenging. This study aims to evaluate the effects of administering amphotericin B in a 10 % solution of dimethylsulfoxide by intravenous regional limb perfusion (IRLP) to treat horses for cutaneous pythiosis of a limb.

RESULTS

All 15 of the horses treated had complete resolutions of their lesion between 6 to 9 weeks after a single IRLP treatment. No complications were observed at the site of venipuncture for IRLP. Before initiation of treatment, there was anemia and marked leucocytosis which resolved following treatment. Serum biochemistry showed no significant changes.

CONCLUSIONS

IRLP administration of amphotericin B in a 10 % DMSO solution was easily performed, relatively inexpensive and an effective treatment for treating horses for pythiosis of a limb and resolved the infection with no complications.