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Rivera-Martínez A, Rodríguez-Alarcón CA, Adame-Gallegos JR, Laredo-Tiscareño SV, de Luna-Santillana EDJ, Hernández-Triana LM, Garza-Hernández JA. Canine Distemper Virus: Origins, Mutations, Diagnosis, and Epidemiology in Mexico. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:1002. [PMID: 39202744 PMCID: PMC11355085 DOI: 10.3390/life14081002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Revised: 08/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
This review provides an overview of the canine distemper virus (CDV), a highly infectious pathogen causing severe disease in domestic dogs and wildlife. It shares genetic similarities with the human measles virus (HMV) in humans and the rinderpest virus (RPV) in cattle. The origin of CDV likely involves a mutation from human measles strains, possibly in the New World, with subsequent transmission to dogs. CDV has been globally observed, with an increasing incidence in various animal populations. Genomic mutations, especially in the H protein, contribute to its ability to infect different hosts. Diagnosis by molecular techniques like RT-qPCR offers rapid and sensitive detection when compared with serological tests. Genomic sequencing is vital for understanding CDV evolution and designing effective control strategies. Overall, CDV poses a significant threat, and genomic sequencing enhances our ability to manage and prevent its spread. Here, the epidemiology of CDV principally in Mexico is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra Rivera-Martínez
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Juárez 32310, Chihuahua, Mexico; (A.R.-M.); (C.A.R.-A.); (S.V.L.-T.)
| | - Carlos A. Rodríguez-Alarcón
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Juárez 32310, Chihuahua, Mexico; (A.R.-M.); (C.A.R.-A.); (S.V.L.-T.)
| | - Jaime R. Adame-Gallegos
- Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua 31125, Chihuahua, Mexico;
| | - S. Viridiana Laredo-Tiscareño
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Juárez 32310, Chihuahua, Mexico; (A.R.-M.); (C.A.R.-A.); (S.V.L.-T.)
| | - Erick de Jesús de Luna-Santillana
- Laboratorio Medicina de la Conservación, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Tamaulipas, Mexico;
| | - Luis M. Hernández-Triana
- Animal and Plant Health Agency, Virology Department, Vector Borne Diseases Research Group, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK;
| | - Javier A. Garza-Hernández
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Juárez 32310, Chihuahua, Mexico; (A.R.-M.); (C.A.R.-A.); (S.V.L.-T.)
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Colburn ME, Delaney MA, Anchor GC, Terio KA. Effect of formalin-fixation and paraffin-embedded tissue storage times on RNAscope in situ hybridization signal amplification. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024; 36:498-505. [PMID: 38650110 PMCID: PMC11185121 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241245777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
RNAscope in situ hybridization (ISH) detects target RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. Protocols suggest that prolonged FFPE storage and formalin fixation may impact signal detection, potentially limiting the utility of RNAscope ISH in retrospective studies. To develop parameters for RNAscope use with archived specimens, we evaluated the effect of formalin-fixation time by measuring the signal of a reference gene (16srRNA) in selected tissues fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin for 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 60, 90, 180, and 270 d. The signal intensity and percent area of signal decreased after 180 d. Tissues had detectable signal at 180 d but not at 270 d of formalin fixation. To assess target detection in paraffin blocks, we qualitatively compared the signal of canine distemper virus (CDV) antigen via immunohistochemistry and CDV RNA via RNAscope ISH in replicate sections from blocks stored at room temperature for 6 mo, 1, 3, 6, 8, 11, 13, and 15 y; RNA was detected in FFPE tissues stored for up to 15 y. Our results demonstrate that RNAscope ISH can detect targets in tissues with prolonged paraffin storage intervals and formalin-fixation times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Colburn
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Martha A. Delaney
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Gretchen C. Anchor
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Karen A. Terio
- Zoological Pathology Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
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3
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Cao Z, Yi L, Liu X, Shang J, Cheng Y, Feng E, Liu X, Fan Y, Hu X, Cai W, Cong F, Cheng S. Rapid lateral flow immunoassay for fluorescence detection of canine distemper virus (CDV). Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1413420. [PMID: 38919159 PMCID: PMC11197456 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1413420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a highly contagious and potentially lethal virus that affects dogs and other members of the Canidae family, including wolves, foxes, and coyotes. Here, we present a fluorescent lateral flow immunoassay (FLFA) platform for the detection of CDV, which utilizes fluorescent microspheres - fusion protein monoclonal antibody (mAb)-labeled monoclonal antibody. The assay detected CDV within 5 min, with a detection limit threshold of 3 × 102 TCID50/mL. Notably, the assay demonstrated no cross-reactivity with canine parvovirus, canine coronavirus, canine adenovirus, feline calicivirus, feline herpesvirus, or feline parvovirus. Field and clinical applicability of the assay was evaluated using 63 field samples, including 30 canine fecal samples, 18 swab samples, and 15 blood samples. The coincidence rate between the detection results of clinical samples obtained through FLFA and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was 96.83%. Thus, this assay offers a significant advancement for the rapid diagnosis of CDV at the point of care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhigang Cao
