Targeted induction of a silent fungal gene cluster encoding the bacteria-specific germination inhibitor fumigermin

Starships: a new frontier for fungal biology

Transposable elements (TEs) are semiautonomous genetic entities that proliferate in genomes. We recently discovered the Starships, a previously hidden superfamily of giant TEs found in a diverse subphylum of filamentous fungi, the Pezizomycotina. Starships are unlike other eukaryotic TEs because they have evolved mechanisms for both mobilizing entire genes, including those encoding conditionally beneficial phenotypes, and for horizontally transferring between individuals. We argue that Starships have unrivaled capacity to engage their fungal hosts as genetic parasites and mutualists, revealing unexplored terrain for investigating the ecoevolutionary dynamics of TE-eukaryote interactions. We build on existing models of fungal genome evolution by conceptualizing Starships as a distinct genomic compartment whose dynamics profoundly shape fungal biology.

Wheldone Revisited: Structure Revision Via DFT-GIAO Chemical Shift Calculations, 1,1-HD-ADEQUATE NMR Spectroscopy, and X-ray Crystallography Studies

Wheldone is a fungal metabolite isolated from the coculture of Aspergillus fischeri and Xylaria flabelliformis, displaying cytotoxic activity against breast, melanoma, and ovarian cancer cell lines. Initially, its structure was characterized as an unusual 5-methyl-bicyclo[5.4.0]undeca-3,5-diene scaffold with a 2-hydroxy-1-propanone side chain and a 3-(2-(1-hydroxyethyl)-2-methyl-2,5-dihydrofuran-3-yl)acrylic acid moiety. Upon further examination, minor inconsistencies in the data suggested the need for the structure to be revisited. Thus, the structure of wheldone has been revised using an orthogonal experimental-computational approach, which combines 1,1-HD-ADEQUATE NMR experiments, DFT-GIAO chemical shift calculations, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis of a semisynthetic p-bromobenzylamide derivative, formed via a Steglich-type reaction. The summation of these data now permits the unequivocal assignment of both the structure and absolute configuration of the natural product.

α-Pyrone mediates quorum sensing through the conservon system in Nocardiopsis sp

Actinobacteria produce a plethora of bioactive secondary metabolites that are often regulated by quorum-sensing signaling molecules via specific binding to their cognate TetR-type receptors. Here, we identified monocyclic α-pyrone as a new class of actinobacterial signaling molecules influencing quorum sensing process in Nocardiopsis sp. LDBS0036, primarily evidenced by a significant reduction in the production of phenazines in the pyrone-null mutant compared to the wild-type strain. Exogenous addition of the α-pyrone can partially restore the expression of some pathways to the wild strain level. Moreover, a unique multicomponent system referred to as a conservon, which is widespread in actinobacteria and generally contains four or five functionally conserved proteins, may play an important role in detecting and transmitting α-pyrone signals in LDBS0036. We found the biosynthetic gene clusters of α-pyrone and their associated conservon genes are highly conserved in Nocardiopsis, indicating the widespread prevalence and significant function of this regulate mechanism within Nocardiopsis genus. Furthermore, homologous α-pyrones from different actinobacterial species were also found to mediate interspecies communication. Our results thus provide insights into a novel quorum-sensing signaling system and imply that various modes of bacterial communication remain undiscovered.

Stimulating Novel and Bioactive Metabolite Production by Cocultivation of Two Fungi─Aspergillus oryzae and Epicoccum dendrobii

Fungi produce various bioactive secondary metabolites (SMs) as protective and weaponized tools to enhance survival in shared ecological niches. By mimicking a competitive ecosystem, cocultivation has been proven to be particularly successful in stimulating SM discovery. Here, we reported the identification of four novel metabolites, epiclactones A and B, epioxochromane and aoergostane, from the coculture of two biotechnologically important strains, Aspergillus oryzae and Epicoccum dendrobii. Transcriptome and metabolome analyses revealed widespread silent gene activation during fungal-fungal interaction. The majority of differentially expressed gene clusters were summarized for both strains. Based on these highly activated biosynthetic pathways, we suggested that a bidirectional chemical defense occurred under cocultivation. E. dendrobii enhanced the production of the spore inhibitor, fumigermin. Moreover, A. oryzae highly accumulated the antifungal agent kojic acid with a yield of up to 1.10 g/L. This study provides an excellent example for the discovery of hidden natural products by cocultivation.

Giant transposons promote strain heterogeneity in a major fungal pathogen

Fungal infections are difficult to prevent and treat in large part due to heterogeneity in clinically relevant phenotypes. However, the genetic mechanisms driving pathogen variation remain poorly understood. Here, we determined the extent to which Starships -giant transposons capable of mobilizing numerous fungal genes-generate genetic and phenotypic variability in the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus . We analyzed 519 diverse strains, including 12 newly sequenced with long-read technology, to reveal 20 distinct Starships that generate genomic heterogeneity over timescales impacting experimental reproducibility. Starship -mobilized genes encode diverse functions, including biofilm-related virulence factors and biosynthetic gene clusters, and many are differentially expressed during infection and antifungal exposure in a strain-specific manner. These findings support a new model of fungal pathogenesis wherein Starships mediate variation in virulence-related gene content and expression. Together, our results demonstrate that Starships are a foundational mechanism generating disease-relevant genotypic and, in turn, phenotypic heterogeneity in a major human fungal pathogen.

