Neoplasia in an assurance population of Puerto Rican crested toads (Peltophryne lemur)

Disease monitoring of amphibian assurance populations is an important buffer against ongoing global extinctions. This study documents a high incidence of neoplasia in a zoo-managed assurance population of Puerto Rican crested toads (Peltophryne lemur; PRCTs). Over 5 years, neoplasia was diagnosed in 17/49 (35%) submitted adult PRCTs and was the cause of death or euthanasia in 13/17 (72%). Most toads were male (16/17; 94%) and 6 to 11-years-old (average 8.1 years). Notably, seven toads (41%) had multiple neoplasms. Of the 29 neoplasms identified, 17 (59%) were cutaneous or subcutaneous. The most common neoplasms included mast cell tumors (MCTs; 8/29; 28%), histiocytic sarcomas (6/29; 21%), lymphoma/leukemia (4/29; 14%), and squamous cell carcinomas (3/29; 10%). Distant metastases were documented in 6/8 (75%) toads with MCTs. Causes for neoplasia in this population were not determined though may include genetic or environmental factors. Continued investigations of managed endangered amphibians will help elucidate mechanisms of carcinogenesis.

Effect of formalin-fixation and paraffin-embedded tissue storage times on RNAscope in situ hybridization signal amplification

RNAscope in situ hybridization (ISH) detects target RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. Protocols suggest that prolonged FFPE storage and formalin fixation may impact signal detection, potentially limiting the utility of RNAscope ISH in retrospective studies. To develop parameters for RNAscope use with archived specimens, we evaluated the effect of formalin-fixation time by measuring the signal of a reference gene (16srRNA) in selected tissues fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin for 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 60, 90, 180, and 270 d. The signal intensity and percent area of signal decreased after 180 d. Tissues had detectable signal at 180 d but not at 270 d of formalin fixation. To assess target detection in paraffin blocks, we qualitatively compared the signal of canine distemper virus (CDV) antigen via immunohistochemistry and CDV RNA via RNAscope ISH in replicate sections from blocks stored at room temperature for 6 mo, 1, 3, 6, 8, 11, 13, and 15 y; RNA was detected in FFPE tissues stored for up to 15 y. Our results demonstrate that RNAscope ISH can detect targets in tissues with prolonged paraffin storage intervals and formalin-fixation times.

Evolution of T cells in the cancer-resistant naked mole-rat

Naked mole-rats (NMRs) are best known for their extreme longevity and cancer resistance, suggesting that their immune system might have evolved to facilitate these phenotypes. Natural killer (NK) and T cells have evolved to detect and destroy cells infected with pathogens and to provide an early response to malignancies. While it is known that NMRs lack NK cells, likely lost during evolution, little is known about their T-cell subsets in terms of the evolution of the genes that regulate their function, their clonotypic diversity, and the thymus where they mature. Here we find, using single-cell transcriptomics, that NMRs have a large circulating population of γδT cells, which in mice and humans mostly reside in peripheral tissues and induce anti-cancer cytotoxicity. Using single-cell-T-cell-receptor sequencing, we find that a cytotoxic γδT-cell subset of NMRs harbors a dominant clonotype, and that their conventional CD8 αβT cells exhibit modest clonotypic diversity. Consistently, perinatal NMR thymuses are considerably smaller than those of mice yet follow similar involution progression. Our findings suggest that NMRs have evolved under a relaxed intracellular pathogenic selective pressure that may have allowed cancer resistance and longevity to become stronger targets of selection to which the immune system has responded by utilizing γδT cells.

COMPARISON OF SUBCUTANEOUS ALFAXALONE AND SUBCUTANEOUS ALFAXALONE-DEXMEDETOMIDINE FOR SEDATION IN THE HOUSTON TOAD (ANAXYRUS HOUSTONENSIS)

The Houston toad (Anaxyrus houstonensis), a primarily terrestrial amphibian of south-central Texas, has been listed as federally endangered since 1970. Sedation is an important tool for obtaining diagnostics and providing treatment in this species. This prospective, randomized, and blinded study compared the sedative effects of SC alfaxalone (Protocol A) at approximately 12 mg/kg (median [range] = 12.70 [12.09-13.95] mg/kg] to SC alfaxalone-dexmedetomidine (Protocol AD) at approximately 12 mg/kg (median [range] = 12.68 [12.16-13.56] mg/kg) and 0.1 mg/kg (median [range] = 0.1 [0.07-0.13] mg/kg), respectively, in adult Houston toads (n = 26). Toads from Protocol AD received atipamezole SC at approximately 1 mg/kg (median [range] = 0.96 [0.75-1.25] mg/kg) 45 min postinduction, whereas toads from Protocol A received the equivalent volume of SC sterile saline at the same time point. Heart rate, gular rate, and times to first effect, loss of righting reflex, ability to position for radiographs, loss of nociception, return of righting reflex, and full recovery were recorded. A significantly greater number of toads lost righting reflex, positioned for radiographs, and lost nociception with Protocol AD compared with Protocol A. Additionally, time to return of righting reflex and time to full recovery were significantly longer with Protocol AD than with Protocol A. The protocols did not differ significantly in time to first effect, time to radiographic positioning, or time to loss of nociception. Histologic examination of four toads euthanized during the study revealed acute injection site reactions from all administered drugs, including saline. No clinical adverse reactions were observed. This study demonstrates that the combination of SC alfaxalone and dexmedetomidine results in deeper sedation than SC alfaxalone alone, but also correlates with longer recovery times despite antagonist administration.

Systemic Erysipelas Outbreak among Free-Ranging Bottlenose Dolphins, San Diego, California, USA, 2022

We diagnosed fatal Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae sepsis in 3 stranded bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) during summer 2022, in San Diego, California, USA. The previously undetected disease in this relatively small, regional population of dolphins most likely indicates an environmental or biological change in the coastal ocean or organisms.

Histologic lesions of giant African millipedes (Archispirostreptus gigas) from a zoological institution

Histopathologic data of millipedes are scarce. Little is known about health and disease of these invertebrates despite their exhibition at zoological institutions and use in ecotoxicological studies. In a retrospective study of 69 zoo-housed giant African millipedes (Archispirostreptus gigas) submitted between 2018 and 2021, most deaths occurred during midwinter and in 2021. The most common lesion was inflammation (n = 55; 80%). Necrosis was seen concurrently in 31 (45%) millipedes and of these, bacteria (20; 29%) and fungi (7; 10%) were detected in lesions. Inflammation was seen in the head/collum (20; 29%), hemocoel (16; 23%), and appendages (9; 13%), specifically in perivisceral fat body (42; 61%), gut (16; 23%), tracheae (26; 38%), skeletal muscle (24; 35%), and ventral nerve (17; 25%). Inflammatory cell types and patterns included agranular hemocytes (61; 88%), granular hemocytes (39; 57%), and nodulation/encapsulation (47; 68%) often accompanied by melanization. The oral cavity or gut (ingestion), spiracles (inhalation), or cuticular defects were considered plausible routes of bacterial entry. Metazoan parasites (adult nematodes: 2, 3%; trematode ova: 2, 3%; and arthropods: 1, 1%) were associated with gut necrosis and inflammation in 5 millipedes. In addition, adult nematodes were noted in the gut of 4 millipedes without lesions. Neoplasia was not detected in any millipedes. Speculatively, environmental factors may have predisposed to disease, as most deaths occurred during winter months. Disease surveillance of millipedes is critical to optimize husbandry practices in zoo populations and investigate potential impacts of environmental degradation and climate change on wild millipedes.