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Li Yi
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xiangnan Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinyuan Shang
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yuening Cheng
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Erkai Feng
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xingyu Liu
- Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin, China
| | - Yuping Fan
- Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin, China
| | - Xiaoliang Hu
- Faculty of Agriculture, Forestry and Food Engineering, Yibin University, Yibin, China
| | - Wenlong Cai
- Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangzhou, China
| | - Feng Cong
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Shipeng Cheng
- Institute of Special Animal and Plant Sciences, CAAS, Changchun, Jilin, China
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4
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Selleck MR, Johnson SR, Gilbert AT. SEROLOGICAL RESPONSE TO CANINE DISTEMPER VACCINATION IN WILD CAUGHT RACCOONS ( PROCYON LOTOR). J Zoo Wildl Med 2024; 55:462-465. [PMID: 38875203 DOI: 10.1638/2023-0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a well-known RNA virus that affects domestic dogs and all families of wild terrestrial carnivores. Spillover infections from wildlife to domestic animals are mitigated by preventive vaccination, but there is limited information on the off-label use of veterinary vaccines for wildlife like raccoons (Procyon lotor). Twenty wild-caught raccoons were inoculated with a commercial recombinant DNA canarypox-vectored CDV vaccine, applying a regimen of two serial doses by SC route with an interval of 25-28 days between doses. The CDV serum virus neutralizing antibody (VNA) baseline titers and the postvaccination titers were measured at fixed time points. Forty percent (8/20) of the wild-caught raccoons had CDV VNA titers of 1:8 or greater upon intake, and all but a single individual were juvenile animals. Approximately one month following the first vaccine dose, 8% (1/12) of raccoons seronegative at baseline had serum CDV VNA titers of 1:24 or greater. Approximately one month following the booster vaccine dose, 67% (8/12) of raccoons seronegative at baseline had serum CDV VNA titers of 1:24 or greater. Among raccoons with CDV VNA titers greater than or equal to 1:8 at baseline, 13% (1/8) demonstrated a fourfold or greater rise in titer one month after the first vaccine dose, whereas 38% (3/8) reached the same threshold one month after the booster dose. The presence of naturally acquired CDV VNA in juvenile raccoons at the time of vaccination may have interfered with the humoral VNA response. A regimen of at least two serially administered SC vaccine doses may be immunogenic for raccoons, but further investigation of alternative routes, regimens, and CDV vaccine products is also warranted for this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly R Selleck
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154, USA,
| | - Shylo R Johnson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154, USA
| | - Amy T Gilbert
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Fort Collins, CO 80521-2154, USA
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Reinhardt NP, Köster J, Thomas A, Arnold J, Fux R, Straubinger RK. Bacterial and Viral Pathogens with One Health Relevance in Invasive Raccoons ( Procyon lotor, Linné 1758) in Southwest Germany. Pathogens 2023; 12:389. [PMID: 36986312 PMCID: PMC10054312 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In Europe, raccoons are invasive neozoons with their largest population in Germany. Globally, this mesocarnivore acts as a wildlife reservoir for many (non-)zoonotic (re-)emerging pathogens, but very little epidemiological data is available for southwest Germany. This exploratory study aimed to screen free-ranging raccoons in Baden-Wuerttemberg (BW, Germany) for the occurrence of selected pathogens with One Health relevance. Organ tissue and blood samples collected from 102 animals, obtained by hunters in 2019 and 2020, were subsequently analysed for two bacterial and four viral pathogens using a qPCR approach. Single samples were positive for the carnivore protoparvovirus-1 (7.8%, n = 8), canine distemper virus (6.9%, n = 7), pathogenic Leptospira spp. (3.9%, n = 4) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (15.7%, n = 16). West Nile virus and influenza A virus were not detected. Due to their invasive behaviour and synanthropic habit, raccoons may increase the risk of infections for wildlife, domestic animals, zoo animals and humans by acting as a link between them. Therefore, further studies should be initiated to evaluate these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nico P. Reinhardt