A Timeline of Biosynthetic Gene Cluster Discovery in Aspergillus fumigatus: From Characterization to Future Perspectives

In 1999, the first biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC), synthesizing the virulence factor DHN melanin, was characterized in Aspergillus fumigatus. Since then, 19 additional BGCs have been linked to specific secondary metabolites (SMs) in this species. Here, we provide a comprehensive timeline of A. fumigatus BGC discovery and find that initial advances centered around the commonly expressed SMs where chemical structure informed rationale identification of the producing BGC (e.g., gliotoxin, fumigaclavine, fumitremorgin, pseurotin A, helvolic acid, fumiquinazoline). Further advances followed the transcriptional profiling of a ΔlaeA mutant, which aided in the identification of endocrocin, fumagillin, hexadehydroastechrome, trypacidin, and fumisoquin BGCs. These SMs and their precursors are the commonly produced metabolites in most A. fumigatus studies. Characterization of other BGC/SM pairs required additional efforts, such as induction treatments, including co-culture with bacteria (fumicycline/neosartoricin, fumigermin) or growth under copper starvation (fumivaline, fumicicolin). Finally, four BGC/SM pairs were discovered via overexpression technologies, including the use of heterologous hosts (fumicycline/neosartoricin, fumihopaside, sphingofungin, and sartorypyrone). Initial analysis of the two most studied A. fumigatus isolates, Af293 and A1160, suggested that both harbored ca. 34-36 BGCs. However, an examination of 264 available genomes of A. fumigatus shows up to 20 additional BGCs, with some strains showing considerable variations in BGC number and composition. These new BGCs present a new frontier in the future of secondary metabolism characterization in this important species.

Interactions among microorganisms open up a new world for anti-infectious therapy

The human microbiome, containing bacteria, fungi, and viruses, is a community that coexists peacefully with humans most of the time, but with the potential to cause disease under certain conditions. When the environment changes or certain stimuli are received, microbes may interact with each other, causing or increasing the severity of disease in a host. With the appropriate methods, we can make these microbiota work for us, creating new applications for human health. This review discusses the wide range of interactions between microorganisms that result in an increase in susceptibility to, severity of, and mortality of diseases, and also briefly introduces how microorganisms interact with each other directly or indirectly. The study of microbial interactions and their mechanisms has revealed a new world of treatments for infectious disease. The regulation of the balance between intestinal flora, the correct application of probiotics, and the development of effective drugs by symbiosis all demonstrate the great contributions of the microbiota to human health and its powerful potential value. Consequently, the study of interactions between microorganisms plays an essential role in identifying the causes of diseases and the development of treatments.

Enhanced delignification and production of bioactive compounds in wheat straw by optimizing sterilization methods for Irpex lacteus fermentation

This study aimed to examine the effects of sterilization methods on the degradation ability and bioactive compound production of Irpex lacteus in wheat straw. Following 28 days of fermentation, the lignin content of samples autoclaved and pasteurized at pH 4.5 was reduced by 16.0 % - 21.7 % compared to pasteurized samples without pH adjustment, accompanied by a significant increase in sugar yield ranging from 83.30 % - 96.35 %. Autoclaved samples exhibited the lowest total phenol content and antioxidant activity (P < 0.05). Bacillus occupied an absolute advantage (89.1 %) in samples pasteurized at pH 4.5, whereas 10 bacterial genera exhibited abundances above 1 % in pasteurized samples without pH adjustment. Furthermore, 45.1 % - 47.2 % of the metabolites comprised lipids and lipid-like molecules, and some of them were improved by pasteurization at pH 4.5. Overall, pasteurization at acidic conditions is an effective sterilization method for the fungal conversion of wheat straw.

Complexity of fungal polyketide biosynthesis and function

Where does one draw the line between primary and secondary metabolism? The answer depends on the perspective. Microbial secondary metabolites (SMs) were at first believed not to be very important for the producers because they are dispensable for growth under laboratory conditions. However, such compounds become important in natural niches of the organisms, and some are of prime importance for humanity. Polyketides are an important group of SMs with aflatoxin as a well-known and well-characterized example. In Aspergillus spp., all 34 afl genes encoding the enzymes for aflatoxin biosynthesis are located in close vicinity on chromosome III in a so-called gene cluster. This led to the assumption that most genes required for polyketide biosynthesis are organized in gene clusters. Recent research, however, revealed an enormous complexity of the biosynthesis of different polyketides, ranging from individual polyketide synthases to a gene cluster producing several compounds, or to several clusters with additional genes scattered in the genome for the production of one compound. Research of the last decade furthermore revealed a huge potential for SM biosynthesis hidden in fungal genomes, and methods were developed to wake up such sleeping genes. The analysis of organismic interactions starts to reveal some of the ecological functions of polyketides for the producing fungi.

A heterologous expression platform in Aspergillus nidulans for the elucidation of cryptic secondary metabolism biosynthetic gene clusters: discovery of the Aspergillus fumigatus sartorypyrone biosynthetic pathway

Aspergillus fumigatus is a serious human pathogen causing life-threatening Aspergillosis in immunocompromised patients. Secondary metabolites (SMs) play an important role in pathogenesis, but the products of many SM biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) remain unknown. In this study, we have developed a heterologous expression platform in Aspergillus nidulans, using a newly created genetic dereplication strain, to express a previously unknown BGC from A. fumigatus and determine its products. The BGC produces sartorypyrones, and we have named it the spy BGC. Analysis of targeted gene deletions by HRESIMS, NMR, and microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) enabled us to identify 12 products from the spy BGC. Seven of the compounds have not been isolated previously. We also individually expressed the polyketide synthase (PKS) gene spyA and demonstrated that it produces the polyketide triacetic acid lactone (TAL), a potentially important biorenewable platform chemical. Our data have allowed us to propose a biosynthetic pathway for sartorypyrones and related natural products. This work highlights the potential of using the A. nidulans heterologous expression platform to uncover cryptic BGCs from A. fumigatus and other species, despite the complexity of their secondary metabolomes.

Activation of a Silent Polyketide Synthase SlPKS4 Encoding the C7-Methylated Isocoumarin in a Marine-Derived Fungus Simplicillium lamellicola HDN13-430

Coumarins, isocoumarins and their derivatives are polyketides abundant in fungal metabolites. Although they were first discovered over 50 years ago, the biosynthetic process is still not entirely understood. Herein, we report the activation of a silent nonreducing polyketide synthase that encodes a C7-methylated isocoumarin, similanpyrone B (1), in a marine-derived fungus Simplicillium lamellicola HDN13-430 by heterologous expression. Feeding studies revealed the host enzymes can change 1 into its hydroxylated derivatives pestapyrone A (2). Compounds 1 and 2 showed moderate radical scavenging activities with ED50 values of 67.4 µM and 104.2 µM. Our discovery fills the gap in the enzymatic elucidation of naturally occurring C7-methylated isocoumarin derivatives.