Environmental temperature influences ophidiomycosis progression and survival in experimentally challenged prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis)

Ophidiomycosis is a prevalent and intermittently pervasive disease of snakes globally caused by the opportunistic fungal pathogen, Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. Host response has yet to be fully explored, including the role of temperature in disease progression and hematologic changes. This study enrolled twelve adult prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) in an experimental challenge with O. ophidiicola at two temperatures, 26°C (n = 6) and 20°C (n = 6). Each temperature cohort included four inoculated and two control snakes. Assessments involving physical exams, lesion swabbing, and hematology were performed weekly. Differences were observed between inoculated and control snakes in survival, behavior, clinical signs, ultraviolet (UV) fluorescence, hematologic response, and histologic lesions. All inoculated snakes held at 20°C were euthanized prior to study end date due to severity of clinical signs while only one inoculated animal in the 26°C trial met this outcome. In both groups, qPCR positive detection preceded clinical signs with regards to days post inoculation (dpi). However, the earliest appearance of gross lesions occurred later in the 20°C snakes (20 dpi) than the 26°C snakes (13 dpi). Relative leukocytosis was observed in all inoculated snakes and driven by heterophilia in the 20°C snakes, and azurophilia in the 26°C group. Histologically, 20°C snakes had more severe lesions, a lack of appropriate inflammatory response, and unencumbered fungal proliferation and invasion. In contrast, 26°C snakes had marked granulomatous inflammation with encapsulation of fungi and less invasion and dissemination. The results of this study identified that O. ophidiicola-infected rattlesnakes exposed to lower temperatures have decreased survival and more robust hematologic change, though minimal and ineffective inflammatory response at site of infection. Ophidiomycosis is a complex disease with host, pathogen, and environmental factors influencing disease presentation, progression, and ultimately, survival. This study highlighted the importance of temperature as an element impacting the host response to O. ophidiicola.

METASTATIC MINERALIZATION IN A ZOOLOGIC COLLECTION OF SPOT-TAILED EARLESS LIZARDS (HOLBROOKIASPP.)

Vitamin and mineral supplements are commonly used in diets for zoologic and companion animals. Because specific nutrient requirements are often unknown, informed decisions are based on literature for related species. Over 18 mon beginning in November 2017, an entire population of spot-tailed earless lizards (Holbrookia lacerata and Holbrookia subcaudalis) died (N = 33). All but two lizards were submitted for histopathology (94%). All examined cases had mineralization in at least one tissue; 71% (22 of 31) had multisystemic mineral deposits consistent with metastatic mineralization. No underlying causes were detected histologically. The supplement used for dusting the food items fed five to six times per week was inadvertently switched for 2 to 4 mon, and the incorrect supplement was found to contain fourfold the intended vitamin D3 concentration. Thus, hypervitaminosis D was considered the most likely cause. Interestingly, eastern collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris), also fed prey supplemented five to six times a week, and over 50 other insectivorous reptile and amphibian species possibly receiving the supplement one to seven times a week did not appear affected. During this time, only two other cases of metastatic mineralization were diagnosed in other herpetofauna at this institution. Prior to receiving the incorrect supplement, there were no cases of metastatic mineralization detected in the earless lizard population. These cases highlight species-specific sensitivities, and the deleterious effects of excessive or inappropriate supplementation. It is important to confirm product identification on arrival, regularly conduct chemical analysis of supplements, and educate keepers and owners about adverse effects of inappropriate supplementation.

The naked truth: a comprehensive clarification and classification of current 'myths' in naked mole-rat biology

The naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) has fascinated zoologists for at least half a century. It has also generated considerable biomedical interest not only because of its extraordinary longevity, but also because of unusual protective features (e.g. its tolerance of variable oxygen availability), which may be pertinent to several human disease states, including ischemia/reperfusion injury and neurodegeneration. A recent article entitled 'Surprisingly long survival of premature conclusions about naked mole-rat biology' described 28 'myths' which, those authors claimed, are a 'perpetuation of beautiful, but falsified, hypotheses' and impede our understanding of this enigmatic mammal. Here, we re-examine each of these 'myths' based on evidence published in the scientific literature. Following Braude et al., we argue that these 'myths' fall into four main categories: (i) 'myths' that would be better described as oversimplifications, some of which persist solely in the popular press; (ii) 'myths' that are based on incomplete understanding, where more evidence is clearly needed; (iii) 'myths' where the accumulation of evidence over the years has led to a revision in interpretation, but where there is no significant disagreement among scientists currently working in the field; (iv) 'myths' where there is a genuine difference in opinion among active researchers, based on alternative interpretations of the available evidence. The term 'myth' is particularly inappropriate when applied to competing, evidence-based hypotheses, which form part of the normal evolution of scientific knowledge. Here, we provide a comprehensive critical review of naked mole-rat biology and attempt to clarify some of these misconceptions.

Research-Relevant Conditions and Pathology of Laboratory Mice, Rats, Gerbils, Guinea Pigs, Hamsters, Naked Mole Rats, and Rabbits

Animals are valuable resources in biomedical research in investigations of biological processes, disease pathogenesis, therapeutic interventions, safety, toxicity, and carcinogenicity. Interpretation of data from animals requires knowledge not only of the processes or diseases (pathophysiology) under study but also recognition of spontaneous conditions and background lesions (pathology) that can influence or confound the study results. Species, strain/stock, sex, age, anatomy, physiology, spontaneous diseases (noninfectious and infectious), and neoplasia impact experimental results and interpretation as well as animal welfare. This review and the references selected aim to provide a pathology resource for researchers, pathologists, and veterinary personnel who strive to achieve research rigor and validity and must understand the spectrum of "normal" and expected conditions to accurately identify research-relevant experimental phenotypes as well as unusual illness, pathology, or other conditions that can compromise studies involving laboratory mice, rats, gerbils, guinea pigs, hamsters, naked mole rats, and rabbits.

Pathologic impacts of contaminants in freshwater fish of Cook County IL

Mercury (Hg) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are widespread environmental toxicants in urban environments with negative impacts to fish health. The present study evaluated the potential association between muscle tissue contaminant (total Hg and total PCB) concentrations and indicators of health in benthic and predatory fish collected from four Forest Preserves of Cook County lakes in the Chicago metropolitan area. Common carp (carp; Cyprinus carpio) and largemouth bass (LMB; Micropterus salmoides) were sampled three times a year (spring, summer, fall) during 2019 and 2020. Water quality analyses (temperature, color, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity, pH, chloride, nitrate, phosphate, ammonium, and pH) were performed concurrently with fish collections. Tissue (skin-on fillet) contaminant concentrations were compared between lake types and fish species and assessed for any relationship with fish morphometric data and pathologic lesions. Main health indicator endpoints included muscle lipid content, parasite burden, and pathologic lesions. Mean total PCB concentrations were greater in carp (203.1 ± 152 µg/kg, wet weight), and mean Hg concentrations were greater in LMB (0.11 ± 0.1 mg/kg, wet weight). In most fish, concentrations of both toxicants surpassed the EPA's lowest threshold to restrict fish consumption for sensitive cohorts (0.029 mg/kg for Hg and 1.5 µg/kg for PCBs). In both species, Hg positively correlated with splenic pigmented macrophage aggregate area (P < 0.001). In carp, Hg also positively correlated with hepatocellular pigmentation (P < 0.01). Mercury correlated with standard length in both species (LMB: P < 0.001, carp: P = 0.95), but polychlorinated biphenyls only correlated with standard length in carp (P < 0.001). No association was found between intraspecific contaminant concentrations and parasite burden, year, or lake type, though differences were noted among individual lakes. The contaminant burden appeared well-tolerated with only mild Hg-associated and no appreciable PCB-associated lesions. However, possible effects on reproduction or behavior were not fully assessed, and future studies are warranted.

