Folic Acid-conjugated Graphene Oxide loaded with Photosensitizers for Targeting Photodynamic Therapy

Graphene and its hybrid nanocomposite: A Metamorphoses elevation in the field of tissue engineering

In this discourse, we delve into the manifold applications of graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) in the realm of biomedicine. Graphene, characterized by its two-dimensional planar structure, superconductivity, mechanical robustness, chemical inertness, extensive surface area, and propitious biocompatibility, stands as an exemplary candidate for diverse biomedical utility. Graphene include various distinctive characteristics of its two-dimensional planar structure, enormous surface area, mechanical and chemical stability, high conductivity, and exceptional biocompatibility. We investigate graphene and its diverse derivatives, which include reduced graphene oxides (rGOs), graphene oxides (GOs), and graphene composites, with a focus on elucidating the unique attributes relevant to their biomedical utility. In this review article it highlighted the unique properties of graphene, synthesis methods of graphene and functionalization methods of graphene. In the quest for novel materials to advance regenerative medicine, researchers have increasingly turned their attention to graphene-based materials, which have emerged as a prominent innovation in recent years. Notably, it highlights their applications in the regeneration of various tissues, including nerves, skeletal muscle, bones, skin, cardiac tissue, cartilage, and adipose tissue, as well as their influence on induced pluripotent stem cells, marking significant breakthroughs in the field of regenerative medicine. Additionally, this review article explores future prospects in this evolving area of study.

Graphene-based hybrid composites for cancer diagnostic and therapy

The application of graphene-based nanocomposites for therapeutic and diagnostic reasons has advanced considerably in recent years due to advancements in the synthesis and design of graphene-based nanocomposites, giving rise to a new field of nano-cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nano-graphene is being utilized more often in the field of cancer therapy, where it is employed in conjunction with diagnostics and treatment to address the complex clinical obstacles and problems associated with this life-threatening illness. When compared to other nanomaterials, graphene derivatives stand out due to their remarkable structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. The high specific surface area of these materials makes them useful as carriers in controlled release systems that respond to external stimuli; these compounds include drugs and biomolecules like nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Furthermore, the presence of distinctive sheet-like nanostructures and the capacity for photothermal conversion have rendered graphene-based nanocomposites highly favorable for optical therapeutic applications, including photothermal treatment (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and theranostics. This review highlights the current state and benefits of using graphene-based nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and therapy and discusses the obstacles and prospects of their future development. Then we focus on graphene-based nanocomposites applications in cancer treatment, including smart drug delivery systems, PTT, and PDT. Lastly, the biocompatibility of graphene-based nanocomposites is also discussed to provide a unique overview of the topic.

Development of Graphene Oxide-Based Anticancer Drug Combination Functionalized with Folic Acid as Nanocarrier for Targeted Delivery of Methotrexate

Graphene has become a prominent material in cancer research in recent years. Graphene and its derivatives also attract attention as carriers in drug delivery systems. In this study, we designed a graphene oxide (GO)-based methotrexate (MTX)-loaded and folic acid (FA)-linked drug delivery system. MTX and FA were bound to GO synthesized from graphite. MTX/FA/GO drug delivery system and system components were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential calorimetric analysis (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), zeta potential analysis, and dimension measurement (DLS) studies. SEM and TEM images confirmed the nanosheet structure of GO synthesized from graphite, and it was shown that MTX/FA binding to GO transformed the two-dimensional GO into a three-dimensional structure. FTIR and DSC graphs confirmed that oxygen atoms were bound to GO with the formation of carboxylic, hydroxyl, epoxide, and carbonyl groups as a result of the oxidation of graphite, and GO was successfully synthesized. Additionally, these analyses showed that MTX and FA bind physicochemically to the structure of GO. The in vitro Franz diffusion test was performed as a release kinetic test. The release kinetics mathematical model and correlation coefficient (R2) of MTX-loaded GO/FA nanomaterials were found to be the Higuchi model and 0.9785, respectively. Stiffness analyses showed that adding FA to this release system facilitated the entry of the drug into the cell by directing the system to target cells. As a result of the stiffness analyses, the stiffness values of the control cell group, free MTX, and MTX/FA/GO applied cells were measured as 2.34 kPa, 1.87 kPa, and 1.56 kPa, respectively. According to these results, it was seen that MTX/FA/GO weakened the cancer cells. Combined use of the MTX/FA/GO drug delivery system had a higher cytotoxic effect than free MTX on the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. The results showed that the synthesized MTX/FA/GO material has promising potential in cancer cell-specific targeted therapy for MTX as a drug delivery system.

Dual Functional Magnetic Nanoparticles Conjugated with Carbon Quantum Dots for Hyperthermia and Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer

The global incidence of cancer continues to rise, posing a significant public health concern. Although numerous cancer therapies exist, each has limitations and complications. The present study explores alternative cancer treatment approaches, combining hyperthermia and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and amine-functionalized carbon quantum dots (A-CQDs) were synthesized separately and then covalently conjugated to form a single nanosystem for combinational therapy (M-CQDs). The successful conjugation was confirmed using zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and UV-visible spectroscopy. Morphological examination in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) further verified the conjugation of CQDs with MNPs. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) revealed that M-CQDs contain approximately 12 weight percentages of carbon. Hyperthermia studies showed that both MNP and M-CQDs maintain a constant therapeutic temperature at lower frequencies (260.84 kHz) with high specific absorption rates (SAR) of 118.11 and 95.04 W/g, respectively. In vitro studies demonstrated that MNPs, A-CQDs, and M-CQDs are non-toxic, and combinational therapy (PDT + hyperthermia) resulted in significantly lower cell viability (~4%) compared to individual therapies. Similar results were obtained with Hoechst and propidium iodide (PI) staining assays. Hence, the combination therapy of PDT and hyperthermia shows promise as a potential alternative to conventional therapies, and it could be further explored in combination with existing conventional treatments.

