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Lazić S, Savić S, Petrović T, Lazić G, Žekić M, Drobnjak D, Lupulović D. Serological Examinations of Significant Viral Infections in Domestic Donkeys at the Special Nature Reserve "Zasavica", Serbia. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2056. [PMID: 37443854 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The paper presents the findings of specific antibodies in the blood sera of donkeys against the following viruses: equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), African horse sickness virus (AHSV), equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), equine influenza virus subtype H3N8 (EIV) and equine arteritis virus (EAV). The analyses were conducted during the year 2022. From a total of 199 donkeys bred in "Zasavica", blood was sampled from 53 animals (2 male donkeys and 51 female donkeys), aged 3 to 10 years. Specific antibodies against EIAV were not detected in any of the tested animals using the agar-gel immunodiffusion (AGID) assay. No specific antibodies against AHSV, tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or antibodies against EAV, tested by the virus neutralization test (VNT) and ELISA were detected in any of these animals. A positive serological result for EHV-1 was determined by the VNT in all animals, with antibody titer values ranging from 1:2 to 1:128, while a very low antibody titer value for EIV (subtype H3N8) of 1:16 was determined in 18 donkeys using the hemagglutination inhibition test (HI test).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sava Lazić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Sara Savić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tamaš Petrović
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Gospava Lazić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Marina Žekić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Darko Drobnjak
- Center for Preservation of Indigenous Breeds-CEPIB, Vere Dimitrijević, 11186 Zemun, Serbia
| | - Diana Lupulović
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
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2
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Seeber PA, Epp LS. Environmental
DNA
and metagenomics of terrestrial mammals as keystone taxa of recent and past ecosystems. Mamm Rev 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter A. Seeber
- Limnological Institute University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
| | - Laura S. Epp
- Limnological Institute University of Konstanz Konstanz Germany
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3
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Hu Z, Yang L, Han J, Liu Z, Zhao Y, Jin Y, Sheng Y, Zhu L, Hu B. Human viruses lurking in the environment activated by excessive use of COVID-19 prevention supplies. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 163:107192. [PMID: 35354102 PMCID: PMC8938188 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Due to extensive COVID-19 prevention measures, millions of tons of chemicals penetrated into natural environment. Alterations of human viruses in the environment, the neglected perceiver of environmental fluctuations, remain obscure. To decipher the interaction between human viruses and COVID-19 related chemicals, environmental samples were collected on March 2020 from surroundings of designated hospitals and receivers of wastewater treatment plant effluent in Wuhan. The virus community and chemical concentration were respectively unveiled in virtue of virome and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The complex relationship between virus and chemical was ulteriorly elaborated by random forest model. As an indicator, environmental viruses were corroborated to sensitively reflect the ecological disturbance originated from pandemic prevention supplies. Chemicals especially trihalomethanes restrained the virus community diversity. Confronting this adverse scenario, Human gammaherpesvirus 4 and Orf virus with resistance to trihalomethanes flourished while replication potential of Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1 ascended under glucocorticoids stress. Consequently, human viruses lurking in the environment were actuated by COVID-19 prevention chemicals, which was a constant burden to public health in this ongoing pandemic. Besides, segments of SARS-CoV-2 RNA were detected near designated hospitals, suggesting environment as a missing link in the transmission route. This research innovatively underlined the human health risk of pandemic prevention supplies from the virus - environment interaction, appealing for monitoring of environmental viruses in long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichao Hu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Lihua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jian Han
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zishu Liu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yuxiang Zhao
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yihao Jin
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yaqi Sheng
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058 China
| | - Lizhong Zhu
- Department of Environmental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Organic Pollution Process and Control, Hangzhou, 310058 China.