Evaluation of Effects of Laboratory Disinfectants on Mouse Gut Microbiota

Disturbances in the gut microbiota are known to be associated with numerous human diseases. Mice have proven to be an invaluable tool for investigating the role of the gut microbiota in disease processes. Nonexperimental factors related to maintaining mice in the laboratory environment are increasingly being shown to have inadvertent effects on the gut microbiotaand may function as confounding variables. Microisolation technique is a term used to describe the common biosecuritypractice of spraying gloved hands with disinfectant before handling research mice. This practice prevents contamination with pathogenic microorganisms. To investigate if exposure to disinfectants can affect the mouse gut microbiota, C57BL/6 micewere exposed daily for 27 consecutive days to commonly used laboratory disinfectants through microisolation technique.The effects of 70% ethanol and disinfectant products containing chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, or potassium peroxymonosulfate were each evaluated. Fecal pellets were collected after 7, 14, 21, and 28 d of disinfectant exposure, and cecal contents were collected at day 28. DNA extractions were performed on all cecal and fecal samples, and microbial community structure was characterized using 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing. Alpha and β diversity metrics and taxon-level analyses were used to evaluate differences in microbial communities. Disinfectant had a small but significant effect on fecal microbial communities compared with sham-exposed controls, and effects varied by disinfectant type. In general, longerexposure times resulted in greater changes in the fecal microbiota. Effects on the cecal microbiota were less pronounced and only seen with the hydrogen peroxide and potassium peroxymonosulfate disinfectants. These results indicate that laboratory disinfectant use should be considered as a potential factor that can affect the mouse gut microbiota.

Avoidance of the NLRP3 Inflammasome by the Stealth Pathogen, Coxiella burnetii

Coxiella burnetii, a highly adapted obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen and the cause of the zoonosis Q fever, is a reemerging public health threat. C. burnetii employs a Type IV secretion system (T4SS) to establish and maintain its intracellular niche and modulate host immune responses including the inhibition of apoptosis. Interactions between C. burnetii and caspase-1-mediated inflammasomes are not fully elucidated. This study confirms that C. burnetii does not activate caspase-1 during infection of mouse macrophages in vitro. C. burnetii-infected cells did not develop NLRP3 and ASC foci indicating its ability to avoid cytosolic detection. C. burnetii is unable to inhibit the pyroptosis and IL-1β secretion that is induced by potent inflammasome stimuli but rather enhances these caspase-1-mediated effects. We found that C. burnetii upregulates pro-IL-1β and robustly primes NLRP3 inflammasomes via TLR2 and MyD88 signaling. As for wildtype C. burnetii, T4SS-deficient mutants primed and potentiated NLRP3 inflammasomes. An in vivo model of pulmonary infection in C57BL/6 mice was developed. Mice deficient in NLRP3 or caspase-1 were like wildtype mice in the development and resolution of splenomegaly due to red pulp hyperplasia, and histologic lesions and macrophage kinetics, but had slightly higher pulmonary bacterial burdens at the greatest measured time point. Together these findings indicate that C. burnetii primes but avoids cytosolic detection by NLRP3 inflammasomes, which are not required for the clinical resistance of C57BL/6 mice. Determining mechanisms employed by C. burnetii to avoid cytosolic detection via NLRP3 inflammasomes will be beneficial to the development of preventative and interventional therapies for Q fever.

Spontaneous Disease and Pathology of Naked Mole-Rats

Naked mole-rats are highly valuable research models and popular exhibition animals at zoos worldwide. Here, we provide comprehensive descriptions of common postmortem findings of naked mole-rats from both research colonies and populations managed in zoological institutions. Included are brief reviews of their natural history and related physiologic adaptations, unique anatomical features, gross and histologic lesions of common as well as rarely reported disease processes, and discussions of possible pathogeneses with recommendations for future investigations to fill knowledge gaps. Based on postmortem data of several hundreds of naked mole-rats in managed care, it is clear that cancer is extremely rare and infectious disease is infrequently reported. However, despite relatively benign aging phenotypes in this species, several degenerative processes have been nevertheless observed in older populations of naked mole-rats. As such, some potential diet and husbandry-related issues are discussed in addition to the one of the most prominent causes of morbidity and mortality, conspecific aggression and traumas. From this review of lesions and disease, it is clear that pathology, including histopathology, is integral to better understanding mechanisms of healthy aging and cancer resistance of these extraordinary rodents.

SARS-COV-2 INFECTION AND LONGITUDINAL FECAL SCREENING IN MALAYAN TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS JACKSONI), AMUR TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS ALTAICA ), AND AFRICAN LIONS (PANTHERA LEO KRUGERI) AT THE BRONX ZOO, NEW YORK, USA

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged as the cause of a global pandemic in 2019-2020. In March 2020, New York City became the epicenter in the United States for the pandemic. On 27 March 2020, a Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) at the Bronx Zoo in New York City developed a cough and wheezing with subsequent inappetence. Over the next week, an additional Malayan tiger and two Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the same building and three lions (Panthera leo krugeri) in a separate building also became ill. The index case was anesthetized for diagnostic workup. Physical examination and bloodwork results were unremarkable. Thoracic radiography and ultrasonography revealed a bronchial pattern with peribronchial cuffing and mild lung consolidation with alveolar-interstitial syndrome, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was identified by real-time, reverse transcriptase PCR (rRT-PCR) on oropharyngeal and nasal swabs and tracheal wash fluid. Cytologic examination of tracheal wash fluid revealed necrosis, and viral RNA was detected in necrotic cells by in situ hybridization, confirming virus-associated tissue damage. SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from the tracheal wash fluid of the index case, as well as the feces from one Amur tiger and one lion. Fecal viral RNA shedding was confirmed in all seven clinical cases and an asymptomatic Amur tiger. Respiratory signs abated within 1-5 days for most animals, although they persisted intermittently for 16 days in the index case. Fecal RNA shedding persisted for as long as 35 days beyond cessation of respiratory signs. This case series describes the clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and management of tigers and lions infected with SARS-CoV-2 and describes the duration of viral RNA fecal shedding in these cases. This report documents the first known natural transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from humans to nondomestic felids.

Pathology findings and correlation with body condition index in stranded killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the northeastern Pacific and Hawaii from 2004 to 2013

Understanding health and mortality in killer whales (Orcinus orca) is crucial for management and conservation actions. We reviewed pathology reports from 53 animals that stranded in the eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii between 2004 and 2013 and used data from 35 animals that stranded from 2001 to 2017 to assess association with morphometrics, blubber thickness, body condition and cause of death. Of the 53 cases, cause of death was determined for 22 (42%) and nine additional animals demonstrated findings of significant importance for population health. Causes of calf mortalities included infectious disease, nutritional, and congenital malformations. Mortalities in sub-adults were due to trauma, malnutrition, and infectious disease and in adults due to bacterial infections, emaciation and blunt force trauma. Death related to human interaction was found in every age class. Important incidental findings included concurrent sarcocystosis and toxoplasmosis, uterine leiomyoma, vertebral periosteal proliferations, cookiecutter shark (Isistius sp.) bite wounds, excessive tooth wear and an ingested fish hook. Blubber thickness increased significantly with body length (all p < 0.001). In contrast, there was no relationship between body length and an index of body condition (BCI). BCI was higher in animals that died from trauma. This study establishes a baseline for understanding health, nutritional status and causes of mortality in stranded killer whales. Given the evidence of direct human interactions on all age classes, in order to be most successful recovery efforts should address the threat of human interactions, especially for small endangered groups of killer whales that occur in close proximity to large human populations, interact with recreational and commercial fishers and transit established shipping lanes.

Brain Lesions in Aging Zoo-Housed Naked Mole-Rats (Heterocephalus glaber)

Naked mole-rats (NMRs) are common in the managed care of zoos and valuable models for aging research. Limited information on NMR neuropathology is available despite many studies regarding their aging physiology. Histologic sections of brain from 27 adult (5-27 years old) NMRs from 2 zoos were reviewed to determine presence or absence of lesions associated with advanced age in humans and other mammals. A majority (23/27; 85%) of NMR brains had cerebral cortical neuronal changes with rounded or angular neurons, cytoplasmic vacuoles containing pale yellow pigment, periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive granules and green autofluorescence, compatible with lipofuscinosis. Less severe lesions were present in cerebellar Purkinje cells, medulla, and hippocampal neurons. The hypothalamic neuropil of all NMRs had scattered variably sized PAS-positive granules and 10 (37%) had larger round bodies consistent with corpora amylacea. The youngest NMRs, 5 to 7 years old, generally had minimal or no cerebrocortical lesions. Further studies will help understand brain aging in this long-lived species.