Localized Photodynamic Therapy Using a Chlorin e6-Embedded Silicone-Covered Self-Expandable Metallic Stent as a Palliative Treatment for Malignant Esophageal Strictures

Localized photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a polymeric-photosensitizer (PS)-embedded, covered self-expandable metallic stent (SEMS). PDT is minimally invasive and a noteworthy potential alternative for treating esophageal strictures, where surgery is not a viable option. However, preclinical evidence is insufficient, and optimized irradiation energy dose ranges for localized PDT are unclear. Herein, we validated the irradiation energy doses of the SEMS (embedded in a PS using chlorin e6 [Ce6] and covered in silicone) and PDT-induced tissue changes in a rat esophagus. Cytotoxicity and phototoxicity in the Ce6-embedded SEMS piece with laser irradiation were significantly higher than that of the silicone-covered SEMS with or without laser and the Ce6-embedded silicone-covered SEMS without laser groups (all p < 0.001). Moreover, surface morphology, atomic changes, and homogeneous coverage of the Ce6-embedded silicone-covered membrane were confirmed. The ablation range of the porcine liver was proportionally increased with the irradiation dose (all p < 0.001). The ablation region was identified at different irradiation energy doses of 50, 100, 200, and 400 J/cm2. The in vivo study in the rat esophagus comprised a control group and 100, 200, and 400 J/cm2 energy-dose groups. Finally, histology and immunohistochemistry (TUNEL and Ki67) confirmed that the optimized Ce6-embedded silicone-covered SEMS with selected irradiation energy doses (200 and 400 J/cm2) effectively damaged the esophageal tissue without ductal perforation. The polymeric PS-embedded silicone-covered SEMS can be easily placed via a minimally invasive approach and represents a promising new approach for the palliative treatment of malignant esophageal strictures.

Fabrication of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticle-Decorated Graphene Oxide Sheets for the Effective Removal of Lead (Pb2+) from Water

Mesoporous silica nanoparticle-decorated graphene oxide nanosheets (MSiO2-GO) were synthesized and characterized for the active removal of lead (Pb2+) from the water. MSiO2 NPs were prepared via an ultrasonication method using tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), and GO sheets were obtained via a modified Hummers' method. X-ray diffraction, UV-vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy specified the composition of MSiO2 NPs and GO sheets. The surface charge and texture of the MSiO2-GO nanosheets were obtained using the ζ-potential technique and by field emission scanning electron microscopy. The relative cytotoxicity test of MSiO2 NPs and MSiO2-GO nanosheets was performed on Murine Raw 264.7 cells before implying the treatment of water. Adsorption of Pb2+ ions on MSiO2-GO nanosheets was examined at various parameters such as different aqueous pH values (2.0-10.0), MSiO2-GO nanosheet doses (3, 5, 10, 15, 20 mg L-1), time intervals (2-30 min), and temperatures (25-45 °C). About 90% of Pb2+ ions were removed from water within 30 min (MSiO2-GO dose: 15 mg L-1; initial Pb2+ ions: 50 mg L-1; temperature: 25 °C; shaking speed: 200 rpm). The maximal uptake of Pb2+ was obtained at solution pH 6.0. Pseudo-first- and pseudo-second-order kinetic rate equations describe the sorption dynamic data. Pb2+ sorption isotherms were modeled using the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm models. The possible mechanism of binding of Pb2+ ions onto MSiO2-GO nanosheets has been discussed. The exhausted MSiO2-GO nanosheets were successfully regenerated using 0.005 M HNO3 as the desorbing agent.

2D Nanomaterials and Their Drug Conjugates for Phototherapy and Magnetic Hyperthermia Therapy of Cancer and Infections

Photothermal therapy (PTT) and magnetic hyperthermia therapy (MHT) using 2D nanomaterials (2DnMat) have recently emerged as promising alternative treatments for cancer and bacterial infections, both important global health challenges. The present review intends to provide not only a comprehensive overview, but also an integrative approach of the state-of-the-art knowledge on 2DnMat for PTT and MHT of cancer and infections. High surface area, high extinction coefficient in near-infra-red (NIR) region, responsiveness to external stimuli like magnetic fields, and the endless possibilities of surface functionalization, make 2DnMat ideal platforms for PTT and MHT. Most of these materials are biocompatible with mammalian cells, presenting some cytotoxicity against bacteria. However, each material must be comprehensively characterized physiochemically and biologically, since small variations can have significant biological impact. Highly efficient and selective in vitro and in vivo PTTs for the treatment of cancer and infections are reported, using a wide range of 2DnMat concentrations and incubation times. MHT is described to be more effective against bacterial infections than against cancer therapy. Despite the promising results attained, some challenges remain, such as improving 2DnMat conjugation with drugs, understanding their in vivo biodegradation, and refining the evaluation criteria to measure PTT or MHT effects.

Tumor Abnormality-Oriented Nanomedicine Design

Anticancer nanomedicines have been proven effective in mitigating the side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. However, challenges remain in augmenting their therapeutic efficacy. Nanomedicines responsive to the pathological abnormalities in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are expected to overcome the biological limitations of conventional nanomedicines, enhance the therapeutic efficacies, and further reduce the side effects. This Review aims to quantitate the various pathological abnormalities in the TME, which may serve as unique endogenous stimuli for the design of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines, and to provide a broad and objective perspective on the current understanding of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines for cancer treatment. We dissect the typical transport process and barriers of cancer drug delivery, highlight the key design principles of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines designed to tackle the series of barriers in the typical drug delivery process, and discuss the "all-into-one" and "one-for-all" strategies for integrating the needed properties for nanomedicines. Ultimately, we provide insight into the challenges and future perspectives toward the clinical translation of stimuli-responsive nanomedicines.

Targeted therapy of breast tumor by PLGA-based nanostructures: The versatile function in doxorubicin delivery

Breast carcinoma is a molecularly diverse illness, and it is among the most prominent and often reported malignancies in female across the globe. Surgical intervention, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and endocrine treatment are among the currently viable treatment options for the carcinoma of breast. Chemotherapy is among the most prevalent cancer management strategy. Doxorubicin (DOX) widely employed as a cytostatic medication for the treatment of a variety of malignancies. Despite its widespread acceptance and excellent efficacy against an extensive line up of neoplasia, it has a variety of shortcomings that limit its therapeutic potential in the previously mentioned indications. Employment of nanoparticulate systems has come up as a unique chemo medication delivery strategy and are being considerably explored for the amelioration of breast carcinoma. Polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)-based nano systems are being utilized in a number of areas within the medical research and medication delivery constitutes one of the primary functions for PLGA given their inherent physiochemical attributes, including their aqueous solubility, biocompatibility, biodegradability, versatility in formulation, and limited toxicity. Herein along with the different application of PLGA-based nano formulations in cancer therapy, the present review intends to describe the various research investigations that have been conducted to enumerate the effectiveness of DOX-encapsulated PLGA nanoparticles (DOX-PLGA NPs) as a feasible treatment option for breast cancer.