Streptomyces polyketides mediate bacteria-fungi interactions across soil environments

Although the interaction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic microorganisms is crucial for the functioning of ecosystems, information about the processes driving microbial interactions within communities remains scarce. Here we show that arginine-derived polyketides (arginoketides) produced by Streptomyces species mediate cross-kingdom microbial interactions with fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, and trigger the production of natural products. Arginoketides can be cyclic or linear, and a prominent example is azalomycin F produced by Streptomyces iranensis, which induces the cryptic orsellinic acid gene cluster in Aspergillus nidulans. Bacteria that synthesize arginoketides and fungi that decode and respond to this signal were co-isolated from the same soil sample. Genome analyses and a literature search indicate that arginoketide producers are found worldwide. Because, in addition to their direct impact, arginoketides induce a secondary wave of fungal natural products, they probably contribute to the wider structure and functioning of entire soil microbial communities.

Endophytic fungi mediates production of bioactive secondary metabolites via modulation of genes involved in key metabolic pathways and their contribution in different biotechnological sector

Endophytic fungi stimulate the production of an enormous number of bioactive metabolites in medicinal plants and affect the different steps of biosynthetic pathways of these secondary metabolites. Endophytic fungi possess a number of biosynthetic gene clusters that possess genes for various enzymes, transcription factors, etc., in their genome responsible for the production of secondary metabolites. Additionally, endophytic fungi also modulate the expression of various genes responsible for the synthesis of key enzymes involved in metabolic pathways of such as HMGR, DXR, etc. involved in the production of a large number of phenolic compounds as well as regulate the expression of genes involved in the production of alkaloids and terpenoids in different plants. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of gene expression related to endophytes and their impact on metabolic pathways. Additionally, this review will emphasize the studies done to isolate these secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi in large quantities and assess their bioactivity. Due to ease in synthesis of secondary metabolites and their huge application in the medical industry, these bioactive metabolites are now being extracted from strains of these endophytic fungi commercially. Apart from their application in the pharmaceutical industry, most of these metabolites extracted from endophytic fungi also possess plant growth-promoting ability, bioremediation potential, novel bio control agents, sources of anti-oxidants, etc. The review will comprehensively shed a light on the biotechnological application of these fungal metabolites at the industrial level.

Elicitation for activation of the actinomycete genome's cryptic secondary metabolite gene clusters

This review summarizes the recent advances in the elicitation approaches used to activate the actinomycete genome's cryptic secondary metabolite gene clusters and shows the diversity of natural products obtained by various elicitation methods up to June 2022, such as co-cultivation of actinomycetes with actinomycetes, other non-actinomycete bacteria, fungi, cell-derived components, and/or algae. Chemical elicitation and molecular elicitation as transcription factor decoys, engineering regulatory genes, the promoter replacement strategy, global regulatory genes, and reporter-guided mutant selection were also reported. For researchers interested in this field, this review serves as a valuable resource for the latest studies and references.

Enhancing chemical and biological diversity by co-cultivation

In natural product research, microbial metabolites have tremendous potential to provide new therapeutic agents since extremely diverse chemical structures can be found in the nearly infinite microbial population. Conventionally, these specialized metabolites are screened by single-strain cultures. However, owing to the lack of biotic and abiotic interactions in monocultures, the growth conditions are significantly different from those encountered in a natural environment and result in less diversity and the frequent re-isolation of known compounds. In the last decade, several methods have been developed to eventually understand the physiological conditions under which cryptic microbial genes are activated in an attempt to stimulate their biosynthesis and elicit the production of hitherto unexpressed chemical diversity. Among those, co-cultivation is one of the most efficient ways to induce silenced pathways, mimicking the competitive microbial environment for the production and holistic regulation of metabolites, and has become a golden methodology for metabolome expansion. It does not require previous knowledge of the signaling mechanism and genome nor any special equipment for cultivation and data interpretation. Several reviews have shown the potential of co-cultivation to produce new biologically active leads. However, only a few studies have detailed experimental, analytical, and microbiological strategies for efficiently inducing bioactive molecules by co-culture. Therefore, we reviewed studies applying co-culture to induce secondary metabolite pathways to provide insights into experimental variables compatible with high-throughput analytical procedures. Mixed-fermentation publications from 1978 to 2022 were assessed regarding types of co-culture set-ups, metabolic induction, and interaction effects.

Artificial intelligence in microbial natural product drug discovery: current and emerging role

Covering: up to the end of 2022Microorganisms are exceptional sources of a wide array of unique natural products and play a significant role in drug discovery. During the golden era, several life-saving antibiotics and anticancer agents were isolated from microbes; moreover, they are still widely used. However, difficulties in the isolation methods and repeated discoveries of the same molecules have caused a setback in the past. Artificial intelligence (AI) has had a profound impact on various research fields, and its application allows the effective performance of data analyses and predictions. With the advances in omics, it is possible to obtain a wealth of information for the identification, isolation, and target prediction of secondary metabolites. In this review, we discuss drug discovery based on natural products from microorganisms with the help of AI and machine learning.

Yellow polyketide pigment suppresses premature hatching in social amoeba

Low-molecular-weight natural products from microbes are indispensable in the development of potent drugs. However, their biological roles within an ecological context often remain elusive. Here, we shed light on natural products from eukaryotic microorganisms that have the ability to transition from single cells to multicellular organisms: the social amoebae. These eukaryotes harbor a large number of polyketide biosynthetic genes in their genomes, yet virtually none of the corresponding products can be isolated or characterized. Using complementary molecular biology approaches, including CRISPR-Cas9, we generated polyketide synthase (pks5) inactivation and overproduction strains of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Differential, untargeted metabolomics of wild-type versus mutant fruiting bodies allowed us to pinpoint candidate metabolites derived from the amoebal PKS5. Extrachromosomal expression of the respective gene led to the identification of a yellow polyunsaturated fatty acid. Analysis of the temporospatial production pattern of this compound in conjunction with detailed bioactivity studies revealed the polyketide to be a spore germination suppressor.

