The Potential of Wood Vinegar to Replace Antimicrobials Used in Animal Husbandry-A Review

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry can result in various types of environmental contamination. Part of the dose of these products is excreted, still active, in the animals' feces and urine. These excreta are widely used as organic fertilizers, which results in contamination with antimicrobial molecules. The impacts can occur in several compartments, such as soil, groundwater, and surface watercourses. Also, contamination by antimicrobials fed or administrated to pigs, chickens, and cattle can reach the meat, milk, and other animal products, which calls into question the sustainability of using these products as part of eco-friendly practices. Therefore, a search for alternative natural products is required to replace the conventional antimicrobials currently used in animal husbandry, aiming to mitigate environmental contamination. We thus carried out a review addressing this issue, highlighting wood vinegar (WV), also known as pyroligneous acid, as an alternative antimicrobial with good potential to replace conventional products. In this regard, many studies have demonstrated that WV is a promising product. WV is a nontoxic additive widely employed in the food industry to impart a smoked flavor to foods. Studies have shown that, depending on the WV concentration, good results can be achieved using it as an antimicrobial against pathogenic bacteria and fungi and a valuable growth promoter for poultry and pigs.

Antimicrobial activity and chemical profile of wood vinegar from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis - clone I144) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris)

Microbial resistance to drugs is a public health problem; therefore, there is a search for alternatives to replace conventional products with natural agents. One of the potential antimicrobial agents is wood vinegar derived from the carbonization of lignocellulosic raw materials. The objectives of the present work were to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal action of two kinds of wood vinegar (WV), one of Eucalyptus urograndis wood and another of Bambusa vulgaris biomass, and determine their chemical profile. The antimicrobial effect was assessed against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations were determined. Micrographs of the microorganisms before and after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar were obtained by scanning electron microscopy. The chemical profile of the eucalyptus and bamboo vinegar was carried out by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Both types of WV presented significant antimicrobial activity, with the bamboo one having a higher efficiency. Both studied pyroligneous extracts seem promising for developing natural antimicrobials due to their efficiency against pathogens. GC/MS analyses demonstrated that the chemical profiles of both kinds of WV were similar but with some significant differences. The major component of the eucalyptus vinegar was furfural (17.2%), while the bamboo WV was phenol (15.3%). Several compounds in both WVs have proven antimicrobial activity, such as acetic acid, furfural, phenol, cresols, guaiacol, and xylenols. Together, they are the major in the chemical composition of the organic fraction of both WVs. Bamboo vinegar had a more expressive content of organic acids. Micrographs of microorganisms taken after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar displayed several cell modifications. The potential of both types of wood vinegar as a basis for natural antimicrobial products seems feasible due to their proven effect on inhibiting the microorganisms' growth assessed in this experiment.

Use of a product based on wood vinegar of Eucalyptus clone I144 used in the control of bovine mastitis

Bovine mastitis is one of the most frequent diseases in dairy cattle worldwide. The use of antiseptics in milking, if properly used, can lead to a reduction in potentially pathogenic microorganisms and their transmission between herds. Several medicinal plants have antiseptic potential, including eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.). Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of wood vinegar from Eucalyptus urograndis clone GG I144 (EU) as an antiseptic in vitro and in vivo; in addition, to its cytotoxicity and antimicrobial resistance. Fifteen bovines were used, lactating females 3-6 years of age and divided into three groups of five animals each. The wood vinegar was placed in the teats of the animal for 28 days and collections of cellular debris were performed every 7 days. At the Veterinary Microbiology Laboratory (LAMIV) of UFERSA, the samples were processed and serial dilution was performed in Petri plates with plate count agar (PCA) at 37 °C. Cytotoxicity was verified based on morphological alterations and metabolic activity. Morphological changes were not observed in all cells incubated with 1 % pyroligneous extract. The in vitro data demonstrated antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, S. agalactiae, Salmonella, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. The bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium were resistant to penicillin (PEN), rifampicin (RIF), nitrofurantoin (NIT), erythromycin (ERI), and ciprofloxacin (CIP). The extract was used in vivo in the post-dipping of dairy cows, which reduced the microbiological load present in the mammary glands from 4.74 to 2.54 CFU, indicating its future use as an antiseptic.