GPP-TSAIII nanocomposite hydrogel-based photothermal ablation facilitates melanoma therapy

BACKGROUND

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising cancer treatment, but its application is limited by low photoconversion efficiency. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocomposite hydrogel to improve the bioavailability of timosaponin AIII (TSAIII) while maximizing PTT efficacy and enhancing the antitumor effect.

METHODS

GO was modified via physical cross-linking with polyvinyl alcohol. The pore structure of the gel was adjusted by repeated freeze-thawing and the addition of polyethylene glycol 2000 to obtain a nanocomposite hydrogel (GPP). The GPP loaded with TSAIII constituted a GPP-TSAIII drug delivery system, and its efficacy was evaluated by in vitro cytotoxicity, apoptosis, migration, and uptake analyses, and in vivo antitumor studies.

RESULTS

The encapsulation rate of GPP-TSAIII was 66.36 ± 3.97%, with slower in vitro release and higher tumor cell uptake (6.4-fold) compared to TSAIII. GPP-TSAIII in combination with PTT showed better bioavailability and antitumor effects in vivo than did TSAIII, with a 1.9-fold higher tumor suppression rate than the TSAIII group.

CONCLUSIONS

GPP is a potential vehicle for delivery of TSAIII-like poor water-soluble anticancer drugs. The innovative PTT co-delivery system may serve as a safe and effective melanoma treatment platform for further anticancer translational purposes.

Activatable Graphene Quantum-Dot-Based Nanotransformers for Long-Period Tumor Imaging and Repeated Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is considered as an emerging therapeutic modality against cancer with high spatiotemporal selectivity because the utilized photosensitizers (PSs) are only active and toxic upon light irradiation. To maximize its effectiveness, PDT is usually applied repetitively for ablating various tumors. However, the total overdose of PSs from repeated administrations causes severe side effects. Herein, acidity-activated graphene quantum dots-based nanotransformers (GQD NT) are developed as PS vehicles for long-period tumor imaging and repeated PDT. Under the guidance of Arg-Gly-Asp peptide, GQD NT targets to tumor tissues actively, and then loosens and enlarges in tumor acidity, thus promising long tumor retention. Afterwards, GQD NT transforms into small pieces for better penetration in tumor. Upon laser irradiation, GQD NT generates mild hyperthermia that enhances cell membrane permeability and further promotes the PSs uptake. Most intriguingly, the as-prepared GQD NT not only "turns-on" fluorescence/magnetic resonance signals, but also achieves efficient repeated PDT. Notably, the total PSs dose is reduced to 3.5 µmol kg^-1 , which is 10-30 times lower than that of other reported works. Overall, this study exploits a smart vehicle to enhance accumulation, retention, and release of PSs in tumors through programmed deformation, thus overcoming the overdose obstacle in repeated PDT.

Folic Acid-Functionalized Albumin/Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite to Simultaneously Deliver Curcumin and 5-Fluorouracil into Human Colorectal Cancer Cells: An In Vitro Study

Background

Nowadays, due to various inherent properties, graphene-based nanoparticles are widely used in drug delivery research. On the other hand, folate receptors are highly expressed on the surface of human tumor cells. In this work, to enhance the 5-fluorouracil (5FU) and curcumin (Cur) effects on colon cancer, we constructed a folic acid- (FA-) modified codelivery carrier based on graphene nanoparticles (GO-Alb-Cur-FA-5FU).

Materials and Methods

The HUVEC and HT-29 were selected for evaluating the antitumor effect of the prepared nanocarriers. The structure of nanocarriers was characterized by FTIR spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction analysis, TEM microscopy, and a DLS analyzer. The efficiency of the prepared carrier was evaluated by fluorescence microscopy using Annexin V and the PI kit. The cytotoxicity of the carrier's component individually and the efficacy of the drug carrier GO-Alb-Cur-FA-5FU were assessed by MTT.

Results

The results of the pharmacological tests indicated that the new nanoparticles cause increased apparent toxicity in HT-29 cells. The apoptosis rate of the HT-29 and HUVEC cells treated with IC50 values of GO-Alb-Cur-FA-5FU for 48 h was higher than the cells treated with IC50 values of 5FU and Cur individually, which indicated the greater inhibitory efficacy of GO-Alb-Cur-FA-5FU than free drugs.

Conclusion

The designed GO-Alb-CUR-FA-5FU delivery system can be applied for targeting colon cancer cells and can be severe as a potential candidate for future drug development.

Surface modification of TiO2 nanoparticles with organic molecules and their biological applications

In recent years, titanium(IV) dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) have shown promising potential in various biological applications such as antimicrobials, drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, biosensors, and tissue engineering. For employing TiO₂NPs in these fields, their nanosurface must be coated or conjugated with organic and/or inorganic agents. This modification can improve their stability, photochemical properties, biocompatibility, and even surface area for further conjugation with other molecules such as drugs, targeting molecules, polymers, etc. This review describes the organic-based modification of TiO₂NPs and their potential applications in the mentioned biological fields. In the first part of this review, around 75 recent publications (2017-2022) are mentioned on the common TiO₂NP modifiers including organosilanes, polymers, small molecules, and hydrogels, which improve the photochemical features of TiO₂NPs. In the second part of this review, we presented 149 recent papers (2020-2022) about the use of modified TiO₂NPs in biological applications, in which specific bioactive modifiers are introduced in this part with their advantages. In this review, the following information is presented: (1) the common organic modifiers for TiO₂NPs, (2) biologically important modifiers and their benefits, and (3) recent publications on biological studies on the modified TiO₂NPs with their achievements. This review shows the paramount significance of the organic-based modification of TiO₂NPs to enhance their biological effectiveness, paving the way toward the development of advanced TiO₂-based nanomaterials in nanomedicine.