| | - Baolan Hu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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4
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Macleay CM, Carrick J, Shearer P, Begg A, Stewart M, Heller J, Chicken C, Brookes VJ. A Scoping Review of the Global Distribution of Causes and Syndromes Associated with Mid- to Late-Term Pregnancy Loss in Horses between 1960 and 2020. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9040186. [PMID: 35448683 PMCID: PMC9032147 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9040186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine pregnancy loss is frustrating and costly for horse breeders. The reproductive efficiency of mares has significant implications for a breeding operation’s economic success, and widespread losses can have a trickle-down effect on those communities that rely on equine breeding operations. Understanding the causes and risks of equine pregnancy loss is essential for developing prevention and management strategies to reduce the occurrence and impact on the horse breeding industry. This PRISMA-guided scoping review identified 514 records on equine pregnancy loss and described the global spatiotemporal distribution of reported causes and syndromes. The multiple correspondence analysis identified seven clusters that grouped causes, syndromes, locations and pathology. Reasons for clustering should be the focus of future research as they might indicate undescribed risk factors associated with equine pregnancy loss. People engaged in the equine breeding industry work closely with horses and encounter equine bodily fluids, placental membranes, aborted foetuses, and stillborn foals. This close contact increases the risk of zoonotic disease transmission. Based on this review, research is required on equine abortion caused by zoonotic bacteria, including Chlamydia psittaci, Coxiella burnetii and Leptospira spp., because of the severe illness that can occur in people who become infected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia M. Macleay
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science and Health, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia; (P.S.); (J.H.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Joan Carrick
- Equine Specialist Consulting, Scone, NSW 2337, Australia;
| | - Patrick Shearer
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science and Health, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia; (P.S.); (J.H.)
| | - Angela Begg
- Diagnostic Laboratories Pty Ltd., New Lambton, NSW 2305, Australia;
| | | | - Jane Heller
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science and Health, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia; (P.S.); (J.H.)
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia;
| | | | - Victoria J. Brookes
- Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, NSW Department of Primary Industries, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia;
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2008, Australia
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5
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Tsai MS, Newman C, Macdonald DW, Buesching CD. Stress-Related Herpesvirus Reactivation in Badgers Can Result in Clostridium Proliferation. ECOHEALTH 2021; 18:440-450. [PMID: 34870778 PMCID: PMC8742816 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-021-01568-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is an important food-borne zoonotic pathogen and a member of the commensal gut microbiome of many mammals. Predisposing factors such as coinfection with other pathogens or diet change can, however, cause overgrowth and subsequent disease development. Here we investigated the occurrence of C. perfringens in a free-ranging badger population with up to 100% prevalence of herpesvirus infection. Herpesvirus reactivation is known to be associated with increased susceptibility bacterial infections. PCR screening of rectal swabs from 69 free-ranging badgers revealed 15.9% (11/69, 95% CI = 9.1-26.3%) prevalence of detectable C. perfringens (Type A) DNA in the digestive tracts of assymptomatic animals. The results of Fisher's exact test revealed C. perfringens detection was not biased by age, sex and seasons. However, badgers with genital tract gammaherpesvirus (MusGHV-1) reactivation (p = 0.007) and infection with a specific MusGHV-1 genotype (p = 0.019) were more prone to of C. perfringens proliferation, indicating coinfection biased dynamics of intestinal C. perfringens. An inclusion pattern analysis further indicated that, causally, MusGHV-1 reactivation potentiated C. perfringens detection. Whether or not specific MusGHV-1 genotype infection or reactivation plays a role in C. perfringens overgrowth or disease development in badgers will require further investigation. Nevertheless, a postmortem examination of a single badger that died of fatal disease, likely associated with C. perfringens, revealed MusGHV-1 detection in the small intestine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Shan Tsai
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire, OX13 5QL, UK.