- Bacteriology and Mycology, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Judith Köster
- Aulendorf State Veterinary Diagnostic Centre (STUA), 88326 Aulendorf, Germany
| | - Astrid Thomas
- Bacteriology and Mycology, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Janosch Arnold
- Wildlife Research Unit, Agricultural Centre Baden-Wuerttemberg (LAZBW), 88326 Aulendorf, Germany
| | - Robert Fux
- Virology, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
| | - Reinhard K. Straubinger
- Bacteriology and Mycology, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, LMU Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany
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Canine Distemper Virus in Endangered Species: Species Jump, Clinical Variations, and Vaccination. Pathogens 2022; 12:pathogens12010057. [PMID: 36678405 PMCID: PMC9862170 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12010057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Canine morbillivirus (Canine distemper virus, CDV) is the cause of distemper in a large number of different species, some of which are endangered. The clinical outcome associated with infection is variable and based on many factors, including the host species, the immune response of the individual animal to the infection, and variation in virus tropism and virulence. Unfortunately, the viral characteristics associated with virulence versus attenuation are not fully characterized, nor are the specific mutations that allow this virus to easily move and adapt from one species to another. Due to its wide host range, this virus is difficult to manage in ecosystems that are home to endangered species. Vaccination of the domestic dog, historically considered the reservoir species for this virus, at dog-wildlife interfaces has failed to control virus spread. CDV appears to be maintained by a metareservoir rather than a single species, requiring the need to vaccinate the wildlife species at risk. This is controversial, and there is a lack of a safe, effective vaccine for nondomestic species. This review focuses on topics that are paramount to protecting endangered species from a stochastic event, such as a CDV outbreak, that could lead to extinction.
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Karki M, Rajak KK, Singh RP. Canine morbillivirus (CDV): a review on current status, emergence and the diagnostics. Virusdisease 2022; 33:309-321. [PMID: 36039286 PMCID: PMC9403230 DOI: 10.1007/s13337-022-00779-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing host range of canine morbillivirus (CDV) affecting important wildlife species such as Lions, Leopard, and Red Pandas has raised the concern. Canine distemper is a pathogen of dogs affecting the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and nervous systems. Seventeen lineages of CDV are reported, and the eighteenth lineage was proposed in 2019 from India. Marked genomic differences in the genome of wild-type virus and vaccine strain are also reported.The variations at the epitope level can be differentiated using specific monoclonal antibodies in neutralization tests. Keeping in mind the current status of the emergence of CDV, genetic and molecular study of circulating strains of the specific geographical region are the essential components of the disease control strategy. New target-based diagnostics and vaccines are in need to counter the effects of the emerging virus population. Control of CDV is necessary to save the endangered, vulnerable, and many other wildlife species to maintain balance in the ecological system. This review provides an overview on emergence reported in CDV, diagnostics developed till today, and a perspective on the disease control strategy, keeping wildlife in consideration.
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GEOGRAPHIC SPREAD OF CANINE DISTEMPER IN WILD CARNIVORES IN MICHIGAN, USA: PATHOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY, 2008-18. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:562-574. [PMID: 35675483 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Canine distemper is a widespread disease affecting both domestic and wild carnivores. This investigation of the geographic distribution, wildlife species infected, and relative prevalence rates was conducted over an 11-yr period and helps to document the disease spread, most highly infected wildlife species, and histologic lesions. Animals were collected as found dead, hunter and trapper harvested, and euthanized for displaying signs of abnormal behavior or neurologic disease. This disease appeared to spread from the Lower Peninsula of Michigan into the Upper Peninsula, was most frequently documented in raccoons (Procyon lotor), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), and gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), but also involved additional wildlife species. Three unique wildlife virus strains were identified. Two of these grouped within a separate subclade of the America 2 lineage. A third strain appeared to be a unique sequence type that is not associated with any existing subclade of America 2. We recommend the combined use of routine histology and immunohistochemical staining to confirm the diagnosis, and further recommend that both the lungs and spleen be collected as the optimal tissues to utilize for surveillance purposes.