Synthesis and Functionalization of Graphene Materials for Biomedical Applications: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Perspectives

Since its discovery in 2004, graphene is increasingly applied in various fields owing to its unique properties. Graphene application in the biomedical domain is promising and intriguing as an emerging 2D material with a high surface area, good mechanical properties, and unrivalled electronic and physical properties. This review summarizes six typical synthesis methods to fabricate pristine graphene (p-G), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), followed by characterization techniques to examine the obtained graphene materials. As bare graphene is generally undesirable in vivo and in vitro, functionalization methods to reduce toxicity, increase biocompatibility, and provide more functionalities are demonstrated. Subsequently, in vivo and in vitro behaviors of various bare and functionalized graphene materials are discussed to evaluate the functionalization effects. Reasonable control of dose (<20 mg kg^-1 ), sizes (50-1000 nm), and functionalization methods for in vivo application are advantageous. Then, the key biomedical applications based on graphene materials are discussed, coupled with the current challenges and outlooks of this growing field. In a broader sense, this review provides a comprehensive discussion on the synthesis, characterization, functionalization, evaluation, and application of p-G, GO, and rGO in the biomedical field, highlighting their recent advances and potential.

Catalytic nanotechnology of X-ray photodynamics for cancer treatments

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been applied in cancer treatment because of its high selectivity, low toxicity, and non-invasiveness. However, the limited penetration depth of the light still hampers from reaching deep-seated tumors. Considering the penetrating ability of high-energy radiotherapy, X-ray-induced photodynamic therapy (X-PDT) has evolved as an alternative to overcome tissue blocks. As the basic principle of X-PDT, X-rays stimulate the nanoparticles to emit scintillating or persistent luminescence and further activate the photosensitizers to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), which would cause a series of molecular and cellular damages, immune response, and eventually break down the tumor tissue. In recent years, catalytic nanosystems with unique structures and functions have emerged that can enhance X-PDT therapeutic effects via an immune response. The anti-cancer effect of X-PDT is closely related to the following factors: energy conversion efficiency of the material, the radiation dose of X-rays, quantum yield of the material, tumor resistance, and biocompatibility. Based on the latest research in this field and the classical theories of nanoscience, this paper systematically elucidates the current development of the X-PDT and related immunotherapy, and highlights its broad prospects in medical applications, discussing the connection between fundamental science and clinical translation.

Oxidative stress induced by berberine-based mitochondria-targeted low temperature photothermal therapy

Introduction: Mitochondria-targeted low-temperature photothermal therapy (LPTT) is a promising strategy that could maximize anticancer effects and overcome tumor thermal resistance. However, the successful synthesis of mitochondria-targeted nanodrug delivery system for LPTT still faces diverse challenges, such as laborious preparations processes, low drug-loading, and significant systemic toxicity from the carriers. Methods: In this study, we used the tumor-targeting folic acid (FA) and mitochondria-targeting berberine (BBR) derivatives (BD) co-modified polyethylene glycol (PEG)-decorated graphene oxide (GO) to synthesize a novel mitochondria-targeting nanocomposite (GO-PEG-FA/BD), which can effectively accumulate in mitochondria of the osteosarcoma (OS) cells and achieve enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects with minimal cell toxicity. The mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects were validated both in vitro and vivo. Results: In vitro experiments, the nanocomposites (GO-PEG-FA/BD) could eliminate membrane potential (ΔΨm), deprive the ATP of cancer cells, and increase the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which ultimately induce oxidative stress damage. Furthermore, in vivo results showed that the enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT could exert an excellent anti-cancer effect with minimal toxicity. Discussion: Taken together, this study provides a practicable strategy to develop an ingenious nanoplatform for cancer synergetic therapy via mitochondria-targeted LPTT, which hold enormous potential for future clinical translation.

Evaluation of a biosensor-based graphene oxide-DNA nanohybrid for lung cancer

Lung cancer is nowadays among the most prevalent diseases worldwide and features the highest mortality rate among various cancers, indicating that early diagnosis of the disease is of paramount importance. Given that the conventional methods of cancer detection are expensive and time-consuming, special attention has been paid to the provision of less expensive and faster techniques. In recent years, the dramatic advances in nanotechnology and the development of various nanomaterials have led to activities in this context. Recent studies indicate that the graphene oxide (GO) nanomaterial has high potential in the design of nano biosensors for lung cancer detection owing to its unique properties. In the current article, a nano biosensor based on a DNA-GO nanohybrid is introduced to detect deletion mutations causing lung cancer. In this method, mutations were detected using a FAM-labeled DNA probe with fluorescence spectrometry. GO was synthesized according to Hummers' method and examined and confirmed using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Spectrometry and UV-vis spectrometry methods and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images.

Potential Biomedical Limitations of Graphene Nanomaterials

Graphene-family nanomaterials (GFNs) possess mechanical stiffness, optical properties, and biocompatibility making them promising materials for biomedical applications. However, to realize the potential of graphene in biomedicine, it must overcome several challenges that arise when it enters the body's circulatory system. Current research focuses on the development of tumor-targeting devices using graphene, but GFNs accumulated in different tissues and cells through different pathways, which can cause toxic reactions leading to cell apoptosis and body dysfunction when the accumulated amount exceeds a certain limit. In addition, as a foreign substance, graphene can induce complex inflammatory reactions with immune cells and inflammatory factors, potentially enhancing or impairing the body's immune function. This review discusses the biomedical applications of graphene, the effects of graphene materials on human immune function, and the biotoxicity of graphene materials.