| | - Chris Newman
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire, OX13 5QL, UK
- Cook's Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, NS, Canada
| | - David W Macdonald
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire, OX13 5QL, UK
| | - Christina D Buesching
- Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire, OX13 5QL, UK
- Cook's Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, NS, Canada
- Department of Biology, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science, The University of British Columbia, Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
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6
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Bauer CM, Watts HE. Corticosterone's roles in avian migration: Assessment of three hypotheses. Horm Behav 2021; 135:105033. [PMID: 34273707 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
While corticosterone (CORT) is often suggested to be an important hormone regulating processes necessary for avian migration, there has been no systematic assessment of CORT's role in migration. Prior to migration, birds increase fat stores and flight muscle size to prepare for the high energetic costs associated with long-distance flight. After attaining sufficient energetic stores, birds then make the actual decision to depart from their origin site. Once en route birds alternate between periods of flight and stopovers, during which they rest and refuel for their next bouts of endurance flight. Here, we evaluate three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that have been proposed in the literature for CORT's role in migration. (1) CORT facilitates physiological preparations for migration [e.g. hyperphagia, fattening, and flight muscle hypertrophy]. (2) CORT stimulates departure from origin or stopover sites. (3) CORT supports sustained migratory travel. After examining the literature to test predictions stemming from each of these three hypotheses, we found weak support for a role of CORT in physiological preparation for migration. However, we found moderate support for a role of CORT in stimulating departures, as CORT increases immediately prior to departure and is higher when migratory restlessness is displayed. We also found moderate support for the hypothesis that CORT helps maintain sustained travel, as CORT is generally higher during periods of flight, though few studies have tested this hypothesis. We provide recommendations for future studies that would help to further resolve the role of CORT in migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn M Bauer
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, USA.
| | - Heather E Watts
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA; Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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7
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Sipos W, Lutonsky C. Amendments suggested for zoo medical research strategies with focus on the D-A-CH region. Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere 2021; 49:256-260. [PMID: 34425614 DOI: 10.1055/a-1516-3404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Scientific exploration of zoo animals is one of the main missions of modern zoos. As scientific achievements are best reflected within scientific literature, we screened appropriate literature search outcomes from the 5 highest ranked zoos in the D-A-CH region (Germany-Austria-Switzerland) in order to deduce suggestions for optimizations of future research strategies. MATERIAL AND METHODS Literature search was done by entering "Zoo Vienna", "Tiergarten Schönbrunn", "Zoo Berlin", "Tiergarten Berlin", "Tierpark Hellabrunn", "Tierpark Hagenbeck", and "Zoo Zurich" on PubMed and Scopus for the period 2000-2020. These 5 European zoos were chosen due to their broad public recognition and international importance. Inclusion criterion for the literature list was the description/mentioning of analysed animals or samples with a clear affiliation to the respective zoo in the materials and methods or acknowledgements sections. Search hits were then allocated to the following 7 areas: animal nutrition, biology, ethology, infectiology, reproduction, phylogenetics, and clinical medicine. Also, portions of higher animal taxa (and species, if appropriate) were recorded. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS A total of 142 papers has been published. Mammals, especially large ones, were clearly over-represented in literature with 2 thirds of analysed papers dealing with them. Sauropsids (birds and reptiles) were treated in 28 % and non-amniotic vertebrates (amphibians and fish) as well as invertebrates in only 3 % each. This apportionment is in no relation to the species numbers of the respective higher animal taxa. The predominating research areas (covered by approximately 75 % of papers) were ethological studies, followed by papers on infectious diseases, and finally papers on biology with morphological, physiological, and molecular biological themes. Research on reproductive biology/medicine, which is considered to be of tremendous importance for the establishment of ex-situ populations and thus for the conservation of endangered species, has been covered by only 6 % of papers. Future research should more intensely keep an eye on that discipline, especially in non-mammalian vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Sipos
- Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Herd Management, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna
| | - Christiane Lutonsky
- Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Herd Management, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna
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8
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Mira F, Canuti M, Di Bella S, Puleio R, Lavazza A, Lelli D, Vicari D, Purpari G, Cannella V, Chiaramonte G, Schirò G, Castronovo C, Guercio A. Detection and Molecular Characterization of Two Gammaherpesviruses from Pantesco Breed Donkeys during an Outbreak of Mild Respiratory Disease. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081527. [PMID: 34452391 PMCID: PMC8402663 DOI: 10.3390/v13081527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Equid and asinine gammaherpesviruses (GHVs; genus Percavirus) are members of the Herpesviridae family. Though GHVs have been reported in horse populations, less studies are available on gammaherpesviral infections in donkeys. This study reports the co-infection with two GHVs in Pantesco breed donkeys, an endangered Italian donkey breed. Samples (n = 124) were collected on a breeding farm in Southern Italy from 40 donkeys, some of which were healthy or presented erosive tongue lesions and/or mild respiratory signs. Samples were analysed by using a set of nested PCRs targeting the DNA polymerase, glycoprotein B, and DNA-packaging protein genes, and sequence and phylogenetic analyses were performed. Twenty-nine donkeys (72.5%) tested positive, and the presence of Equid gammaherpesvirus 7 and asinine herpesvirus 5 was evidenced. In 11 animals, we found evidence for co-infection with viruses from the two species. Virions with herpesvirus-like morphology were observed by electron microscopic examination, and viruses were successfully isolated in RK-13-KY cell monolayers. The histological evaluation of tongue lesions revealed moderate lympho-granulocytic infiltrates and rare eosinophilic inclusions. The detection of GHVs in this endangered asinine breed suggests the need long-life monitoring within conservation programs and reinforces the need for further investigations of GHV’s pathogenetic role in asinine species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Mira
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
- Correspondence: (F.M.); (S.D.B.)