From People to Panthera: Natural SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Tigers and Lions at the Bronx Zoo

Despite numerous barriers to transmission, zoonoses are the major cause of emerging infectious diseases in humans. Among these, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and ebolaviruses have killed thousands; the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has killed millions. Zoonoses and human-to-animal cross-species transmission are driven by human actions and have important management, conservation, and public health implications. The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which presumably originated from an animal reservoir, has killed more than half a million people around the world and cases continue to rise. In March 2020, New York City was a global epicenter for SARS-CoV-2 infections. During this time, four tigers and three lions at the Bronx Zoo, NY, developed mild, abnormal respiratory signs. We detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in respiratory secretions and/or feces from all seven animals, live virus in three, and colocalized viral RNA with cellular damage in one. We produced nine whole SARS-CoV-2 genomes from the animals and keepers and identified different SARS-CoV-2 genotypes in the tigers and lions. Epidemiologic and genomic data indicated human-to-tiger transmission. These were the first confirmed cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 animal infections in the United States and the first in nondomestic species in the world. We highlight disease transmission at a nontraditional interface and provide information that contributes to understanding SARS-CoV-2 transmission across species.IMPORTANCE The human-animal-environment interface of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important aspect of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that requires robust One Health-based investigations. Despite this, few reports describe natural infections in animals or directly link them to human infections using genomic data. In the present study, we describe the first cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in tigers and lions in the United States and provide epidemiological and genetic evidence for human-to-animal transmission of the virus. Our data show that tigers and lions were infected with different genotypes of SARS-CoV-2, indicating two independent transmission events to the animals. Importantly, infected animals shed infectious virus in respiratory secretions and feces. A better understanding of the susceptibility of animal species to SARS-CoV-2 may help to elucidate transmission mechanisms and identify potential reservoirs and sources of infection that are important in both animal and human health.

From People to Panthera: Natural SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Tigers and Lions at the Bronx Zoo

Despite numerous barriers to transmission, zoonoses are the major cause of emerging infectious diseases in humans. Among these, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and ebolaviruses have killed thousands; the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has killed millions. Zoonoses and human-to-animal cross-species transmission are driven by human actions and have important management, conservation, and public health implications. The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which presumably originated from an animal reservoir, has killed more than half a million people around the world and cases continue to rise. In March 2020, New York City was a global epicenter for SARS-CoV-2 infections. During this time, four tigers and three lions at the Bronx Zoo, NY, developed mild, abnormal respiratory signs. We detected SARS-CoV-2 RNA in respiratory secretions and/or feces from all seven animals, live virus in three, and colocalized viral RNA with cellular damage in one. We produced nine whole SARS-CoV-2 genomes from the animals and keepers and identified different SARS-CoV-2 genotypes in the tigers and lions. Epidemiologic and genomic data indicated human-to-tiger transmission. These were the first confirmed cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 animal infections in the United States and the first in nondomestic species in the world. We highlight disease transmission at a nontraditional interface and provide information that contributes to understanding SARS-CoV-2 transmission across species.IMPORTANCE The human-animal-environment interface of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important aspect of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that requires robust One Health-based investigations. Despite this, few reports describe natural infections in animals or directly link them to human infections using genomic data. In the present study, we describe the first cases of natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in tigers and lions in the United States and provide epidemiological and genetic evidence for human-to-animal transmission of the virus. Our data show that tigers and lions were infected with different genotypes of SARS-CoV-2, indicating two independent transmission events to the animals. Importantly, infected animals shed infectious virus in respiratory secretions and feces. A better understanding of the susceptibility of animal species to SARS-CoV-2 may help to elucidate transmission mechanisms and identify potential reservoirs and sources of infection that are important in both animal and human health.

The human tissue-resident CCR5+ T cell compartment maintains protective and functional properties during inflammation

CCR5 is thought to play a central role in orchestrating migration of cells in response to inflammation. CCR5 antagonists can reduce inflammatory disease processes, which has led to an increased interest in using CCR5 antagonists in a wide range of inflammation-driven diseases. Paradoxically, these antagonists appear to function without negatively affecting host immunity at barrier sites. We reasoned that the resolution to this paradox may lie in the CCR5⁺ T cell populations that permanently reside in tissues. We used a single-cell analysis approach to examine the human CCR5⁺ T cell compartment in the blood, healthy, and inflamed mucosal tissues to resolve these seemingly contradictory observations. We found that 65% of the CD4 tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cell compartment expressed CCR5. These CCR5⁺ T_RM cells were enriched in and near the epithelial layer and not only limited to T_H1-type cells but also contained a large T_H17-producing and a stable regulatory T cell population. The CCR5⁺ T_RM compartment was stably maintained even in inflamed tissues including the preservation of T_H17 and regulatory T cell populations. Further, using tissues from the CHARM-03 clinical trial, we found that CCR5⁺ T_RM are preserved in human mucosal tissue during treatment with the CCR5 antagonist Maraviroc. Our data suggest that the human CCR5⁺ T_RM compartment is functionally and spatially equipped to maintain barrier immunity even in the absence of CCR5-mediated, de novo T cell recruitment from the periphery.

Complex Virome in a Mesenteric Lymph Node from a Californian Sea Lion (Zalophus Californianus) with Polyserositis and Steatitis

An emaciated subadult free-ranging California sea lion (Csl or Zalophus californianus) died following stranding with lesions similar to 11 other stranded animals characterized by chronic disseminated granulomatous inflammation with necrotizing steatitis and vasculitis, involving visceral adipose tissues in the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. Histologically, affected tissues had extensive accumulations of macrophages with perivascular lymphocytes, plasma cells, and fewer neutrophils. Using viral metagenomics on a mesenteric lymph node six mammalian viruses were identified consisting of novel parvovirus, polyomavirus, rotavirus, anellovirus, and previously described Csl adenovirus 1 and Csl bocavirus 4. The causal or contributory role of these viruses to the gross and histologic lesions of this sea lion remains to be determined.

Inflammatory Cytokines Induce Sustained CTLA-4 Cell Surface Expression on Human MAIT Cells

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells acquire effector function in response to proinflammatory signals, which synergize with TCR-mediated signals. We asked if cell-intrinsic regulatory mechanisms exist to curtail MAIT cell effector function akin to the activation-induced expression of inhibitory receptors by conventional T cells. We examined human MAIT cells from blood and oral mucosal tissues by RNA sequencing and found differential expression of immunoregulatory genes, including CTLA-4, by MAIT cells isolated from tissue. Using an ex vivo experimental setup, we demonstrate that inflammatory cytokines were sufficient to induce CTLA-4 expression on the MAIT cell surface in the absence of TCR signals. Even brief exposure to the cytokines IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 was sufficient for sustained CTLA-4 expression by MAIT cells. These data suggest that control of CTLA-4 expression is fundamentally different between MAIT cells and conventional T cells. We propose that this mechanism serves to limit MAIT cell-mediated tissue damage.

Computed Tomography of the Mandibles of a Stranded Offshore Killer Whale (Orcinus orca)

A mature, adult female, offshore killer whale (Orcinus orca) was stranded deceased in Portage Bay, Alaska, in October 2015. Full necropsy examination with histopathology was performed. Consistent with previous studies of offshore killer whales, and thought to be a result of their unique elasmobranch diet, all the teeth were significantly abraded and almost flush with the gingival margin. Age was estimated at 30-35 years based on annuli and growth arrest lines in a remaining tooth. The dentate portion of the mandibles were excised en bloc and frozen until imaging could be completed. Radiography and computed tomography revealed lesions consistent with severe abrasion, pulp exposure and evidence of endodontic and/or periodontal disease in nine of the 15 mandibular teeth present (60.0%). Only five (33.3%) teeth were suspected to have been vital at the time of death based on imaging. Lesions were more severe rostrally, with the caudal teeth less affected. Autolysis precluded gingival histopathology and no teeth were analyzed histologically. Necropsy examination revealed a likely multifactorial cause of death, with most significant lesions including the severe chronic periodontal/endodontic disease with abrasion, inanition and emaciation with possible cardiovascular disease. This case highlights the importance of imaging in evaluating periodontal and endodontic status, especially post mortem when other tissues are no longer available, and demonstrates that periodontal and endodontic disease occur naturally in this species and can be a significant cause of morbidity in mature free-ranging killer whales of the offshore ecotype.