Briquette production as a sustainable alternative for waste management in the tannin extraction industry

Tannins are polyphenols that can be extracted from different parts of the plant and have different known commercial applications. The extraction of tannins generates a significant amount of low-density wastes. An alternative that can be applied to ensure energy reuse of this low-density waste is a densification process, such as briquetting. Thus, this research work aimed to assess the energy potential of the residue from the extraction of tannins of different forest species, aiming at its energy reuse in the form of briquettes. Stem barks of 6 forest species (Acacia mangium, AM; Anacardium occidentale, AO; Anadenanthera colubrina, AC; Azadirachta indica, AI; Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia, MC; Mimosa tenuiflora, MT) were used after tannin extraction. Bulk density, energy (higher, lower, and net heating value) and thermal (TG/DTG) properties, and chemical constitution (extractives, lignin, and holocellulose) of the materials were determined. In addition, briquette compaction ratio, apparent density, volumetric expansion, and water adsorption over the days were evaluated. The highest bulk densities were found in the barks of Anadenanthera colubrina (0.529 g.cm^-3) and Mimosa tenuiflora (0.407 g.cm^-3), whereas the species that showed the best result of higher heating value was Acacia mangium (20.44 MJ.kg^-1), followed by Azadirachta indica (19.39 MJ.kg^-1) and Mimosa caesalpiniifolia (18.85 MJ.kg^-1). Briquetting increased the density of the evaluated material by 2.3 to 4.9 times. All briquettes produced with wastes from tannin extraction evaluated in this work showed potential for energy production. With more information on the quantification of waste generated and data on the economic viability of production, these tannin-producing industries can benefit both environmentally and economically, by reusing these wastes for energy production.

Efficiency of Pyroligneous Extract from Jurema Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poiret) as an Antiseptic in Cats (Felis catus) Subjected to Ovariosalpingohysterectomy

Simple Summary

The pyroligneous extract from Mimosa tenuiflora was used as an antiseptic in cats. The objective of this study was to analyze the action of 20% pyroligneous extract from M. tenuiflora as an antiseptic for surgical wounds of cats subjected to ovariohysterectomy. In addition to the absence of cytotoxicity, the number of bacteria was reduced after treatment. Tissue dehiscence, hyperemia, edema, crust, and secretions were not observed. Thus, the pyroligneous extract of M. tenuiflora has potential as a natural antiseptic alternative.

Abstract

Pyroligneous extract of Jurema preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poiret) was evaluated for its efficacy as a cutaneous antiseptic in cats (Felis catus) that were subjected to ovariosalpingohysterectomy. For this purpose, 30 cats without a defined breed were sterilized and divided into two groups. The first group was the positive control, treated with 0.5% chlorhexidine-alcohol solution, and the second group was treated with 20% pyroligneous extract of M. tenuiflora. Regardless of age and sex, all animals had visible healing at similar times. A significant reduction in bacterial growth was observed in animals treated with the extract, and no cytotoxicity was observed in the feline epithelial cells. In addition, surgical wounds of cats treated with M. tenuiflora extract exhibited improved healing. On agar plates, treatment with both chlorhexidine and M. tenuiflora extract resulted in the inhibition zones for all bacterial strains isolated from surgical wounds. Therefore, M. tenuiflora extract is demonstrated to have antiseptic effects on the surgical wounds of cats undergoing ovariosalpingohysterectomy.

Pyroligneous acid from Mimosa tenuiflora and Eucalyptus urograndis as an antimicrobial in dairy goats

AIMS

To evaluate the applicability of the Mimosa tenuiflora and Eucalyptus urograndis pyroligneous acids (PAs) as alternative antiseptics in dairy goats.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Cytotoxicity was evaluated in vitro using bacteria, as well as in vivo using goats, and the influence of PAs on the physicochemical parameters of fresh milk were examined. The cytotoxicity of PAs was evaluated in terms of morphology, cell viability and metabolic activity of goat tegumentary cells. The PA of M. tenuiflora had results similar to those of 2% iodine. For the in vitro tests, strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were used with the well technique, demonstrating inhibition halos greater than 9 mm. In the in vivo test, 15 animals were used per phase of the experiment, and the plate counting technique showed that there was antiseptic action of both extracts, with emphasis on the M. tenuiflora PA. Physicochemical analysis of the milk showed that neither PAs interfered with its physical-chemical parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

The PA of M. tenuiflora presented potential as an alternative antiseptic in dairy goats.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This study demonstrates the use of PA as an antimicrobial agent in animals.

Chemical profiling of liposoluble liquid smokes obtained from Eucalyptus wood tar: confirmation of absence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Liposoluble liquid smoke (LS) preparations are versatile food additives used worldwide. The objective of the present work was to characterise the chemical composition of four types of industrial liposoluble LS currently used as the basis for the production of commercial smoke flavourings. The LS was obtained by vacuum fractional distillation from a raw pyrolysis oil (raw LS) obtained primarily from eucalyptus wood tar. The raw LS and the four LS flavourings obtained therefrom were analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to characterise the main groups of components. Additional analyses were carried out to evaluate the occurrence of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in the samples, as the producer claimed that these samples are free of PAHs. The main chemical components characterised in the LS were organic acids, aldehydes, esters, furans, pyrans and phenols, with phenolic compounds being the major chemical group. For the four LS tested samples, no PAHs could be detected with the method employed, which could indicate that the industrial processing was able to effectively remove this harmful class of compounds, or at least decrease its concentrations to levels below the limits of detection of the method of analysis.