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Garcia PAT, Cartoceti A, Affolter VK, Jackson K, Keel MK, Agnew D, Cooley T, Melotti J, Fitzgerald SD, Pesavento PA. Distribution of canine distemper virus and nectin-4 in raccoon ( Procyon lotor) skin. Vet Pathol 2022; 59:782-786. [PMID: 35689359 DOI: 10.1177/03009858221102598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are abundant in urban/wildland interfaces and are key sources of canine distemper virus (CDV) outbreaks in domestic, zoo, and free-ranging wildlife species. CDV is pantropic, which provides multiple potential routes of transmission (urine, respiratory secretions, feces), but the specific role of skin as a target of infection, as a diagnostic sample, or as a potential source of environmental persistence and transmission is unknown. We have characterized the distribution of CDV and its known receptor, nectin-4, in skin samples of 36 raccoons. Even with skin samples that were grossly and histologically normal, immunohistochemistry of skin was useful in the diagnosis of CDV infection, which was found in both epithelium and endothelium. Nectin-4 was codistributed with cellular targets of viral infection. Skin secretions, shed keratinocytes, and hair of CDV infected raccoons are all potential environmental fomites.
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Stokholm I, Puryear W, Sawatzki K, Knudsen SW, Terkelsen T, Becher P, Siebert U, Olsen MT. Emergence and radiation of distemper viruses in terrestrial and marine mammals. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211969. [PMID: 34702073 PMCID: PMC8548803 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) and phocine distemper virus (PDV) are major pathogens to terrestrial and marine mammals. Yet little is known about the timing and geographical origin of distemper viruses and to what extent it was influenced by environmental change and human activities. To address this, we (i) performed the first comprehensive time-calibrated phylogenetic analysis of the two distemper viruses, (ii) mapped distemper antibody and virus detection data from marine mammals collected between 1972 and 2018, and (iii) compiled historical reports on distemper dating back to the eighteenth century. We find that CDV and PDV diverged in the early seventeenth century. Modern CDV strains last shared a common ancestor in the nineteenth century with a marked radiation during the 1930s-1950s. Modern PDV strains are of more recent origin, diverging in the 1970s-1980s. Based on the compiled information on distemper distribution, the diverse host range of CDV and basal phylogenetic placement of terrestrial morbilliviruses, we hypothesize a terrestrial CDV-like ancestor giving rise to PDV in the North Atlantic. Moreover, given the estimated timing of distemper origin and radiation, we hypothesize a prominent role of environmental change such as the Little Ice Age, and human activities like globalization and war in distemper virus evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iben Stokholm
- Evolutionary Genomics Section, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstraße 6, Büsum 25761, Germany
| | - Wendy Puryear
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | - Kaitlin Sawatzki
- Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, North Grafton, MA, USA
| | | | - Thilde Terkelsen
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Ole Maaløes vej 5, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Paul Becher
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, D-30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Werftstraße 6, Büsum 25761, Germany
| | - Morten Tange Olsen
- Evolutionary Genomics Section, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, DK-1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
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Young KT, Lahmers KK, Sellers HS, Stallknecht DE, Poulson RL, Saliki JT, Tompkins SM, Padykula I, Siepker C, Howerth EW, Todd M, Stanton JB. Randomly primed, strand-switching, MinION-based sequencing for the detection and characterization of cultured RNA viruses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 33:202-215. [PMID: 33357075 DOI: 10.1177/1040638720981019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA viruses rapidly mutate, which can result in increased virulence, increased escape from vaccine protection, and false-negative detection results. Targeted detection methods have a limited ability to detect unknown viruses and often provide insufficient data to detect coinfections or identify antigenic variants. Random, deep sequencing is a method that can more fully detect and characterize RNA viruses and is often coupled with molecular techniques or culture methods for viral enrichment. We tested viral culture coupled with third-generation sequencing for the ability to detect and characterize RNA viruses. Cultures of bovine viral diarrhea virus, canine distemper virus (CDV), epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, 2 influenza A viruses, and porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus were sequenced on the MinION platform using a random, reverse primer in a strand-switching reaction, coupled with PCR-based barcoding. Reads were taxonomically classified and used for reference-based sequence building using a stock personal computer. This method accurately detected and identified complete coding sequence genomes with a minimum of 20× coverage depth for all 7 viruses, including a sample containing 2 viruses. Each lineage-typing region had at least 26× coverage depth for all viruses. Furthermore, analyzing the CDV sample through a pipeline devoid of CDV reference sequences modeled the ability of this protocol to detect unknown viruses. Our results show the ability of this technique to detect and characterize dsRNA, negative- and positive-sense ssRNA, and nonsegmented and segmented RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey T Young
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Kevin K Lahmers
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & Pathobiology, VA-MD College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - Holly S Sellers
- Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - David E Stallknecht
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Rebecca L Poulson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Jerry T Saliki
- Athens Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Stephen Mark Tompkins
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Ian Padykula
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Chris Siepker
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Elizabeth W Howerth
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
| | - Michelle Todd
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & Pathobiology, VA-MD College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA
| | - James B Stanton
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA
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