| | - Marta Canuti
- Department of Biology, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 232 Elizabeth Avenue, St. John’s, NL A1B 3X9, Canada;
| | - Santina Di Bella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
- Correspondence: (F.M.); (S.D.B.)
| | - Roberto Puleio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Antonio Lavazza
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “Bruno Ubertini”, Via Bianchi n. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy; (A.L.); (D.L.)
| | - Davide Lelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “Bruno Ubertini”, Via Bianchi n. 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy; (A.L.); (D.L.)
| | - Domenico Vicari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Giuseppa Purpari
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Vincenza Cannella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Gabriele Chiaramonte
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Giorgia Schirò
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Calogero Castronovo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
| | - Annalisa Guercio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia “A. Mirri”, Via Gino Marinuzzi n. 3, 90129 Palermo, Italy; (R.P.); (D.V.); (G.P.); (V.C.); (G.C.); (G.S.); (C.C.); (A.G.)
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EQUID ALPHAHERPESVIRUS 9 OUTBREAK ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY IN A GROUP OF GREVY'S ZEBRA ( EQUUS GREVYI) HOUSED IN A MIXED-SPECIES EXHIBIT. J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 52:774-778. [PMID: 34130425 DOI: 10.1638/2019-0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A herd of seven captive-born Grevy's zebras (Equus grevyi) experienced an outbreak of nasal discharge and sneezing. Clinical signs, including lethargy and anorexia, were severe and acute in three animals, including a 16-mo-old male that died within 48 h. Treatment of two severely affected zebras included valacyclovir (40 mg/kg PO), meloxicam (0.6 mg/kg IM/PO), and cefquinome (2.5 mg/kg IM q48h). An adult female improved rapidly, and clinical signs resolved within 48 h of treatment. Administration of valacyclovir pellets was very complicated in a 2-mo-old female, and death occurred within 48 h. Histologic examination of the two individuals that died revealed severe fibrinonecrotic interstitial pneumonia with prominent hyaline membranes and type II pneumocyte hyperplasia. Additionally, the 16-mo-old male presented systemic endothelial activation with vascular thrombosis and necrosis and mild nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis. Herpesviral DNA was detected in the lungs of both individuals by nested polymerase chain reaction. The nucleic acid sequence of the amplicons showed 100% similarity with previously published equid alphaherpesvirus 9 sequences. Three additional animals developed mild nasal discharge only and recovered spontaneously. The zebras shared housing facilities with other species, including white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), reticulated giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata), and several antelope species. None of these animals showed clinical signs. Additionally, nasal swabs and whole blood samples were collected from cohoused white rhinoceroses (n = 3) and springboks (Antidorcas marsupialis, n = 3) as well as nasal swabs from cohoused reticulated giraffes (n = 4). Nucleic acid sequence from equid herpesviruses was not detected in any of these samples. The source of the infection in the zebras remains unclear.