Application of real-time quantitative PCR assays for detecting marine Brucella spp. in fish

Brucella ceti and Brucella pinnipedialis have been documented as occurring in marine mammals, and B. ceti has been identified in 3 naturally acquired human cases. Seroconversion and infection patterns in Pacific Northwest harbor seals ( Phoca vitulina richardii) and North Atlantic hooded seals ( Cystophora cristata) indicate post-weaning exposure through prey consumption or lungworm infection, suggesting fish and possibly invertebrates play an epizootiologic role in marine Brucella transmission and possible foodborne risk to humans. We determined if real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays can detect marine Brucella DNA in fish DNA. Insertion sequence (IS) 711 gene and sequence type (ST)27 primer-probe sets were used to detect Brucella associated with marine mammals and human zoonotic infections, respectively. First, DNA extracts from paired-species fish (containing 2 species) samples were tested and determined to be Brucella DNA negative using both IS 711 and ST27 primer-probe sets. A representative paired-species fish DNA sample was spiked with decreasing concentrations of B. pinnipedialis DNA to verify Brucella detection by the IS 711 primer-probe within fish DNA. A standard curve, developed using isolated DNA from B. pinnipedialis, determined the limit of detection. Finally, the IS 711 primer-probe was used to test Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua) DNA extracts experimentally infected with the B. pinnipedialis hooded seal strain. In culture-positive cod tissue, the IS 711 limit of detection was ~1 genome copy of Brucella. Agreement between culture and PCR results for the 9 positive and 9 negative cod tissues was 100%. Although a larger sample set is required for validation, our study shows that qPCR can detect marine Brucella in fish.

Hypersplenism, EPO resistance and chronic Salmonella infection

Chronic diseases, such as AIDS and malaria, are associated with increased susceptibility to non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) infection. Among the key clinical manifestations shared by these immunocompromised individuals are anemia and splenomegaly (i.e. hypersplenism), conditions also associated with NTS susceptibility. To better understand the immunological basis of hypersplenism, we developed a model of chronic NTS infection in resistant 129X1/SvJ mice transiently depleted of CD4+ T cells. NTS infection induced chronic peripheral anemia that became more severe in the absence of CD4+ T cells. While serum erythropoietin (EPO) peaked on day 21 post infection in mock-depleted mice, EPO levels continued to rise in CD4-depleted animals. The failure to resolve anemia despite high levels of EPO parallels the development of EPO resistance in patients receiving recombinant human EPO therapy. Increased accumulation of mature erythrocytes and immature erythroid precursor cells within the enlarged spleens of CD4-depleted mice suggests that chronic inflammation leads to splenic sequestration of damaged erythrocytes, thus contributing to persistent anemia. We demonstrate that sequestration of erythroid cells drives the expansion of splenic macrophages, a known reservoir for NTS survival. Our findings provide a potential mechanism to link anemia of chronic disease, hypersplenism and increased susceptibility to NTS infections.

Initial Case Reports of Cancer in Naked Mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber)

Naked mole-rats (NMRs;Heterocephalus glaber) are highly adapted, eusocial rodents renowned for their extreme longevity and resistance to cancer. Because cancer has not been formally described in this species, NMRs have been increasingly utilized as an animal model in aging and cancer research. We previously reported the occurrence of several age-related diseases, including putative pre-neoplastic lesions, in zoo-housed NMR colonies. Here, we report for the first time 2 cases of cancer in zoo-housed NMRs. In Case No. 1, we observed a subcutaneous mass in the axillary region of a 22-year-old male NMR, with histologic, immunohistochemical (pancytokeratin positive, rare p63 immunolabeling, and smooth muscle actin negative), and ultrastructural characteristics of an adenocarcinoma possibly of mammary or salivary origin. In Case No. 2, we observed a densely cellular, poorly demarcated gastric mass of polygonal cells arranged in nests with positive immunolabeling for synaptophysin and chromogranin indicative of a neuroendocrine carcinoma in an approximately 20-year-old male NMR. We also include a brief discussion of other proliferative growths and pre-cancerous lesions diagnosed in 1 zoo colony. Although these case reports do not alter the longstanding observation of cancer resistance, they do raise questions about the scope of cancer resistance and the interpretation of biomedical studies in this model. These reports also highlight the benefit of long-term disease investigations in zoo-housed populations to better understand naturally occurring disease processes in species used as models in biomedical research.

Renal Pathology in a Nontraditional Aging Model: The Naked Mole-Rat (Heterocephalus glaber)

The naked mole-rat (NMR; Heterocephalus glaber) is growing in popularity as a model for aging research due to its extreme longevity (up to 30 years), highly adapted physiology, and resistance to cancer, particularly when compared with traditional aging models such as laboratory mice and rats. Despite the NMR's seemingly lengthy health span, several age-related lesions have been documented. During a 15-year retrospective evaluation of a zoo-housed population, histologic changes in the kidneys were reported in 127 of 138 (92%) adult NMRs. Of these, renal tubular mineralization was very common (115 of 127; 90.6%) and found in NMRs without concurrent renal lesions (36 of 127; 28.3%). Many of the other described lesions were considered progressive stages of a single process, generally referred to as chronic nephritis or nephropathy, and diagnosed in 73 of 127 (57.5%), while end-stage renal disease was reported in only 12 (9.4%) NMRs. Renal lesions of these NMRs were comparable to disease entities reported in laboratory rats and certain strains of inbred and noninbred mice. Although many lesions of NMR kidneys were similar to those found in aged laboratory rodents, some common urinary diseases were not represented in the examined colonies. The goal of this study was to describe renal lesions in NMRs from a zoologic setting to familiarize investigators and pathologists with an apparently common and presumably age-related disease in this nontraditional model.

Susceptibility to quantum dot induced lung inflammation differs widely among the Collaborative Cross founder mouse strains

Quantum dots (QDs) are engineered semiconductor nanoparticles with unique physicochemical properties that make them potentially useful in clinical, research and industrial settings. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that like other engineered nanomaterials, QDs have the potential to be respiratory hazards, especially in the context of the manufacture of QDs and products containing them, as well as exposures to consumers using these products. The overall goal of this study was to investigate the role of mouse strain in determining susceptibility to QD-induced pulmonary inflammation and toxicity. Male mice from 8 genetically diverse inbred strains (the Collaborative Cross founder strains) were exposed to CdSe-ZnS core-shell QDs stabilized with an amphiphilic polymer. QD treatment resulted in significant increases in the percentage of neutrophils and levels of cytokines present in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) obtained from NOD/ShiLtJ and NZO/HlLtJ mice relative to their saline (Sal) treated controls. Cadmium measurements in lung tissue indicated strain-dependent differences in disposition of QDs in the lung. Total glutathione levels in lung tissue were significantly correlated with percent neutrophils in BALF as well as with lung tissue Cd levels. Our findings indicate that QD-induced acute lung inflammation is mouse strain dependent, that it is heritable, and that the choice of mouse strain is an important consideration in planning QD toxicity studies. These data also suggest that formal genetic analyses using additional strains or recombinant inbred strains from these mice could be useful for discovering potential QD-induced inflammation susceptibility loci.