How to Completely Squeeze a Fungus-Advanced Genome Mining Tools for Novel Bioactive Substances

Fungal species have the capability of producing an overwhelming diversity of bioactive substances that can have beneficial but also detrimental effects on human health. These so-called secondary metabolites naturally serve as antimicrobial "weapon systems", signaling molecules or developmental effectors for fungi and hence are produced only under very specific environmental conditions or stages in their life cycle. However, as these complex conditions are difficult or even impossible to mimic in laboratory settings, only a small fraction of the true chemical diversity of fungi is known so far. This also implies that a large space for potentially new pharmaceuticals remains unexplored. We here present an overview on current developments in advanced methods that can be used to explore this chemical space. We focus on genetic and genomic methods, how to detect genes that harbor the blueprints for the production of these compounds (i.e., biosynthetic gene clusters, BGCs), and ways to activate these silent chromosomal regions. We provide an in-depth view of the chromatin-level regulation of BGCs and of the potential to use the CRISPR/Cas technology as an activation tool.

Orchestrated Biosynthesis of the Secondary Metabolite Cocktails Enables the Producing Fungus to Combat Diverse Bacteria

Fungal secondary metabolites with antibiotic activities can promote fungal adaptation to diverse environments. Besides the global regulator, individual biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) usually contain a pathway-specific transcription factor for the tight regulation of fungal secondary metabolism. Here, we report the chemical biology mediated by a supercluster containing three BGCs in the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhiziumrobertsii. These clusters are jointly controlled by an embedded transcription factor that orchestrates the collective production of four classes of chemicals: ustilaginoidin, indigotide, pseurotin, and hydroxyl-ovalicin. The ustilaginoidin BGC is implicated as a late-acquired cluster in Metarhizium to produce both the bis-naphtho-γ-pyrones and the monomeric naphtho-γ-pyrone glycosides (i.e., indigotides). We found that the biosynthesis of indigotides additionally requires the functions of paired methylglucosylation genes located outside the supercluster. The pseurotin/ovalicin BGCs are blended and mesosyntenically conserved to the intertwined pseurotin/fumagillin BGCs of Aspergillus fumigatus. However, the former have lost a few genes, including a polyketide synthase gene responsible for the production of a pentaene chain used for assembly with ovalicin to form fumagillin, as observed in A. fumigatus. The collective production of chemical cocktails by this supercluster was dispensable for fungal virulence against insects and could enable the fungus to combat different bacteria better than the metabolite(s) produced by an individual BGC could. Thus, our results unveil a novel strategy employed by fungi to manage chemical ecology against diverse bacteria.

Priming of rhizobial nodulation signaling in the mycosphere accelerates nodulation of legume hosts

The simultaneous symbiosis of leguminous plants with two root mutualists, endophytic fungi and rhizobia is common in nature, yet how two mutualists interact and co-exist before infecting plants and the concomitant effects on nodulation are less understood. Using a combination of metabolic analysis, fungal deletion mutants and comparative transcriptomics, we demonstrated that Bradyrhizobium and a facultatively biotrophic fungus, Phomopsis liquidambaris, interacted to stimulate fungal flavonoid production, and thereby primed Bradyrhizobial nodulation signaling, enhancing Bradyrhizobial responses to root exudates and leading to early nodulation of peanut (Arachis hypogaea), and such effects were compromised when disturbing fungal flavonoid biosynthesis. Stress sensitivity assays and reactive oxygen species (ROS) determination revealed that flavonoid production acted as a strategy to alleviate hyphal oxidative stress during P. liquidambaris-Bradyrhizobial interactions. By investigating the interactions between P. liquidambaris and a collection of 38 rhizobacteria, from distinct bacterial genera, we additionally showed that the flavonoid-ROS module contributed to the maintenance of fungal and bacterial co-existence, and fungal niche colonization under soil conditions. Our results demonstrate for the first time that rhizobial nodulation signaling can be primed by fungi before symbiosis with host plants and highlight the importance of flavonoid in tripartite interactions between legumes, beneficial fungi and rhizobia.

Bacterial-fungal interactions under agricultural settings: from physical to chemical interactions

Bacteria and fungi are dominant members of environmental microbiomes. Various bacterial-fungal interactions (BFIs) and their mutual regulation are important factors for ecosystem functioning and health. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, and often require spatiotemporally resolved assessments to understand the interplay which ranges from antagonism to mutualism. Many of these interactions are still poorly understood, especially in terms of the underlying chemical and molecular interplay, which is crucial for inter-kingdom communication and interference. BFIs are highly relevant under agricultural settings; they can be determinative for crop health. Advancing our knowledge related to mechanisms underpinning the interactions between bacteria and fungi will provide an extended basis for biological control of pests and pathogens in agriculture. Moreover, it will facilitate a better understanding of complex microbial community networks that commonly occur in nature. This will allow us to determine factors that are crucial for community assembly under different environmental conditions and pave the way for constructing synthetic communities for various biotechnological applications. Here, we summarize the current advances in the field of BFIs with an emphasis on agriculture.

Antibacterial diphenyl ether production induced by co-culture of Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus fumigatus

Fungi are a rich source of secondary metabolites with potent biological activities. Co-culturing a fungus with another microorganism has drawn much attention as a practical method for stimulating fungal secondary metabolism. However, in most cases, the molecular mechanisms underlying the activation of secondary metabolite production in co-culture are poorly understood. To elucidate such a mechanism, in this study, we established a model fungal-fungal co-culture system, composed of Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus fumigatus. In the co-culture of A. nidulans and A. fumigatus, production of antibacterial diphenyl ethers was enhanced. Transcriptome analysis by RNA-sequencing showed that the co-culture activated expression of siderophore biosynthesis genes in A. fumigatus and two polyketide biosynthetic gene clusters (the ors and cic clusters) in A. nidulans. Gene disruption experiments revealed that the ors cluster is responsible for diphenyl ether production in the co-culture. Interestingly, the ors cluster was previously reported to be upregulated by co-culture of A. nidulans with the bacterium Streptomyces rapamycinicus; orsellinic acid was the main product of the cluster in that co-culture. In other words, the main product of the ors cluster was different in fungal-fungal and bacterial-fungal co-culture. The genes responsible for biosynthesis of the bacterial- and fungal-induced polyketides were deduced using a heterologous expression system in Aspergillus oryzae. The molecular genetic mechanisms that trigger biosynthesis of two different types of compounds in A. nidulans in response to the fungus and the bacterium were demonstrated, which provides an insight into complex secondary metabolic response of fungi to microorganisms. KEY POINTS: • Co-culture of two fungal species triggered antibiotic diphenyl ether production. • The co-culture affected expression levels of several genes for secondary metabolism. • Gene cluster essential for induction of the antibiotics production was determined.