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10
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Dayaram A, Seeber P, Courtiol A, Soilemetzidou S, Tsangaras K, Franz M, McEwen GK, Azab W, Kaczensky P, Melzheimer J, East ML, Ganbaatar O, Walzer C, Osterrieder N, Greenwood AD. Seasonal host and ecological drivers may promote restricted water as a viral vector. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 773:145446. [PMID: 33588222 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In climates with seasonally limited precipitation, terrestrial animals congregate at high densities at scarce water sources. We hypothesize that viruses can exploit the recurrence of these diverse animal congregations to spread. In this study, we test the central prediction of this hypothesis - that viruses employing this transmission strategy remain stable and infectious in water. Equid herpesviruses (EHVs) were chosen as a model as they have been shown to remain stable and infectious in water for weeks under laboratory conditions. Using fecal data from wild equids from a previous study, we establish that EHVs are shed more frequently by their hosts during the dry season, increasing the probability of water source contamination with EHV. We document the presence of several strains of EHVs present in high genome copy number from the surface water and sediments of waterholes sampled across a variety of mammalian assemblages, locations, temperatures and pH. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that the different EHV strains found exhibit little divergence despite representing ancient lineages. We employed molecular approaches to show that EHVs shed remain stable in waterholes with detection decreasing with increasing temperature in sediments. Infectivity experiments using cell culture reveals that EHVs remain infectious in water derived from waterholes. The results are supportive of water as an abiotic viral vector for EHV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anisha Dayaram
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany; Institut für Neurophysiologie, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Seeber
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany; Limnological Institute, University of Konstanz, Mainaustrasse 252, 78467 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Alexandre Courtiol
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sanatana Soilemetzidou
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kyriakos Tsangaras
- Department of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, 46 Makedonitissas Avenue, CY-2417 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Mathias Franz
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gayle K McEwen
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Walid Azab
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str, 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Petra Kaczensky
- Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Savoyenstrasse 1, A-1160 Vienna, Austria; Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jörg Melzheimer
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marion L East
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany
| | - Oyunsaikhan Ganbaatar
- Department of Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, National University of Mongolia, Mongolia; Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area, Takhiin Tal, Gobi-Altai Province, Mongolia
| | - Christian Walzer
- Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Savoyenstrasse 1, A-1160 Vienna, Austria; Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Blvd, 10460 Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Nikolaus Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str, 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany; Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Alex D Greenwood
- Leibniz-Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, 10315 Berlin, Germany; Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Oertzenweg 19b, 14163, Germany.
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11
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Tsai MS, François S, Newman C, Macdonald DW, Buesching CD. Patterns of Genital Tract Mustelid Gammaherpesvirus 1 (Musghv-1) Reactivation Are Linked to Stressors in European Badgers ( Meles Meles). Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11050716. [PMID: 34064759 PMCID: PMC8151406 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gammaherpesvirus reactivation can promote diseases or impair reproduction. Understanding reactivation patterns and associated risks of different stressors is therefore important. Nevertheless, outside the laboratory or captive environment, studies on the effects of stress on gammaherpesvirus reactivation in wild mammals are lacking. Here we used Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) infection in European badgers (Meles meles) as a host-pathogen wildlife model to study the effects of a variety of demographic, physiological and environmental stressors on virus shedding in the genital tract. We collected 251 genital swabs from 150 free-ranging individuals across three seasons and screened them for the presence of MusGHV-1 DNA using PCR targeting the DNA polymerase gene. We explored possible links between MusGHV-1 DNA presence and seven variables reflecting stressors, using logistic regression analysis. The results reveal different sets of risk factors between juveniles and adults, likely reflecting primary infection and reactivation. In adults, virus shedding was more likely in badgers in poorer body condition and younger than 5 years or older than 7; while in juveniles, virus shedding is more likely in females and individuals in better body condition. However, living in social groups with more cubs was a risk factor for all badgers. We discuss possible explanations for these risk factors and their links to stress in badgers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-shan Tsai
- Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire OX13 5QL, UK; (C.N.); (D.W.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Sarah François
- Evolve.Zoo, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Park Road, Oxford OX1 3SY, UK;
| | - Chris Newman
- Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire OX13 5QL, UK; (C.N.); (D.W.M.)