Dermal-resident versus recruited γδ T cell response to cutaneous vaccinia virus infection

The study of T cell immunity at barrier surfaces has largely focused on T cells bearing the αβ TCR. However, T cells that express the γδ TCR are disproportionately represented in peripheral tissues of mice and humans, suggesting they too may play an important role responding to external stimuli. In this article, we report that, in a murine model of cutaneous infection with vaccinia virus, dermal γδ T cell numbers increased 10-fold in the infected ear and resulted in a novel γδ T cell population not found in naive skin. Circulating γδ T cells were specifically recruited to the site of inflammation and differentially contributed to dermal populations based on their CD27 expression. Recruited γδ T cells, the majority of which were CD27(+), were granzyme B(+) and made up about half of the dermal population at the peak of the response. In contrast, recruited and resident γδ T cell populations that made IL-17 were CD27(-). Using a double-chimera model that can discriminate between the resident dermal and recruited γδ T cell populations, we demonstrated their divergent functions and contributions to early stages of tissue inflammation. Specifically, the loss of the perinatal thymus-derived resident dermal population resulted in decreased cellularity and collateral damage in the tissue during viral infection. These findings have important implications for our understanding of immune coordination at barrier surfaces and the contribution of innate-like lymphocytes on the front lines of immune defense.

Spontaneous histologic lesions of the adult naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber): a retrospective survey of lesions in a zoo population

Naked mole rats (NMRs; Heterocephalus glaber) are highly adapted, subterranean, eusocial rodents from semiarid regions of the eastern horn of Africa and the longest-living rodent known with a maximum life span of up to 30 years. They are a unique model for aging research due to their physiology, extreme longevity, and, when compared to mice and rats, resistance to cancer. Published surveys of disease in NMRs are sparse. Captive colonies in zoological collections provide an opportunity to monitor spontaneous disease over time in a seminatural environment. This retrospective study describes common lesions of a zoo population over a 15-year period during which 138 adult NMRs were submitted for gross and histologic evaluation. Of these, 61 (44.2%) were male, 77 (55.8%) female, 45 (32.6%) died, and 93 (67.4%) were euthanized. The most frequent cause of death or reason for euthanasia was conspecific trauma (bite wounds) and secondary complications. Some common histologic lesions and their prevalence were renal tubular mineralization (82.6%), hepatic hemosiderosis (64.5%), bite wounds (63.8%), chronic progressive nephropathy (52.9%), and calcinosis cutis (10.1%). In sum, 104 (75.4%) NMRs had more than one of the most prevalent histologic lesions. No malignant neoplasms were noted; however, there was a case of renal tubular adenomatous hyperplasia with nuclear atypia and compression that in rats is considered a preneoplastic lesion. This retrospective study confirms the NMR's relative resistance to cancer in spite of development of other degenerative diseases and highlights the utility of zoological databases for baseline pathological data on nontraditional animal models.

Meeting report: Spontaneous lesions and diseases in wild, captive-bred, and zoo-housed nonhuman primates and in nonhuman primate species used in drug safety studies

The combination of loss of habitat, human population encroachment, and increased demand of select nonhuman primates for biomedical research has significantly affected populations. There remains a need for knowledge and expertise in understanding background findings as related to the age, source, strain, and disease status of nonhuman primates. In particular, for safety/biomedical studies, a broader understanding and documentation of lesions would help clarify background from drug-related findings. A workshop and a minisymposium on spontaneous lesions and diseases in nonhuman primates were sponsored by the concurrent Annual Meetings of the American College of Veterinary Pathologists and the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology held December 3-4, 2011, in Nashville, Tennessee. The first session had presentations from Drs Lowenstine and Montali, pathologists with extensive experience in wild and zoo populations of nonhuman primates, which was followed by presentations of 20 unique case reports of rare or newly observed spontaneous lesions in nonhuman primates (see online files for access to digital whole-slide images corresponding to each case report at http://www.scanscope.com/ACVP%20Slide%20Seminars/2011/Primate%20Pathology/view.apml). The minisymposium was composed of 5 nonhuman-primate researchers (Drs Bradley, Cline, Sasseville, Miller, Hutto) who concentrated on background and spontaneous lesions in nonhuman primates used in drug safety studies. Cynomolgus and rhesus macaques were emphasized, with some material presented on common marmosets. Congenital, acquired, inflammatory, and neoplastic changes were highlighed with a focus on clinical, macroscopic, and histopathologic findings that could confound the interpretation of drug safety studies.

First Report of Soybean Rust (Phakopsora pachyrhizi) on Florida Beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum) in Alabama

Soybean rust (SBR), caused by the fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi, was detected on Florida Beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum) for the first time in Alabama in November, 2009. The pathogen was not observed in 2010 or 2011, probably because of the exceptionally dry, hot weather in the region. The pathogen was observed on multiple mature leaves of plants, evenly distributed through a field at the Wiregrass Research and Extension Center in Headland, Alabama, located in the southeast region of the state. Florida Beggarweed can serve as an overwintering host for SBR. Symptoms on leaves were consistent with SBR symptoms previously described on soybeans (1). Sori in multiple pustules were observed on the undersurface of the leaves. Urediniospores and paraphyses were observed microscopically and identified as P. pachyrhizi. Symptomatic leaves from 20 plants were analyzed using an Envirologix monoclonal antibody strip test kit at the Auburn University Plant Diagnostic Laboratory. A subsample of 20 plants were positive for the pathogen. Representative symptomatic leaves were sent to the USDA Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland, for confirmation. DNA was extracted from sori aseptically removed from leaves using a Qiagen DNeasy Plant Mini Kit, and amplified with primers Ppa1 and NL4. The resulting partial ITS2 and 28S ribosomal RNA sequences were 100% identical to GenBank entry DQ354537. Voucher specimens were deposited in the USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Fungus Collection (BPI). To our knowledge, this is the first report of the disease on Florida Beggarweed in Alabama. References: (1) A. Carcamo Rodriguez et al. Plant Dis. 90:1260, 2006. (2) R. D. Frederick et al. Phytopathology 92:217, 2002.

Immunohistochemical and biochemical evidence of ameloblastic origin of amyloid-producing odontogenic tumors in cats

Amyloid-producing odontogenic tumors (APOT) are rare, and in cats, the histogenesis of the amyloid remains undetermined. In the present study, APOTs in 3 cats were characterized by immunohistochemistry, and the amyloid components analyzed using tandem mass spectrometry. Antiameloblastin antibodies labeled both neoplastic epithelial cells and amyloid in all cases. Neoplastic epithelial cells had strong, diffuse immunoreactivity to antibodies against cytokeratin AE1/AE3, cytokeratin 14, and cytokeratin 19 in all cases and focal immunoreactivity to nerve growth factor receptor antibodies in 2 of 3 cases. Amyloid and some tumor stromal cells were weakly positive for laminin. Calretinin, amelogenin, S100, and glial fibrillary acidic protein antibodies did not label neoplastic epithelial cells or amyloid. Extracted amyloid peptide sequences were compared to the porcine database because the cat genome is not yet complete. Based on this comparison, 1 identical ameloblastin peptide was detected in each tumor. These results suggest that feline APOTs and the amyloid they produce are of ameloblastic lineage.

Occlusive fungal tracheitis in 4 captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)

Respiratory disease is common in dolphins, primarily affecting pulmonary parenchyma and sparing large airways. Over a 10-year period, 4 captive adult bottlenose dolphins succumbed to chronic, progressive respiratory disease with atypical recurrent upper respiratory signs. All dolphins had severe, segmental to circumferential fibrosing tracheitis that decreased luminal diameter. Histologically, tracheal cartilage, submucosa, and mucosa were distorted and replaced by extensive fibrosis and pyogranulomatous inflammation centered on fungal hyphae. In 3 of 4 cases, hyphae were morphologically compatible with Aspergillus spp and confirmed by culture in 2 cases. Amplification of fungal DNA from tracheal tissue was successful in one case, and sequences had approximately 98% homology to Aspergillus fumigatus. The remaining case had fungi compatible with zygomycetes; however, culture and polymerase chain reaction were unsuccessful. Lesions were evaluated immunohistochemically using antibodies specific to Aspergillus spp. Aspergillus-like hyphae labeled positively, while presumed zygomycetes did not. These cases represent a novel manifestation of respiratory mycoses in bottlenose dolphins.