Fungal Melanin Biosynthesis Pathway as Source for Fungal Toxins

Contamination of food and feed with toxin-producing fungi is a major threat in agriculture and for human health. The filamentous fungus Alternaria alternata is one of the most widespread postharvest contaminants and a weak plant pathogen. It produces a large variety of secondary metabolites with alternariol and its derivatives as characteristic mycotoxin. Other important phyto- and mycotoxins are perylene quinones (PQs), some of which have anticancer properties. Here, we discovered that the PQ altertoxin (ATX) biosynthesis shares most enzymes with the 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (1,8-DHN) melanin pathway. However, melanin was formed in aerial hyphae and spores, and ATXs were synthesized in substrate hyphae. This spatial separation is achieved through the promiscuity of a polyketide synthase, presumably producing a pentaketide (T4HN), a hexaketide (AT4HN), and a heptaketide (YWA1) as products. T4HN directly enters the altertoxin and DHN melanin pathway, whereas AT4HN and YWA1 can be converted only in aerial hyphae, which probably leads to a higher T4HN concentration, favoring 1,8-DHN melanin formation. Whereas the production of ATXs was strictly dependent on the CmrA transcription factor, melanin could still be produced in the absence of CmrA to some extent. This suggests that different cues regulate melanin and toxin formation. Since DHN melanin is produced by many fungi, PQs or related compounds may be produced in many more fungi than so far assumed.

Endophytic fungi: a potential source of industrial enzyme producers

Microbial enzymes have gained interest for their widespread use in various industries and medicine due to their stability, ease of production, and optimization. Endophytic fungi in plant tissues produce a wide range of secondary metabolites and enzymes, which exhibit a variety of biological activities. The present review illustrates promising applications of enzymes produced by endophytic fungi and discusses the characteristic features of the enzymes, application of the endophytic fungal enzymes in therapeutics, agriculture, food, and biofuel industries. Endophytic fungi producing ligninolytic enzymes have possible biotechnological applications in lignocellulosic biorefineries. The global market of industrially important enzymes, challenges, and future prospects are illustrated. However, the commercialization of endophytic fungal enzymes for industrial purposes is yet to be explored. The present review suggests that endophytic fungi can produce various enzymes and may become a novel source for upscaling the production of enzymes of industrial use.

Comprehensive Guide to Extracting and Expressing Fungal Secondary Metabolites with Aspergillus fumigatus as a Case Study

Fungal secondary metabolites (SMs) have captured the interest of natural products researchers in academia and industry for decades. In recent years, the high rediscovery rate of previously characterized metabolites is making it increasingly difficult to uncover novel compounds. Additionally, the vast majority of fungal SMs reside in genetically intractable fungi or are silent under normal laboratory conditions in genetically tractable fungi. The fungal natural products community has broadly overcome these barriers by altering the physical growth conditions of the fungus and heterologous/homologous expression of biosynthetic gene cluster regulators or proteins. The protocols described here summarize vital methodologies needed when researching SM production in fungi. We also summarize the growth conditions, genetic backgrounds, and extraction protocols for every published SM in Aspergillus fumigatus, enabling readers to easily replicate the production of previously characterized SMs. Readers will also be equipped with the tools for developing their own strategy for expressing and extracting SMs from their given fungus or a suitable heterologous model system. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Making glycerol stocks from spore suspensions Alternate Protocol 1: Creating glycerol stocks from non-sporulating filamentous fungi Basic Protocol 2: Activating spore-suspension glycerol stocks Basic Protocol 3: Extracting secondary metabolites from Aspergillus spp grown on solid medium Alternate Protocol 2: Extracting secondary metabolites from Aspergillus spp using ethyl acetate Alternate Protocol 3: High-volume metabolite extraction using ethyl acetate Alternate Protocol 4: Extracting secondary metabolites from Aspergillus spp in liquid medium Support Protocol: Creating an overlay culture Basic Protocol 4: Extracting DNA from filamentous fungi Basic Protocol 5: Creating a DNA construct with double-joint PCR Alternate Protocol 5: Creating a DNA construct with yeast recombineering Basic Protocol 6: Transformation of Aspergillus spp Basic Protocol 7: Co-culturing fungi and bacteria for extraction of secondary metabolites.

Quantitative Morphological Analysis of Filamentous Microorganisms in Cocultures and Monocultures: Aspergillus terreus and Streptomyces rimosus Warfare in Bioreactors

The aim of this study was to quantitatively characterize the morphology of the filamentous microorganisms Aspergillus terreus ATCC 20542 and Streptomyces rimosus ATCC 10970, cocultivated in stirred tank bioreactors, and to characterize their mutual influence with the use of quantitative image analysis. Three distinct coculture initiation strategies were applied: preculture versus preculture, spores versus spores and preculture versus preculture with time delay for one of the species. Bioreactor cocultures were accompanied by parallel monoculture controls. The results recorded for the mono- and cocultures were compared in order to investigate the effect of cocultivation on the morphological evolution of A. terreus and S. rimosus. Morphology-related observations were also confronted with the analysis of secondary metabolism. The morphology of the two studied filamentous species strictly depended on the applied coculture initiation strategy. In the cocultures initiated by the simultaneous inoculation, S. rimosus gained domination or advance over A. terreus. The latter microorganism dominated only in these experiments in which S. rimosus was introduced with a delay.