Multifunctional Photoactive Nanomaterials for Photodynamic Therapy against Tumor: Recent Advancements and Perspectives

Numerous treatments are available for cancer, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, biomarker testing, surgery, photodynamic therapy, etc. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective, non-invasive, novel, and clinically approved strategy to treat cancer. In PDT, three main agents are utilized, i.e., photosensitizer (PS) drug, oxygen, and light. At first, the photosensitizer is injected into blood circulation or applied topically, where it quickly becomes absorbed or accumulated at the tumor site passively or actively. Afterward, the tumor is irradiated with light which leads to the activation of the photosensitizing molecule. PS produces the reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in the death of the tumor cell. However, the effectiveness of PDT for tumor destruction is mainly dependent on the cellular uptake and water solubility of photosensitizer molecules. Therefore, the delivery of photosensitizer molecules to the tumor cell is essential in PDT against cancer. The non-specific distribution of photosensitizer results in unwanted side effects and unsuccessful therapeutic outcomes. Therefore, to improve PDT clinical outcomes, the current research is mostly focused on developing actively targeted photosensitizer molecules, which provide a high cellular uptake and high absorption capacity to the tumor site by overcoming the problem associated with conventional PDT. Therefore, this review aims to provide current knowledge on various types of actively and passively targeted organic and inorganic nanocarriers for different cancers.

An Electrochemical Immunosensor Based on Carboxylated Graphene/SPCE for IgG-SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Determination

The COVID-19 pandemic has emphasized the importance and urgent need for rapid and accurate diagnostic tests for detecting and screening this infection. Our proposal was to develop a biosensor based on an ELISA immunoassay for monitoring antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in human serum samples. The nucleocapsid protein (N protein) from SARS-CoV-2 was employed as a specific receptor for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid immunoglobulin G. N protein was immobilized on the surface of a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) modified with carboxylated graphene (CG). The percentage of IgG-SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid present was quantified using a secondary antibody labeled with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) (anti-IgG-HRP) catalyzed using 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) mediator by chronoamperometry. A linear response was obtained in the range of 1:1000-1:200 v/v in phosphate buffer solution (PBS), and the detection limit calculated was 1:4947 v/v. The chronoamperometric method showed electrical signals directly proportional to antibody concentrations due to antigen-antibody (Ag-Ab) specific and stable binding reaction.

Understanding structure-properties relationships of porphyrin linked to graphene oxide through π-π-stacking or covalent amide bonds

Two graphene oxide nanoassemblies using 5-(4-(aminophenyl)-10,15,20-triphenylporphyrin (TPPNH₂) were fabricated by two synthetic methods: covalent (GO-CONHTPP) and noncovalent bonding. GO-CONHTPP was achieved through amide formation at the periphery of GO sheets and the hybrid material was fully characterized by FTIR, XPS, Raman spectroscopy, and SEM. Spectroscopic measurements together with theoretical calculations demonstrated that assembling TPPNH₂ on the GO surface in DMF-H₂O (1:2, v/v) via non-covalent interactions causes changes in the absorption spectra of porphyrin, as well as efficient quenching of its emission. Interestingly, covalent binding to GO does not affect notably neither the porphyrin absorption nor its fluorescence. Theoretical calculations indicates that close proximity and π-π-stacking of the porphyrin molecule with the GO sheet is possible only for the non-covalent functionalization. Femtosecond pump-probe experiments revealed that only the non-covalent assembly of TPPNH₂ and GO enhances the efficiency of the photoinduced electron transfer from porphyrin to GO. In contrast to the non-covalent hybrid, the covalent GO-CONHTPP material can generate singlet oxygen with quantum yields efficiency (ΦΔ = 0.20) comparable to that of free TPPNH₂ (ΦΔ = 0.26), indicating the possible use of covalent hybrid materials in photodynamic/photothermal therapy. The spectroscopic studies combined with detailed quantum-chemical analysis provide invaluable information that can guide the fabrication of hybrid materials with desired properties for specific applications.

Combined Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer Treatment Using a Multifunctional Graphene Oxide

Graphene oxide (GO) is one of the most studied nanomaterials in many fields, including the biomedical field. Most of the nanomaterials developed for drug delivery and phototherapies are based on noncovalent approaches that lead to an unspecific release of physisorbed molecules in complex biological environments. Therefore, preparing covalently functionalized GO using straightforward and versatile methods is highly valuable. Phototherapies, including photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), have shown great potential as effective therapeutic approaches against cancer. To overcome the limits of a single method, the combination of PTT and PDT can lead to a combined effect with a higher therapeutic efficiency. In this work, we prepare a folic acid (FA) and chlorin e6 (Ce6) double-functionalized GO for combined targeted PTT/PDT. This conjugate can penetrate rapidly into cancer cells and macrophages. A combined effect of PTT and PDT is observed, leading to a higher killing efficiency toward different types of cells involved in cancer and other diseases. Our work provides a simple protocol to prepare multifunctional platforms for the treatment of various diseases.

Graphene Biosensors-A Molecular Approach

Graphene is the material elected to study molecules and monolayers at the molecular scale due to its chemical stability and electrical properties. The invention of scanning tunneling microscopy has deepened our knowledge on molecular systems through imaging at an atomic resolution, and new possibilities have been investigated at this scale. Interest on studies on biomolecules has been demonstrated due to the possibility of mimicking biological systems, providing several applications in nanomedicine: drug delivery systems, biosensors, nanostructured scaffolds, and biodevices. A breakthrough came with the synthesis of molecular systems by stepwise methods with control at the atomic/molecular level. This article presents a review on self-assembled monolayers of biomolecules on top of graphite with applications in biodevices. Special attention is given to porphyrin systems adsorbed on top of graphite that are able to anchor other biomolecules.

Microencapsulated Multifunctionalized Graphene Oxide Equipped with Chloroquine for Efficient and Sustained siRNA Delivery

A multifunctionalized graphene oxide (GO)-based carrier with conjugation of aminated-polyethylene glycol (PEG-diamine), octaarginine (R8), and folic acid (FA), which also contains chloroquine (CQ), a lysosomotropic agent, is introduced. The cellular uptake mechanisms and intracellular targeting of FA-functionalized nanocarriers are examined. The localized releases of CQ and siRNA intracellular delivery are evaluated. Microencapsulation of the nanocarrier complexed with genes in layer-by-layer coating of alginate microbeads is also investigated. The covalently coconjugated FA with PEG and R8 provides a stable formulation with increased cellular uptake compared to FA-free carrier. The CQ-equipped nanocarrier shows a 95% release of CQ at lysosomal pH. The localized release of the drug inside the lysosomes is verified which accelerates the cargo discharge into cytoplasm.