First Report of Soybean Rust Caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi on Pachyrhizus erosus in the United States

Soybean rust, caused by the fungus Phakopsora pachyrhizi, was detected on jicama (Pachyrhizus erosus L. Urban) for the first time in the United States in November 2009. The pathogen was observed on leaves of a single, potted jicama plant grown outdoors in a residential area and on leaves of all plants in a 12-m² demonstration plot located at the Auburn University Teaching Garden in Auburn, AL. Symptoms on the upper leaf surfaces were isolated chlorotic areas near the leaf edges in the lower part of the canopy. The abaxial surface was first observed to exhibit brown lesions and subsequently produced volcano-shaped uredinia. These symptoms are consistent with a rust previously described on jicama in Mexico (1). Representative symptomatic plant tissue was sent to the USDA National Identification Services (Mycology) Laboratory in Beltsville, MD for diagnostic confirmation at both the Urbana, IL lab and the USDA National Plant Germplasm and Biotechnology Laboratory for DNA testing. From an infected leaf, samples of approximately 5 mm² were excised from a microscopically observed rust lesion and an apparently noninfected area. Total DNA was purified with the FastDNA Spin Kit (MP Biomedicals, Solon, OH) followed by the E.Z.N.A. MicroElute DNA Clean-Up Kit (Omega Bio-tek, Inc, Doraville, GA) per manufacturer's instructions. Detection of P. pachyrhizi and P. meibomiae DNA was achieved by quantitative PCR using the method of Frederick et al. (2) and a DNA standard of previously prepared P. pachyrhizi spores. The observed rust pustule was found to contain P. pachyrhizi DNA in excess of 28,000 genomes, while no P. pachyrhizi DNA was observed from the asymptomatic sample. Both samples were negative for P. meibomiae. The fungal structures present were confirmed to be Phakopsora spp. DNA was extracted from sori aseptically removed from leaves with a Qiagen (Valencia, CA) DNeasy Plant Mini Kit and amplified with primers Ppa1 and NL4. The resulting partial ITS2 and 28S ribosomal RNA sequences were 100% identical to GenBank entry DQ354537 P. pachyrhizi internal transcribed spacer 2 and 28S ribosomal RNA gene, partial sequence. Sequences from jicama from Alabama were deposited in GenBank. Voucher specimens were deposited in the USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Fungus Collection (BPI). To our knowledge, this is the first report of the disease on jicama in the United States. References: (1) A. Cárcamo Rodriguez et al. Plant Dis. 90:1260, 2006. (2) R. D. Frederick et al. Phytopathology 92:217, 2002.

Olanzapine versus haloperidol in children with autistic disorder: an open pilot study

OBJECTIVES

Conventional neuroleptics ameliorate symptoms in children with autistic disorder; however, they are known to cause dyskinesias. Atypical neuroleptics, including olanzapine, may have less risk for dyskinesia, but their efficacy in autistic disorder is not established. This study was designed to investigate the safety and effectiveness of open-label olanzapine as a treatment for children with autistic disorder by using haloperidol as a standard comparator treatment.

METHOD

In a parallel groups design, 12 children with DSM-IV autistic disorder (mean age 7.8+/-2.1 years) were randomized to 6 weeks of open treatment with olanzapine or haloperidol. Mean final dosages were 7.9+/-2.5 mg/day for olanzapine and 1.4+/-0.7 mg/day for haloperidol. Outcome measures included the Clinical Global Impressions (CGI) and the Children's Psychiatric Rating Scale (CPRS).

RESULTS

Both groups had symptom reduction. Five of six in the olanzapine group and three of six in the haloperidol group were rated as responders according to the CGI Improvement item. Subjects showed improvement on the CPRS Autism Factor (F1,9 = 24.4, p = .0008). Side effects included drowsiness and weight gain.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that olanzapine is a promising treatment for children with autistic disorder. Further placebo-controlled and long-term studies of olanzapine in autistic disorder are required.

Prognostic and pathologic significance of quantitative protein expression profiling in human gliomas

PURPOSE

Analysis of tumor-derived genetic lesions has provided insights into molecular pathogenesis of human gliomas. Because these changes represent only one of several mechanisms that alter gene expression during tumorigenesis, it is likely that further information will be obtained from a careful analysis of important regulatory proteins present in these tumors.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We have quantified the levels of key cell cycle/signaling proteins in 94 prospectively collected, meticulously preserved, "snap frozen" glioma specimens and have compared these levels with histopathological data and patient outcome.

RESULTS

The results of these experiments confirm that the levels of wild-type tumor suppressor proteins, such as p53, pRB, PTEN, p14(ARF), and p16(INK4), are lost or severely reduced in most gliomas, and that epidermal growth factor receptor, 2human telomerase reverse transcriptase, and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 are overexpressed frequently and with a few exceptions, almost exclusively, in glioblastomas. In addition, we report frequent underexpression of E2F-1 (in 55% of gliomas) and cyclin E overexpression (in 26% of gliomas), which have not yet been reported on the genomic level. Several of these markers significantly correlated with histopathological grade, and the levels of five proteins showed significant association with patient outcome. In particular, overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor, human telomerase reverse transcriptase, cyclin-dependent kinase 4, and cyclin E was largely restricted to glioblastomas and was significantly associated with reduced patient survivals.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the quantitation of cell cycle/signaling proteins from meticulously preserved glioma specimens provides further insights into the molecular pathogenesis of human gliomas and yields valuable prognostic information.

A double-blind placebo-controlled study of lithium in hospitalized aggressive children and adolescents with conduct disorder

BACKGROUND

A subgroup of children and adolescents with conduct disorder are characterized by severe and persistent aggression. Although there is no agreed on treatment for such aggression, lithium carbonate has shown promise in some studies involving children. Our study was designed to critically assess the efficacy of lithium in the treatment of aggression in children and adolescents using a measure specific for aggression.

METHODS

Subjects were inpatients with conduct disorder hospitalized because of severe and chronic aggression. A parallel-groups design was used in this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with randomization to lithium or placebo. Only those who met the aggression criterion during the 2-week placebo-baseline period were randomized to 4 weeks of treatment. Outcome measures included Clinical Global Impressions, the Global Clinical Judgements (Consensus) Scale, and the Overt Aggression Scale.

RESULTS

Eighty-six inpatients enrolled in the study; 40 (33 male and 7 female; median age, 12.5 years) entered and completed the treatment phase. Lithium was statistically and clinically superior to placebo. Sixteen of 20 subjects in the lithium group were responders on the Consensus ratings vs 6 of 20 in the placebo group (P=.004). Ratings on the Overt Aggression Scale decreased significantly for the lithium group vs the placebo group (P=.04). More than half of the subjects in the lithium group experienced nausea, vomiting, and urinary frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

Lithium is a safe and effective short-term treatment for aggression in inpatients with conduct disorder, although its use is associated with adverse effects.

The working alliance and consumer case management

The Working Alliance Inventory was used to measure the strength of the therapeutic relationship between seriously mentally disabled case management clients and their case managers in a randomized trial of consumer-provided case management services. It was found that while there was no difference in the strength of the alliance between the consumer and nonconsumer teams of case managers, there were positive relationships between alliance and some outcomes, including quality of life, symptomatology, attitudes toward medication compliance, and satisfaction with mental health treatment.

Aggression classification and treatment response

This preliminary study investigated whether the aggression subtypes derived from the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) are related to treatment response. The subjects were 28 aggressive conduct-disordered children (25 males, 3 females), ranging in age from 9.8 to 17.0 years (mean age = 12.69 years), who participated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of lithium as a treatment for reducing aggression. We used the Predatory-Affective Index of the AQ to classify subjects into "predatory" (planned) or "affective" (explosive) subtypes of aggression and then related this classification to treatment response. This index did not differentiate placebo baseline responders from nonresponders. However, the Index did significantly differentiate responders and nonresponders during the experimental treatment period, regardless of whether they received lithium or placebo. Treatment response was associated with a more affective and less predatory subtype of aggression. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in children to show an association between the aggression subtype and treatment response.