- Cook’s Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc. (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, NS B0J 2H0, Canada;
| | - David W. Macdonald
- Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Abingdon Road, Tubney House, Tubney, Oxfordshire OX13 5QL, UK; (C.N.); (D.W.M.)
| | - Christina D. Buesching
- Cook’s Lake Farming Forestry and Wildlife Inc. (Ecological Consultancy), Queens County, NS B0J 2H0, Canada;
- Department of Biology, Irving K. Barber Faculty of Science, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
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12
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Keatts LO, Robards M, Olson SH, Hueffer K, Insley SJ, Joly DO, Kutz S, Lee DS, Chetkiewicz CLB, Lair S, Preston ND, Pruvot M, Ray JC, Reid D, Sleeman JM, Stimmelmayr R, Stephen C, Walzer C. Implications of Zoonoses From Hunting and Use of Wildlife in North American Arctic and Boreal Biomes: Pandemic Potential, Monitoring, and Mitigation. Front Public Health 2021; 9:627654. [PMID: 34026707 PMCID: PMC8131663 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.627654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has re-focused attention on mechanisms that lead to zoonotic disease spillover and spread. Commercial wildlife trade, and associated markets, are recognized mechanisms for zoonotic disease emergence, resulting in a growing global conversation around reducing human disease risks from spillover associated with hunting, trade, and consumption of wild animals. These discussions are especially relevant to people who rely on harvesting wildlife to meet nutritional, and cultural needs, including those in Arctic and boreal regions. Global policies around wildlife use and trade can impact food sovereignty and security, especially of Indigenous Peoples. We reviewed known zoonotic pathogens and current risks of transmission from wildlife (including fish) to humans in North American Arctic and boreal biomes, and evaluated the epidemic and pandemic potential of these zoonoses. We discuss future concerns, and consider monitoring and mitigation measures in these changing socio-ecological systems. While multiple zoonotic pathogens circulate in these systems, risks to humans are mostly limited to individual illness or local community outbreaks. These regions are relatively remote, subject to very cold temperatures, have relatively low wildlife, domestic animal, and pathogen diversity, and in many cases low density, including of humans. Hence, favorable conditions for emergence of novel diseases or major amplification of a spillover event are currently not present. The greatest risk to northern communities from pathogens of pandemic potential is via introduction with humans visiting from other areas. However, Arctic and boreal ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes through climate warming, habitat encroachment, and development; all of which can change host and pathogen relationships, thereby affecting the probability of the emergence of new (and re-emergence of old) zoonoses. Indigenous leadership and engagement in disease monitoring, prevention and response, is vital from the outset, and would increase the success of such efforts, as well as ensure the protection of Indigenous rights as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Partnering with northern communities and including Indigenous Knowledge Systems would improve the timeliness, and likelihood, of detecting emerging zoonotic risks, and contextualize risk assessments to the unique human-wildlife relationships present in northern biomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy O. Keatts
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Martin Robards
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Arctic Beringia Program, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Sarah H. Olson
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Karsten Hueffer
- Department of Veterinary Medicine & Arctic and Northern Studies Program, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Stephen J. Insley
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | | | - Susan Kutz
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - David S. Lee
- Department of Wildlife and Environment, Nunavut Tunngavik Inc., Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Stéphane Lair
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Mathieu Pruvot
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
- Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Justina C. Ray
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Donald Reid
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan M. Sleeman
- United States Geological Survey National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Raphaela Stimmelmayr
- North Slope Department of Wildlife Management, Utqiagvik, AK, United States
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, United States
| | - Craig Stephen
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Chris Walzer
- Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program, Bronx, NY, United States
- Conservation Medicine Unit, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
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13
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Dayaram A, Seeber PA, Greenwood AD. Environmental Detection and Potential Transmission of Equine Herpesviruses. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10040423. [PMID: 33916280 PMCID: PMC8066653 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine herpesviruses (EHV) are a major health concern for domestic and wild equids and represent one of the most economically important disease agents of horses. Most known EHVs are transmitted directly between individuals as a result of direct exposure to exudates and aerosols. However, accumulating evidence suggests that environmental transmission may play a role including air, water, and fomites. Here, we reviewed studies on environmental stability and transmission of EHVs, which may influence viral dynamics and the use of environmental samples for monitoring EHV shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anisha Dayaram
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), 10315 Berlin, Germany; (A.D.); (P.A.S.)