Reactive Oxygen Species and Folate Receptor-Targeted Nanophotosensitizers Composed of Folic Acid-Conjugated and Poly(ethylene glycol)-Chlorin e6 Tetramer Having Diselenide Linkages for Targeted Photodynamic Treatment of Cancer Cells

Folic acid-conjugated nanophotosensitizers composed of folic acid (FA), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and chlorin e6 (Ce6) tetramer were synthesized using diselenide linkages for reactive oxygen species (ROS)- and folate receptor-specific delivery of photosensitizers. Ce6 was conjugated with 3-[3-(2-carboxyethoxy)-2,2-bis(2-carboxyethoxymethyl)propoxy]propanoic acid (tetra acid, or TA) to make Ce6 tetramer via selenocystamine linkages (TA-sese-Ce6 conjugates). In the carboxylic acid end group of the TA-sese-Ce6 conjugates, FA-PEG was attached again using selenocystamine linkages to make FA-PEG/TA-sese-Ce6 conjugates (abbreviated as FAPEGtaCe6 conjugates). Nanophotosensitizers were fabricated by a dialysis procedure. In the morphological observations, they showed spherical shapes with small diameters of less than 200 nm. Stability of the aqueous FAPEGtaCe6 nanophotosensitizer solution was maintained (i.e., their particle sizes were not significantly changed until 7 days later). When H₂O₂ was added to the nanophotosensitizer solution, the particle size distribution was changed from a monomodal pattern to a multimodal pattern. In addition, the fluorescence intensity and Ce6 release rate from the nanophotosensitizers were also increased by the addition of H₂O₂. These results indicated that the nanophotosensitizers had ROS-sensitive properties. In an in vitro cell culture study, an FAPEGtaCe6 nanophotosensitizer treatment against cancer cells increased the Ce6 uptake ratio, ROS generation and light-irradiated cytotoxicity (phototoxicity) compared with Ce6 alone against various cancer cells. When the folic acid was pretreated to block the folate receptors of the Y79 cells and KB cells (folate receptor-overexpressing cells), the intracellular Ce6 uptake, ROS generation and thereby phototoxicity were decreased, while the MCF-7 cells did not significantly respond to blocking of the folate receptors. These results indicated that they could be delivered by a folate receptor-mediated pathway. Furthermore, an in vivo pulmonary metastasis model using Y79 cells showed folate receptor-specific delivery of FAPEGtaCe6 nanophotosensitizers. When folic acid was pre-administered, the fluorescence intensity of the lungs was significantly decreased, indicating that the FAPEGtaCe6 nanophotosensitizers had folate receptor specificity in vitro and in vivo. We suggest that FAPEGtaCe6 nanophotosensitizers are promising candidates for a targeted photodynamic therapy (PDT) approach against cancer cells.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Biomedical Imaging

Graphene is sp²-hybridized carbon structure-based two-dimensional (2D) sheet. Graphene-based nanomaterials possess several features such as unique mechanical, electronic, thermal, and optical properties, high specific surface area, versatile surface functionalization, and biocompatibility, which attracted researcher's interests in various fields including biomedicine. In this chapter, we particularly focused on the biomedical imaging applications of graphene-based nanomaterials like graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQDs), and other derivatives, which utilize their outstanding optical properties. There are some biomedical imaging modalities using Graphene-based Nanomaterials, among which we will highlight fluorescence imaging, Raman imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, and photoacoustic imaging. We also discussed the brief perspectives and future application related to them.

Harnessing chlorin e6 loaded by functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles linked with glucose for target photodynamic therapy and improving of the immunogenicity of lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common malignant lung tumor and is difficult to be eradicated due to its immunosuppressive microenvironment. Chlorin e6 (Ce6)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) could improve immunogenicity while destroying malignant tumor cells. However, the clinic application of Ce6-mediated PDT is limited by Ce6's poor water solubility and insufficient accumulation in lung cancer. To address this issue, Ce6 was loaded onto functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles linked with glucose to improve the distribution of Ce6 in lung cancer.

MATERIALS AND RESULTS

The results of transmission electron microscopy (TEM), UV-Vis spectrophotometry, dynamic light scattering and near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy confirmed the successful preparation of the composites. Confocal and flow cytometry showed IO-PG-GLU-Ce6 significantly enhanced the uptake of Ce6 by lung cancer cells and produced more reactive oxygen species (ROS) under NIR light irradiation. In addition, the detection of cell viability, proliferation and apoptosis indicated IO-PG-GLU-Ce6 achieved stronger photo-toxicity to lung cancer cells. Moreover, IO-PG-GLU-Ce6 treatment effectively damaged the DNA of lung cancer cells and thereby activated STING, up-regulated the expression of IFN-β, HMGB1 and HSP90, indicating augmented immunogenicity of lung cancer cells. Further results of in vivo, organ imaging and tissue fluorescence sections demonstrated IO-PG-GLU-Ce6 significantly improved the distribution of Ce6 in tumor tissues of lung cancer-bearing mice as well. Finally, the findings of in vivo study and immunohistochemistry confirmed the better efficacy of IO-PG-GLU-Ce6. HE staining results of vital organs suggested that the composites were less toxic.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, Ce6 loaded by functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles linked with glucose exhibited both target photodynamic efficacy and the ability to enhance its immunogenicity in lung cancer. This study provides a promising strategy for augment of the targeting delivery of Ce6 and its mediated photodynamic and immunotherapy.

Carbon-Based Materials in Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapies Applied to Tumor Destruction

Within phototherapy, a grand challenge in clinical cancer treatments is to develop a simple, cost-effective, and biocompatible approach to treat this disease using ultra-low doses of light. Carbon-based materials (CBM), such as graphene oxide (GO), reduced GO (r-GO), graphene quantum dots (GQDs), and carbon dots (C-DOTs), are rapidly emerging as a new class of therapeutic materials against cancer. This review summarizes the progress made in recent years regarding the applications of CBM in photodynamic (PDT) and photothermal (PTT) therapies for tumor destruction. The current understanding of the performance of modified CBM, hybrids and composites, is also addressed. This approach seeks to achieve an enhanced antitumor action by improving and modulating the properties of CBM to treat various types of cancer. Metal oxides, organic molecules, biopolymers, therapeutic drugs, among others, have been combined with CBM to treat cancer by PDT, PTT, or synergistic therapies.