Bacterial marginolactones trigger formation of algal gloeocapsoids, protective aggregates on the verge of multicellularity

Photosynthetic microorganisms including the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii are essential to terrestrial habitats as they start the carbon cycle by conversion of CO₂ to energy-rich organic carbohydrates. Terrestrial habitats are densely populated, and hence, microbial interactions mediated by natural products are inevitable. We previously discovered such an interaction between Streptomyces iranensis releasing the marginolactone azalomycin F in the presence of C. reinhardtii Whether the alga senses and reacts to azalomycin F remained unknown. Here, we report that sublethal concentrations of azalomycin F trigger the formation of a protective multicellular structure by C. reinhardtii, which we named gloeocapsoid. Gloeocapsoids contain several cells which share multiple cell membranes and cell walls and are surrounded by a spacious matrix consisting of acidic polysaccharides. After azalomycin F removal, gloeocapsoid aggregates readily disassemble, and single cells are released. The presence of marginolactone biosynthesis gene clusters in numerous streptomycetes, their ubiquity in soil, and our observation that other marginolactones such as desertomycin A and monazomycin also trigger the formation of gloeocapsoids suggests a cross-kingdom competition with ecological relevance. Furthermore, gloeocapsoids allow for the survival of C. reinhardtii at alkaline pH and otherwise lethal concentrations of azalomycin F. Their structure and polysaccharide matrix may be ancestral to the complex mucilage formed by multicellular members of the Chlamydomonadales such as Eudorina and Volvox Our finding suggests that multicellularity may have evolved to endure the presence of harmful competing bacteria. Additionally, it underlines the importance of natural products as microbial cues, which initiate interesting ecological scenarios of attack and counter defense.

Secondary metabolites of Hülle cells mediate protection of fungal reproductive and overwintering structures against fungivorous animals

Fungal Hülle cells with nuclear storage and developmental backup functions are reminiscent of multipotent stem cells. In the soil, Hülle cells nurse the overwintering fruiting bodies of Aspergillus nidulans. The genome of A. nidulans harbors genes for the biosynthesis of xanthones. We show that enzymes and metabolites of this biosynthetic pathway accumulate in Hülle cells under the control of the regulatory velvet complex, which coordinates development and secondary metabolism. Deletion strains blocked in the conversion of anthraquinones to xanthones accumulate emodins and are delayed in maturation and growth of fruiting bodies. Emodin represses fruiting body and resting structure formation in other fungi. Xanthones are not required for sexual development but exert antifeedant effects on fungivorous animals such as springtails and woodlice. Our findings reveal a novel role of Hülle cells in establishing secure niches for A. nidulans by accumulating metabolites with antifeedant activity that protect reproductive structures from animal predators.

Discovery of a Potential Liver Fibrosis Inhibitor from a Mushroom Endophytic Fungus by Genome Mining of a Silent Biosynthetic Gene Cluster

Liver fibrosis has accounted for liver diseases and overall mortality, but no relevant drug has been developed. Filamentous fungi are important resources of natural products for pharmaceutical development. Calcarisporium arbuscula is a mushroom endophytic fungus, which primarily produces aurovertins. Here, in an aurovertin null-production mutant, one silent gene cluster (mca17) was activated by overexpression of a pathway-specific zinc finger transcriptional regulator, and a tetramic acid-type compound (1, MCA17-1) was identified. Along with detailed structural characterization, its biosynthesis was proposed to be produced from the core PKS-NRPS hybrid enzyme. Moreover, 1 suppressed the activation of LX-2 upon transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) challenge and had stronger bioactivity than the positive control obeticholic acid (OCA) against liver fibrosis. Our work suggested that this engineered fungus could be a producer of 1 for promising pharmaceutical development, and alternatively, it would be developed as a mushroom ingredient in dietary therapy to prevent liver fibrosis.

Aspergillus fumigatus versus Genus Aspergillus: Conservation, Adaptive Evolution and Specific Virulence Genes

Aspergillus is an important fungal genus containing economically important species, as well as pathogenic species of animals and plants. Using eighteen fungal species of the genus Aspergillus, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of conserved genes and their evolution. This also allows us to investigate the selection pressure driving the adaptive evolution in the pathogenic species A. fumigatus. Among single-copy orthologs (SCOs) for A. fumigatus and the closely related species A. fischeri, we identified 122 versus 50 positively selected genes (PSGs), respectively. Moreover, twenty conserved genes of unknown function were established to be positively selected and thus important for adaption. A. fumigatus PSGs interacting with human host proteins show over-representation of adaptive, symbiosis-related, immunomodulatory and virulence-related pathways, such as the TGF-β pathway, insulin receptor signaling, IL1 pathway and interfering with phagosomal GTPase signaling. Additionally, among the virulence factor coding genes, secretory and membrane protein-coding genes in multi-copy gene families, 212 genes underwent positive selection and also suggest increased adaptation, such as fungal immune evasion mechanisms (aspf2), siderophore biosynthesis (sidD), fumarylalanine production (sidE), stress tolerance (atfA) and thermotolerance (sodA). These genes presumably contribute to host adaptation strategies. Genes for the biosynthesis of gliotoxin are shared among all the close relatives of A. fumigatus as an ancient defense mechanism. Positive selection plays a crucial role in the adaptive evolution of A. fumigatus. The genome-wide profile of PSGs provides valuable targets for further research on the mechanisms of immune evasion, antimycotic targeting and understanding fundamental virulence processes.

Fungal Endophytes: A Promising Frontier for Discovery of Novel Bioactive Compounds

For years, fungi have served as repositories of bioactive secondary metabolites that form the backbone of many existing drugs. With the global rise in infections associated with antimicrobial resistance, in addition to the growing burden of non-communicable disease, such as cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular ailments, the demand for new drugs that can provide an improved therapeutic outcome has become the utmost priority. The exploration of microbes from understudied and specialized niches is one of the promising ways of discovering promising lead molecules for drug discovery. In recent years, a special class of plant-associated fungi, namely, fungal endophytes, have emerged as an important source of bioactive compounds with unique chemistry and interesting biological activities. The present review focuses on endophytic fungi and their classification, rationale for selection and prioritization of host plants for fungal isolation and examples of strategies that have been adopted to induce the activation of cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters to enhance the biosynthetic potential of fungal endophytes.