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter A. Seeber
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), 10315 Berlin, Germany; (A.D.); (P.A.S.)
- Limnological Institute, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Alex D. Greenwood
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (IZW), 10315 Berlin, Germany; (A.D.); (P.A.S.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)30-5168255
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14
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Goodrich EL, McLean A, Guarino C. A Pilot Serosurvey for Selected Pathogens in Feral Donkeys ( Equus asinus). Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101796. [PMID: 33023217 PMCID: PMC7599684 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary This study aimed to assess the pathogen exposure status of recently captured feral donkeys from Death Valley National Park, California. Assays to detect the presence of antibodies to equine herpesvirus 1, equine influenza virus, West Nile virus, and Borrelia burgdorferi (the causative agent of Lyme disease) were performed on serum samples from these feral donkeys. The results indicate that this population is mostly naïve and likely susceptible to these common equid pathogens upon removal from the wild. Abstract Recent removal and relocation of feral donkeys from vast public lands to more concentrated holding pens, training facilities, and offsite adoption locations raises several health and welfare concerns. Very little is known regarding the common equid pathogens that are circulating within the feral donkey population in and around Death Valley National Park, California, USA. The aim of this study was to utilize serologic assays to assess previous exposure of these donkeys to equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1), equine influenza (EIV), West Nile virus (WNV), and Borrelia burgdorferi (the causative agent of Lyme disease). The results of this study indicate that this feral equid population is mostly naïve and likely susceptible to these common equid pathogens upon removal from the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L. Goodrich
- Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Health Diagnostic Center, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +607-253-3972
| | - Amy McLean
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Cassandra Guarino
- Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Health Diagnostic Center, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA;
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15
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Becker DJ, Ketterson ED, Hall RJ. Reactivation of latent infections with migration shapes population-level disease dynamics. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201829. [PMID: 32933442 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Annual migration is common across animal taxa and can dramatically shape the spatial and temporal patterns of infectious disease. Although migration can decrease infection prevalence in some contexts, these energetically costly long-distance movements can also have immunosuppressive effects that may interact with transmission processes in complex ways. Here, we develop a mechanistic model for the reactivation of latent infections driven by physiological changes or energetic costs associated with migration (i.e. 'migratory relapse') and its effects on disease dynamics. We determine conditions under which migratory relapse can amplify or reduce infection prevalence across pathogen and host traits (e.g. infectious periods, virulence, overwinter survival, timing of relapse) and transmission phenologies. We show that relapse at either the start or end of migration can dramatically increase prevalence across the annual cycle and may be crucial for maintaining pathogens with low transmissibility and short infectious periods in migratory populations. Conversely, relapse at the start of migration can reduce the prevalence of highly virulent pathogens by amplifying culling of infected hosts during costly migration, especially for highly transmissible pathogens and those transmitted during migration or the breeding season. Our study provides a mechanistic foundation for understanding the spatio-temporal patterns of relapsing infections in migratory hosts, with implications for zoonotic surveillance and understanding how infection patterns will respond to shifts in migratory propensity associated with environmental change. Further, our work suggests incorporating within-host processes into population-level models of pathogen transmission may be crucial for reconciling the range of migration-infection relationships observed across migratory species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Becker
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Ellen D Ketterson
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA.,Environmental Resilience Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Richard J Hall
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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16
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Abstract
Equine gammaherpesvirus 2 (EHV-2) has been linked to keratitis and keratoconjunctivitis but has also been isolated in horses showing no signs of disease. The aim of the current study was to assess the importance of EHV-2 infection in the aetiopathogenesis of ocular disease, where the applied treatment failed. Seventy-eight horses with nonhealing ocular disease were examined at the Equine Clinic of the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic, between the years 2009 and 2016. In total, 96 conjunctival swabs were taken and, starting from 2014, peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) were also examined in 42 patients. Positive EHV-2 results were detected in 53 ocular swab samples (54.64%) and in 22 PBL samples (51.16%). The horses were divided into three groups according to age, up to 3 years, from 3 to 15 years and older than 15 years. Depending on the clinical presentation, horses were also divided into nonulcerative or ulcerative keratitis, keratouveitis, keratoconjunctivitis, and corneal degeneration groups. The group of young horses had a significantly higher ocular swab positivity compared to the middle group (P = 0.01). Increased bilateral ocular occurrence with decreasing age was observed, although it was not significant (P = 0.04). Significant correlation was confirmed between PBL samples and ocular swabs (P = 0.01). This correlation was even higher in cases of bilateral infection. No significant differences were detected when comparing the groups according to the clinical presentation. This study describes the prevalence of EHV-2 in different age group horses with non-healing keratopathies.