The nucleotide sequence and spliced pol mRNA levels of the nonprimate spumavirus bovine foamy virus

We have determined the complete nucleotide sequence of a replication-competent clone of bovine foamy virus (BFV) and have quantitated the amount of splice pol mRNA processed early in infection. The 544-amino-acid Gag protein precursor has little sequence similarity with its primate foamy virus homologs, but the putative nucleocapsid (NC) protein, like the primate NCs, contains the three glycine-arginine-rich regions that are postulated to bind genomic RNA during virion assembly. The BFV gag and pol open reading frames overlap, with pro and pol in the same translational frame. As with the human foamy virus (HFV) and feline foamy virus, we have detected a spliced pol mRNA by PCR. Quantitatively, this mRNA approximates the level of full-length genomic RNA early in infection. The integrase (IN) domain of reverse transcriptase does not contain the canonical HH-CC zinc finger motif present in all characterized retroviral INs, but it does contain a nearby histidine residue that could conceivably participate as a member of the zinc finger. The env gene encodes a protein that is over 40% identical in sequence to the HFV Env. By comparison, the Gag precursor of BFV is predicted to be only 28% identical to the HFV protein.

Nonpharmacological response in hospitalized children with conduct disorder

OBJECTIVE

There is a paucity of research regarding the effects of hospitalization and/or the response to placebo in children with conduct disorder who are hospitalized for chronic and severe aggression. However, many children with this problem are hospitalized and immediately begin pharmacotherapy. In this report, the effects of hospitalization and placebo administration were examined.

METHOD

Subjects were forty-four children (37 males, 7 females) with conduct disorder, aged 9.83 to 17.14 years, who were hospitalized for chronic and severe aggression. This was a 4-week double-blind and placebo-controlled study with a 2-week single-blind placebo lead-in period. During the 2-week placebo baseline period, aggression was measured on a 24-hour basis, using the Overt Aggression Scale. Only subjects meeting a specific aggression criterion were randomized to the treatment period of the trial.

RESULTS

Of the 44 subjects enrolled, 23 (52.3%) met the aggression criteria for entering the treatment period (baseline nonresponders), while 21 (47.7%) did not (baseline responders). Thus, almost half of the subjects, while taking no active medication, benefited from the inpatient milieu/structure and/or placebo.

CONCLUSION

This finding has important treatment and research implications. Medication to treat aggression should not be initiated immediately upon hospitalization because improvements associated with hospitalization may be attributed inaccurately to pharmacotherapy, resulting in unnecessarily medicating children. A placebo baseline period is essential to decrease the risk of a type II error in pharmacological research concerning aggression.

The Overt Aggression Scale in a study of lithium in aggressive conduct disorder

This article describes an open study of lithium carbonate in conduct-disordered children. The objective of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of lithium in reducing aggression and the usefulness of the Overt Aggression Scale (OAS), as a measure of treatment effect. The subjects, 8 children, ages 9.2 to 16.9 years (mean +/- standard deviation [SD] = 12.48 +/- 2.97), were treated for 4 weeks with lithium. Optimal dosages ranged from 1200 to 1800 mg/day (mean = 1350 +/- 227) with corresponding serum lithium levels ranging from 0.86 to 1.39 mEq/L (mean = 1.05 +/- 0.17). OAS results indicated that aggression decreased significantly over time. The findings from the OAS agreed with findings from a more general measure, the Global Clinical Consensus Rating, leading to the conclusion that the OAS is a promising outcome measure for treatment studies of aggression in children. Further placebo-controlled studies of lithium carbonate in reducing aggressive behavior in conduct-disordered children, employing a specific measure such as the OAS, are warranted.

Community service utilization by youths hospitalized in a state psychiatric facility

A majority of a cohort of 62 children and adolescents who had been hospitalized in a state psychiatric facility was found to have received less restrictive services such as outpatient mental health services prior to their index admission. Also, a number had been involved with the juvenile justice system and almost two-thirds had been placed out-of-home. Ninety percent had at least one prior psychiatric hospitalization. Just over half of the cohort received case management and individual counseling post release. About a third received family counseling, and a few received other types of services. At least a third were rehospitalized within a year of release. Although 90% of the cohort received some type of service post release, a higher proportion of non service receivers were rehospitalized than service receivers. Even those who received services had a high rate of rehospitalization. These findings raise questions as to the appropriateness of service provision during and following hospitalization.

Replication of DHBV genomes with mutations at the sites of initiation of minus- and plus-strand DNA synthesis

We have examined the consequences on duck hepatitis B virus DNA synthesis of deleting the 5' and 3' copies of the 12 base sequence, DR1, from the viral pregenome. With the wild-type virus, reverse transcription initiates at nt 2537 within the 3' copy of DR1. When this sequence was deleted, initiation of reverse transcription was found at two other sites located closer to the 3' end of the pregenome (nt 2576 and nt 2644). The 3-base motif UUA was the only sequence common to these sites as well as the wild-type initiation site in DR1. Deletion of the 5' copy of DR1 did not alter minus strand synthesis, but led to aberrant priming of plus strand synthesis to generate predominantly linear rather than relaxed circular, double-stranded viral DNA, in agreement with the recent report by Loeb et al. (EMBO J. 10, 3533-3540, 1991). A mutant lacking only the 3' copy of DR1 rapidly converted to wild type in transfected cells. This apparently occurred as a consequence of conversion of newly synthesized relaxed circular to covalently closed circular (CCC) DNA, which might then serve as a template for the synthesis of wild-type viral RNAs. A mutant lacking only the 5' copy of DR1 did not exhibit this behavior. These results support the conclusion that amplified CCC DNA serves as transcriptional template.

Assessment of therapeutic relationship of community-agency workers

This article reports on the ratings of the personal and professional characteristics of community-based workers for children and adolescents who had recently been released from a psychiatric inpatient service. The child/adolescent's family members/caregivers and the community workers both responded to the same items of a questionnaire. Families/caregivers rated the community workers with whom they were the most and the least satisfied. Community workers rated themselves in relation to these study children and/or their families. Findings indicate that both family members/caregivers and the community workers themselves saw community workers performing relatively well in the areas of providing information and offering support to families. Likewise, both assessed the service providers as having the greatest deficits in the area of teaching skills for child/adolescent home management. Suggestions for meeting the needs of the families and for ensuring that a system of care for child/adolescents is child-centered and family-focused are discussed.

Reliability of DSM-III diagnoses of hospitalized children

The reliability of diagnoses of 46 child psychiatric inpatients made using three independent instruments--an unstructured interview with the parent and child that produced the chart diagnosis, a structured interview with the parent, and a structured interview with the child--was assessed. These diagnoses were then compared with a review diagnosis, which was based on all information available at the patient's discharge. Substantial disagreement between the diagnoses resulting from the structured and unstructured interviews was found in one-third of the cases. The review diagnosis disagreed with the chart diagnosis in 33 percent of the cases but disagreed with the diagnosis resulting from the structured interview with the parent in 13 percent of the cases. While structured interviews can contribute to the standardization of diagnoses, the reliability and validity of child psychiatric diagnoses remain problematic.

Pharmacokinetics of lithium carbonate in children

The pharmacokinetics in both serum and saliva of a single oral dose of lithium carbonate 300 mg was investigated in nine children aged 9 to 12 years. The serum and saliva concentration-time curves were parallel and biexponential, with a fast distribution phase after the peak at the second hour and a slow elimination phase starting from the 12th hour. The fast phase half-life was 6.0 +/- 1.8 hour in the serum, and 5.8 +/- 1.9 hour in the saliva. The slow phase half-life was 17.9 +/- 7.4 hour in the serum and 15.6 +/- 8.2 hour in the saliva. Lithium was 2.84 +/- 0.86 times higher in the saliva than in the serum, with a saliva/serum r coefficient of correlation of 0.93. A relatively large error was found in predicting serum levels from saliva. There were significant intersubject differences in the saliva/serum ratio, which point to the need for individual ratios in clinical use. On the whole, the pharmacokinetics of lithium in children had the same features as in adults, with a trend toward a shorter elimination half-life and higher total clearance.