Presence, Mode of Action, and Application of Pathway Specific Transcription Factors in Aspergillus Biosynthetic Gene Clusters

Fungal secondary metabolites are renowned toxins as well as valuable sources of antibiotics, cholesterol-lowering drugs, and immunosuppressants; hence, great efforts were levied to understand how these compounds are genetically regulated. The genes encoding for the enzymes required for synthesizing secondary metabolites are arranged in biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). Often, BGCs contain a pathway specific transcription factor (PSTF), a valuable tool in shutting down or turning up production of the BGC product. In this review, we present an in-depth view of PSTFs by examining over 40 characterized BGCs in the well-studied fungal species Aspergillus nidulans and Aspergillus fumigatus. Herein, we find BGC size is a predictor for presence of PSTFs, consider the number and the relative location of PSTF in regard to the cluster(s) regulated, discuss the function and the evolution of PSTFs, and present application strategies for pathway specific activation of cryptic BGCs.

Discovery of novel secondary metabolites encoded in actinomycete genomes through coculture

Actinomycetes are a rich source of bioactive natural products important for novel drug leads. Recent genome mining approaches have revealed an enormous number of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (smBGCs) in actinomycetes. However, under standard laboratory culture conditions, many smBGCs are silent or cryptic. To activate these dormant smBGCs, several approaches, including culture-based or genetic engineering-based strategies, have been developed. Above all, coculture is a promising approach to induce novel secondary metabolite production from actinomycetes by mimicking an ecological habitat where cryptic smBGCs may be activated. In this review, we introduce coculture studies that aim to expand the chemical diversity of actinomycetes, by categorizing the cases by the type of coculture partner. Furthermore, we discuss the current challenges that need to be overcome to support the elicitation of novel bioactive compounds from actinomycetes.

Mining and unearthing hidden biosynthetic potential

Genetically encoded small molecules (secondary metabolites) play eminent roles in ecological interactions, as pathogenicity factors and as drug leads. Yet, these chemical mediators often evade detection, and the discovery of novel entities is hampered by low production and high rediscovery rates. These limitations may be addressed by genome mining for biosynthetic gene clusters, thereby unveiling cryptic metabolic potential. The development of sophisticated data mining methods and genetic and analytical tools has enabled the discovery of an impressive array of previously overlooked natural products. This review shows the newest developments in the field, highlighting compound discovery from unconventional sources and microbiomes.

Natural products are an important source of bioactive compounds and have versatile applications in different fields, but their discovery is challenging. Here, the authors review the recent developments in genome mining for discovery of natural products, focusing on compounds from unconventional microorganisms and microbiomes.

CRISPR-Cas9-Based Discovery of the Verrucosidin Biosynthesis Gene Cluster in Penicillium polonicum

Penicillium polonicum, commonly found on food matrices, is a mycotoxigenic species able to produce a neurotoxin called verrucosidin. This methylated α-pyrone polyketide inhibits oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and thereby causes neurological diseases. Despite the importance of verrucosidin as a toxin, its biosynthetic genes have not been characterized yet. By similarity analysis with the polyketide synthase (PKS) genes for the α-pyrones aurovertin (AurA) and citreoviridin (CtvA), 16 PKS genes for putative α-pyrones were identified in the P. polonicum genome. A single PKS gene, verA, was found to be transcribed under verrucosidin-producing growth conditions. The annotated functions of the genes neighboring verA correspond to those required for verrucosidin biosynthesis. To prove the involvement of verA in verrucosidin biosynthesis, the clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPR) technology was applied to P. polonicum. In vitro reconstituted CRISPR-Cas9 was used to induce targeted gene deletions in P. polonicum. This approach allowed identifying and characterizing the verrucosidin biosynthetic gene cluster. VerA deletion mutants were no longer able to produce verrucosidin, whereas they were displaying morphological characteristics comparable with the wild-type strain. The available CRISPR-Cas9 technology allows characterizing the biosynthetic potential of P. polonicum as a valuable source of novel compounds.

Deep learning approaches for natural product discovery from plant endophytic microbiomes

Plant microbiomes are not only diverse, but also appear to host a vast pool of secondary metabolites holding great promise for bioactive natural products and drug discovery. Yet, most microbes within plants appear to be uncultivable, and for those that can be cultivated, their metabolic potential lies largely hidden through regulatory silencing of biosynthetic genes. The recent explosion of powerful interdisciplinary approaches, including multi-omics methods to address multi-trophic interactions and artificial intelligence-based computational approaches to infer distribution of function, together present a paradigm shift in high-throughput approaches to natural product discovery from plant-associated microbes. Arguably, the key to characterizing and harnessing this biochemical capacity depends on a novel, systematic approach to characterize the triggers that turn on secondary metabolite biosynthesis through molecular or genetic signals from the host plant, members of the rich 'in planta' community, or from the environment. This review explores breakthrough approaches for natural product discovery from plant microbiomes, emphasizing the promise of deep learning as a tool for endophyte bioprospecting, endophyte biochemical novelty prediction, and endophyte regulatory control. It concludes with a proposed pipeline to harness global databases (genomic, metabolomic, regulomic, and chemical) to uncover and unsilence desirable natural products.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40793-021-00375-0.

Utilizing cross-species co-cultures for discovery of novel natural products

Discovery of new natural products, especially those with high biological activities and application values, is of great research significance. However, conventional methods based on the cultivation of microbial mono-cultures can hardly satisfy the increasing need of novel natural product generation. Recently, the development of co-cultures composed of different species has emerged as an effective approach for mining novel natural products. Inspired by microbial communities in nature, these co-culture systems create favorable environmental conditions to promote interactions between co-culture members for activating the natural product biosynthesis that is hard to induce otherwise. A large variety of novel natural products have been identified using this robust approach. This review summarizes the recent achievements of using cross-species co-cultures for natural products discovery and discusses the existing challenges and future directions.