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17
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Seeber PA, Morrison T, Ortega A, East ML, Greenwood AD, Czirják GÁ. Immune differences in captive and free-ranging zebras (Equus zebra and E. quagga). Mamm Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-020-00006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWild mammals in ex situ captivity experience substantially different environmental conditions compared to free-ranging conspecifics, e.g., in terms of diet, climatic conditions, social factors, movement space, and direct anthropogenic disturbance. Moreover, animals in captivity frequently undergo management interventions such as medical treatments which may influence pathogen pressure. Captivity is known to affect immunological responses in some terrestrial and marine mammals; however, it is unclear whether this can be generalized to other taxa. Furthermore, little is known about how energetically costly life history stages such as lactation influence the immune system in wildlife. We measured expression of components of the constitutive and induced innate immunity and of the adaptive immune system in plains and mountain zebras (Equus quagga and E. zebra), including lactating and non-lactating individuals. As a proxy for general immune function, we screened for lytic equine herpesvirus (EHV) infection, a common and often latent pathogen which is reactivated in response to stress and immune challenge. Both energetically cheap markers of the constitutive innate immunity were lower in captive than in wild zebras, whereas energetically costly markers of the induced innate immunity were more highly expressed in captive zebras. Lactation was associated with higher titers of natural antibodies and lysozyme. Lytic EHV infection was not significantly correlated with any of the measured immune markers. Our results suggest that captivity and lactation may influence immune functions in zebra mares.
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18
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Noninvasive Detection of Equid Herpesviruses in Fecal Samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2019; 85:AEM.02234-18. [PMID: 30446563 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02234-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Equid herpesviruses (EHVs) are pathogens of equid and nonequid hosts that can cause disease and fatalities in captivity and in the wild. EHVs establish latent infections but can reactivate, and most EHVs are shed via the nasal passage. Therefore, nasal swabs are generally used for EHV monitoring. However, invasive sampling of wild equids is difficult. While feces is a commonly used substrate for detecting other pathogens, to our knowledge, EHVs have never been detected in feces of naturally infected equids. We systematically tested zebra feces for EHV presence by (i) establishing nested PCR conditions for fecal DNA extracts, (ii) controlling for environmental EHV contamination, and (iii) large-scale testing on a free-ranging zebra population. A dilution minimizing inhibition while maximizing viral DNA concentrations was determined in captive Grévy's zebra (Equus grevyi) fecal samples from individuals shedding EHV nasally. Sixteen of 42 fecal samples (38%) were EHV positive. To demonstrate that the EHV positivity was not a result of environmental contamination, rectal swabs of wild zebras were screened (n = 18 [Equus quagga and E. zebra]), and 50% were EHV positive, indicating that the source of EHV in feces is likely the intestinal mucosa and not postdefecation contamination. Out of 270 fecal samples of wild zebras, 26% were EHV positive. Quantitative PCRs showed that the amount of virus DNA in feces was not significantly smaller than that in other samples. In summary, fecal sampling facilitates large-scale screening and may be useful to noninvasively investigate phylogenetic EHV diversity in wild and domestic equids.IMPORTANCE Equid herpesviruses (EHVs) establish latent infections, and many EHVs are shed and transmitted via nasal discharge primarily through droplet and aerosol infection. Obtaining nasal swabs and other invasive samples from wildlife is often not possible without capture and physical restraint of individuals, which are resource intensive and a health risk for the captured animals. Fecal EHV shedding has never been demonstrated for naturally infected equids. We established the conditions for fecal EHV screening, and our results suggest that testing fecal samples is an effective noninvasive approach for monitoring acute EHV shedding in equids.
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