Dual-targeting SERS-encoded graphene oxide nanocarrier for intracellular co-delivery of doxorubicin and 9-aminoacridine with enhanced combination therapy

A graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocarrier that imparts tumor-selective delivery of dual-drug with enhanced therapeutic index, is introduced. GO is conjugated with Au@Ag and Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles, which facilitates it with SERS tracking and magnetic targeting abilities, followed by the covalent binding of the anti-HER2 antibody, thus allowing it to both actively and passively target SKBR3 cells, human breast cancer cells expressed with HER2. Intracellular drug delivery behaviors are probed using SERS spectroscopy in a spatiotemporal manner, which demonstrates that nanocarriers are internalized into the lysosomes and release the drug in response to the acidic microenvironment. The nanocarriers loaded with dual-drug possess increased cancer cytotoxicity in comparison to those loaded with a single drug. Attractively, the enhanced cytotoxicity against cancer cells is achieved with relatively low concentrations of the drug, which is demonstrated to be involved in the drug adsorption status. These results may give us the new prospects to design GO-based delivery systems with rational drug dosages, thus achieving optimal therapeutic response of the multi-drug with increased tumor selectivity and reduced side effects.

Evaluation of the Biological Activity of Folic Acid-Modified Paclitaxel-Loaded Gold Nanoparticles

Purpose

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with good physical and biological properties are often used in medicine, diagnostics, food, and similar industries. This paper explored an AuNPs drug delivery system that had good target selectivity for folate-receptor overexpressing cells to induce apoptosis.

Methods

A novel drug delivery system, Au@MPA-PEG-FA-PTX, was developed carrying paclitaxel (PTX) on folic acid (FA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified AuNPs. The nanomaterial was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis). Also, the biological activity of the AuNPs drug delivery system was examined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay in HL-7702, Hela, SMMC-7721, and HCT-116 cells. Furthermore, apoptotic activity using annexin V-FITC, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels was estimated by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy.

Results

Au@MPA-PEG-FA-PTX exhibited a distinct core-shell structure with a controllable size of 28±1 nm. Also, the AuNPs maintained good dispersion and spherical shape uniformity before and after modification. The MTT assay revealed good antitumor activity of the Au@MPA-PEG-FA-PTX against the Hela, SMMC-7721, and HCT-116 cells, while Au@MPA-PEG-FA-PTX produced better pharmacological effects than PTX in isolation. Further mechanistic investigation revealed that effective internalization of AuNPs by folate-receptor overexpressing cancer cells induced cell apoptosis through excessive production of intracellular ROS.

Conclusion

The AuNPs drug delivery system showed good target selectivity for folate-receptor overexpressing cancer cells to induce target cell-specific apoptosis. These AuNPs may have great potential as theranostic agents such as in cancer.

Graphene oxide-ellagic acid nanocomposite as effective anticancer and antimicrobial agent

In this study, ellagic acid (ELA), a skin anticancer drug, is capped on the surface(s) of functionalised graphene oxide (GO) nano-sheets through electrostatic and π-π staking interactions. The prepared ELA-GO nanocomposite have been thoroughly characterised by using eight techniques: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), zeta potential, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM) topographic imaging, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and surface morphology via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Furthermore, ELA drug loading and release behaviours from ELA-GO nanocomposite were studied. The ELA-GO nanocomposite has a uniform size distribution averaging 88 nm and high drug loading capacity of 30 wt.%. The in vitro drug release behaviour of ELA from the nanocomposite was investigated by UV-Vis spectrometry at a wavelength of λ_max 257 nm. The data confirmed prolonged ELA release over 5000 min at physiological pH (7.4). Finally, the IC₅₀ of this ELA-GO nanocomposite was found to be 6.16 µg/ml against B16 cell line; ELA and GO did not show any cytotoxic effects up to 50 µg/ml on the same cell lines.

Bio-inspired graphene-based nano-systems for biomedical applications

The increasing demands of environmentally sustainable, affordable, and scalable materials have inspired researchers to explore greener nanosystems of unique properties which can enhance the performance of existing systems. Such nanosystems, extracted from nature, are state-of-art high-performance nanostructures due to intrinsic hierarchical micro/nanoscale architecture and generous interfacial interactions in natural resources. Among several, bio-inspired nanosystems graphene nanosystems have emerged as an essential nano-platform wherein a highly electroactive, scalable, functional, flexible, and adaptable to a living being is a key factor. Preliminary investigation project bio-inspired graphene nanosystems as a multi-functional nano-platform suitable for electronic devices, energy storage, sensors, and medical sciences application. However, a broad understanding of bio-inspired graphene nanosystems and their projection towards applied application is not well-explored yet. Considering this as a motivation, this mini-review highlights the following; the emergence of bio-inspired graphene nanosystems, over time development to make them more efficient, state-of-art technology, and potential applications, mainly biomedical including biosensors, drug delivery, imaging, and biomedical systems. The outcomes of this review will certainly serve as a guideline to motivate scholars to design and develop novel bio-inspired graphene nanosystems to develop greener, affordable, and scalable next-generation biomedical systems.

Folic acid-modified phthalocyanine-nanozyme loaded liposomes for targeted photodynamic therapy

The hypoxic tumour microenvironment and poor spatiotemporal localization of photosensitizers are two significant obstacles that limit practical applications of photodynamic therapy. In response, a biocompatible, light-activatable liposome integrated with both a zinc phthalocyanine photodynamic component and Pt nanoparticles-decorated with MnO₂ catalase-mimicking component are engineered. This multifunctional system was rationally designed using unsaturated phospholipids to achieve on-demand drug release following light irradiation. Specificity was achieved by folic acid functionalization resulting in folate-modified liposomes (FTLiposomes). We demonstrated its specific uptake by fluorescence imaging using folate receptor (FR) overexpressing HeLa and MCF-7 cells as in vitro models. This multifunctional liposome exhibits superior hypoxic anti-tumour effects and holds the potential to reduce side effects associated with untargeted therapy. Fluorescence of the constituent ZnPc and folate-receptor targeting could enable tracking and permit spatiotemporal regulation for improved cancer treatment.