Chemical signals driving bacterial-fungal interactions

Microorganisms reside in diverse environmental communities where interactions become indispensable due to close physical associations. These interactions are driven by chemical communication among different microbial kingdoms, particularly between fungi and bacteria. Knowledge about these communication signals provides useful information about the nature of microbial interactions and allows predictions of community development in diverse environments. Here, we provide an update on the role of small signalling molecules in fungal-bacterial interactions with focus on agricultural and medicinal environments. This review highlights the range of - and response to - diverse biochemicals produced by both kingdoms with view to harnessing their properties towards drug discovery applications.

A fungal member of the Arabidopsis thaliana phyllosphere antagonizes Albugo laibachii via a GH25 lysozyme

Plants are not only challenged by pathogenic organisms but also colonized by commensal microbes. The network of interactions these microbes establish with their host and among each other is suggested to contribute to the immune responses of plants against pathogens. In wild Arabidopsis thaliana populations, the oomycete pathogen Albugo laibachii plays an influential role in structuring the leaf phyllosphere. We show that the epiphytic yeast Moesziomyces bullatus ex Albugo on Arabidopsis, a close relative of pathogenic smut fungi, is an antagonistic member of the A. thaliana phyllosphere, which reduces infection of A. thaliana by A. laibachii. Combination of transcriptomics, reverse genetics, and protein characterization identified a GH25 hydrolase with lysozyme activity as a major effector of this microbial antagonism. Our findings broaden the understanding of microbial interactions within the phyllosphere, provide insights into the evolution of epiphytic basidiomycete yeasts, and pave the way for novel biocontrol strategies.

The Mosaic Architecture of NRPS-PKS in the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus Gigaspora margarita Shows a Domain With Bacterial Signature

As obligate biotrophic symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) live in association with most land plants. Among them, Gigaspora margarita has been deeply investigated because of its peculiar features, i.e., the presence of an intracellular microbiota with endobacteria and viruses. The genome sequencing of this fungus revealed the presence of some hybrid non-ribosomal peptide synthases-polyketide synthases (NRPS-PKS) that have been rarely identified in AMF. The aim of this study is to describe the architecture of these NRPS-PKS sequences and to understand whether they are present in other fungal taxa related to G. margarita. A phylogenetic analysis shows that the ketoacyl synthase (KS) domain of one G. margarita NRPS-PKS clusters with prokaryotic sequences. Since horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has often been advocated as a relevant evolutionary mechanism for the spread of secondary metabolite genes, we hypothesized that a similar event could have interested the KS domain of the PKS module. The bacterial endosymbiont of G. margarita, Candidatus Glomeribacter gigasporarum (CaGg), was the first candidate as a donor, since it possesses a large biosynthetic cluster involving an NRPS-PKS. However, bioinformatics analyses do not confirm the hypothesis of a direct HGT from the endobacterium to the fungal host: indeed, endobacterial and fungal sequences show a different evolution and potentially different donors. Lastly, by amplifying a NRPS-PKS conserved fragment and mining the sequenced AMF genomes, we demonstrate that, irrespective of the presence of CaGg, G. margarita, and some other related Gigasporaceae possess such a sequence.

Lichen-like association of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Aspergillus nidulans protects algal cells from bacteria

Organismal interactions within microbial consortia and their responses to harmful intruders remain largely understudied. An important step toward the goal of understanding functional ecological interactions and their evolutionary selection is the study of increasingly complex microbial interaction systems. Here, we discovered a tripartite biosystem consisting of the fungus Aspergillus nidulans, the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, and the algicidal bacterium Streptomyces iranensis. Genetic analyses and MALDI-IMS demonstrate that the bacterium secretes the algicidal compound azalomycin F upon contact with C. reinhardtii. In co-culture, A. nidulans attracts the motile alga C. reinhardtii, which becomes embedded and surrounded by fungal mycelium and is shielded from the algicide. The filamentous fungus Sordaria macrospora was susceptible to azalomycin F and failed to protect C. reinhardtii despite chemotactically attracting the alga. Because S. macrospora was susceptible to azalomycin F, this data imply that for protection the fungus needs to be resistant. Formation of the lichen-like association between C. reinhardtii and A. nidulans increased algal growth. The protection depends on the increased amounts of membrane lipids provided by resistant fungi, thereby generating a protective shelter against the bacterial toxin. Our findings reveal a strategy whereby algae survive lethal environmental algicides through cooperation with fungi.

In the fungus where it happens: History and future propelling Aspergillus nidulans as the archetype of natural products research

In 1990 the first fungal secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene was cloned in Aspergillus nidulans. Thirty years later, >30 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) have been linked to specific natural products in this one fungal species. While impressive, over half of the BGCs in A. nidulans remain uncharacterized and their compounds structurally and functionally unknown. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of past advances that have enabled A. nidulans to rise to its current status as a natural product powerhouse focusing on the discovery and annotation of secondary metabolite clusters. From genome sequencing, heterologous expression, and metabolomics to CRISPR and epigenetic manipulations, we present a guided tour through the evolution of technologies developed and utilized in the last 30 years. These insights provide perspective to future efforts to fully unlock the biosynthetic potential of A. nidulans and, by extension, the potential of other filamentous fungi.

Establishing Polycistronic Expression in the Model Microorganism Ustilago maydis

Eukaryotic microorganisms use monocistronic mRNAs to encode proteins. For synthetic biological approaches like metabolic engineering, precise co-expression of several proteins in space and time is advantageous. A straightforward approach is the application of viral 2A peptides to design synthetic polycistronic mRNAs in eukaryotes. During translation of these peptides the ribosome stalls, the peptide chain is released and the ribosome resumes translation. Thus, two independent polypeptide chains can be encoded from a single mRNA when a 2A peptide sequence is placed inbetween the two open reading frames. Here, we establish such a system in the well-studied model microorganism Ustilago maydis. Using two fluorescence reporter proteins, we compared the activity of five viral 2A peptides. Their activity was evaluated in vivo using fluorescence microscopy and validated using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). Activity ranged from 20 to 100% and the best performing 2A peptide was P2A from porcine teschovirus-1. As proof of principle, we followed regulated gene expression efficiently over time and synthesised a tri-cistronic mRNA encoding biosynthetic enzymes to produce mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs). In essence, we evaluated 2A peptides in vivo and demonstrated the applicability of 2A peptide technology for U. maydis in basic and applied science.