Emerging two-dimensional monoelemental materials (Xenes): Fabrication, modification, and applications thereof in the field of bioimaging as nanocarriers

In recent years, more and more research enthusiasm has been devoted to the development of emerging two-dimensional (2D) monoelement materials (Xenes) and explored potential applications in various fields, especially biomedicine and bioimaging. The inspiring results attribute to their excellent physicochemical properties, including adjustable band gap, surface electronic layout characteristics, and so on, making it easier for surface modification in order to meet designated needs. As a popular interdisciplinary research frontier, a variety of methods for fabricating 2D Xenes have recently been adopted for pre-preparing future practical bioimaging applications, which implies that these materials will have broad clinical application prospects in the future. In this review, we will concentrate on the family of 2D Xenes and summarize their fabrication and modification methods firstly. Then, their applications in bioimaging as nanocarriers will be described according to the Periodic Table of Elements. In addition, current challenges and prospects for further clinical applications will be under discussion and use black phosphorus as a typical example. At last, general conclusion will be made that it is worth expecting that 2D Xenes will play a key role in the next generation of oncologic bioimaging in the future. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Regulatory and Policy Issues in Nanomedicine.

Efficient Delivery of Chlorin e6 by Polyglycerol-Coated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles with Conjugated Doxorubicin for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy of Melanoma

Chlorin e6 (Ce6) is a promising photosensitizer for tumor photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, the efficacy of Ce6 PDT is limited by Ce6's poor water solubility, rapid blood clearance, and inadequate accumulation in the tumor tissue. This problem is tackled in this work, wherein functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IO-NPs) were used as carriers to deliver Ce6 to melanoma. The IO-NPs were coated with polyglycerol (PG) to afford good aqueous solubility. The chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX) was attached to the PG coating via the hydrazone bond to afford affinity to the cell membrane and thereby promote the cell uptake. The hydrophobic nature of DOX also induced the aggregation of IO-NPs to form nanoclusters. Ce6 was then loaded onto the IO nanoclusters through physical adsorption and coordination with surface iron atoms, yielding the final composites IO-PG-DOX-Ce6. In vitro experiments showed that IO-PG-DOX-Ce6 markedly increased Ce6 uptake in mouse melanoma cells, leading to much-enhanced photocytotoxicity characterized by intensified reactive oxygen species production, loss of viability, DNA damage, and stimulation of tumor cell immunogenicity. In vivo experiments corroborated the in vitro findings and demonstrated prolonged blood clearance of IO-PG-DOX-Ce6. Importantly, IO-PG-DOX-Ce6 markedly increased the Ce6 distribution and retention in mouse subcutaneous melanoma grafts and significantly improved the efficacy of Ce6-mediated PDT. No apparent vital organ damage was observed at the same time. In conclusion, the IO-PG-DOX NPs provide a simple and safe delivery platform for efficient tumor enrichment of Ce6, thereby enhancing antimelanoma PDT.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Porphyrins and Phthalocyanines: Some Insights into Supramolecular Self-Assembly, Microencapsulation, and Imaging Microscopy

The molecular interactions of anionic tetrasulfonate phenyl porphyrin (TPPS) with poly(amido amine) (PAMAM) dendrimers of generation 2.0 and 4.0 (G2 and G4, respectively) forming H- or J-aggregates, as well as with human and bovine serum albumin proteins (HSA and BSA), were reviewed in the context of self-assembly molecular complementarity. The spectroscopic studies were extended to the association of aluminum phthtalocyanine (AlPCS4) detected with a PAMAM G4 dendrimer with fluorescence studies in both steady state and dynamic state, as well as due to the fluorescence quenching associated to electron-transfer with a distribution of lifetimes. The functionalization of TPPS with peripheral substituents enables the assignment of spontaneous pH-induced aggregates with different and well-defined morphologies. Other work reported in the literature, in particular with soft self-assembly materials, fall in the same area with particular interest for the environment. The microencapsulation of TPPS studies into polyelectrolyte capsules was developed quite recently and aroused much interest, which is well supported and complemented by the extensive data reported on the Imaging Microscopy section of the Luminescence of Porphyrins and Phthalocyanines included in the present review.

Periodic Mesoporous Ionosilica Nanoparticles for Green Light Photodynamic Therapy and Photochemical Internalization of siRNA

We report periodic mesoporous ionosilica nanoparticles (PMINPs) as versatile nano-objects for imaging, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and efficient adsorption and delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA) into breast cancer cells. In order to endow these nanoparticles with PDT and siRNA photochemical internalization (PCI) properties, a porphyrin derivative was integrated into the ionosilica framework. For this purpose, we synthesized PMINPs via hydrolysis-cocondensation procedures from oligosilylated ammonium and porphyrin precursors. The formation of these nano-objects was proved by transmission electron microscopy. The formed nanoparticles were then thoroughly characterized via solid-state NMR, nitrogen sorption, dynamic light scattering, and UV-vis and fluorescence spectroscopies. Our results indicate the formation of highly porous nanorods with a length of 108 ± 9 nm and a width of 54 ± 4 nm. A significant PDT effect of type I mechanism (95 ± 2.8% of cell death) was observed upon green light irradiation in nanoparticle-treated breast cancer cells, while the blue light irradiation caused a significant phototoxic effect in non-treated cells. Furthermore, PMINPs formed stable complexes with siRNA (up to 24 h), which were efficiently internalized into the cells after 4 h of incubation mostly with the energy-dependent endocytosis process. The PCI effect was obvious with green light irradiation and successfully led to 83 ± 1.1% silencing of the luciferase gene in luciferase-expressing breast cancer cells, while no gene silencing effect was observed with blue light irradiation. The present work highlights the high potential of porphyrin-doped PMINPs as multifunctional nanocarriers for nucleic acids, such as siRNA, with a triple ability to perform imaging, PDT, and PCI.