Physical-mechanical properties of wood panel composites produced with Qualea sp. sawdust and recycled polypropylene

Adhesive-free wood-plastic composite panels made with lignocellulosic wastes, and recycled plastics can be a sustainable option for generating useful "green" products. The present work assessed the physical-mechanical properties of adhesive-free panels produced with Qualea sp. sawdust and recycled polypropylene (PP). Discarded PP packaging was used. The packages were washed and ground with a laboratory knife mill until particle size of 10 to 14 mesh. Qualea sp. sawdust was sieved to select particle size of 14 to 30 mesh. Four experimental treatments were assessed by varying the percentages of PP and sawdust, as follows, 60 and 40%, 70 and 30%, 80 and 20%, and 90 and 10%, in an entirely randomized design with 3 panels per treatment, totaling 12 panels. The mats were hot-pressed at 180 °C during 20 min, the first 10 min under pressure of 1.0 MPa and the remaining 10 min at 42 MPa. Physical-mechanical properties of the panels were obtained as follows: density, moisture content, water absorption, thickness swelling, moduli of elasticity and rupture, and Rockwell hardness. In general, an increase of the percentage of PP provided higher dimensional stability to the panels, but there was no significant influence on mechanical strength.

Energetic characterization and evaluation of briquettes produced from naturally colored cotton waste

Cotton crops generate millions of tons of lignocellulosic waste in Brazil that could be used in energy generation; however, the main destination of this raw material is soil incorporation. The aim of this work was to perform an energetic characterization and evaluation of briquettes produced from different agricultural waste of naturally colored cotton for power generation. The cultivars Brasil Sementes (BRS) Jade and Topazio were studied, with white cotton (BRS 286) as standard for comparison purposes. Two different parts of each species, stalk and cotton shell, were analyzed by bulk density, proximate analysis, higher heating value, cellulose, hemicellulose, protein, fat and lignin content, thermogravimetric analysis, and briquette mechanical strength. The results of the energetic characterization indicated a higher energetic potential of the colored species when compared with the white cotton, especially because of the volatile matter content, fixed carbon, and higher heating value. The briquette mechanical strength was higher in the samples formulated by a mixture of stalk and shell. Finally, it was concluded that the waste from colored cotton cultivars, Jade and Topazio, is capable to generate briquettes with good mechanical and physico-chemical characteristics, especially those formed by the mixture of stalk and shell.

Antibacterial and antifungal activities of pyroligneous acid from wood of Eucalyptus urograndis and Mimosa tenuiflora

AIMS

This work aimed to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal activities of two types of pyroligneous acid (PA) obtained from slow pyrolysis of wood of Mimosa tenuiflora and of a hybrid of Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Wood wedges were carbonized on a heating rate of 1·25°C min^-1 until 450°C. Pyrolysis smoke was trapped and condensed to yield liquid products. Crude pyrolysis liquids were bidistilled under 5 mmHg vacuum yielding purified PA. Multi-antibiotic-resistant strains of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853) and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) had their sensitivity to PA evaluated using agar diffusion test. Two yeasts were evaluated as well, Candida albicans (ATCC 10231) and Cryptococcus neoformans. GC-MS analysis of both PAs was carried out to obtain their chemical composition. Regression analysis was performed, and models were adjusted, with diameter of inhibition halos and PA concentration (100, 50 and 20%) as parameters. Identity of regression models and equality of parameters in polynomial orthogonal equations were verified. Inhibition halos were observed in the range 15-25 mm of diameter.

CONCLUSIONS

All micro-organisms were inhibited by both types of PA even in the lowest concentration of 20%.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The feasibility of the usage of PAs produced with wood species planted in large scale in Brazil was evident and the real potential as a basis to produce natural antibacterial and antifungal agents, with real possibility to be used in veterinary and zootechnical applications.

Activation of AMP-activated protein kinase, inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase activity, and redistribution of substrate partitioning mediate the acute insulin-sensitizing effects of troglitazone in skeletal muscle cells

The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of troglitazone on several pathways of glucose and fatty acid (FA) partitioning and the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes in skeletal muscle. Exposure of L6 myotubes to troglitazone for 1 h significantly increased phosphorylation of AMPK and ACC, which was followed by approximately 30% and approximately 60% increases in palmitate oxidation and carnitine palmitoyl transferase-1 (CPT-1) activity, respectively. Troglitazone inhibited basal ( approximately 25%) and insulin-stimulated ( approximately 35%) palmitate uptake but significantly increased basal and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by approximately 2.2- and 2.7-fold, respectively. Pharmacological inhibition of AMPK completely prevented the effects of troglitazone on palmitate oxidation and glucose uptake. Interestingly, even though troglitazone exerted an insulin sensitizing effect, it reduced basal and insulin-stimulated rates of glycogen synthesis, incorporation of glucose into lipids, and glucose oxidation to values corresponding to approximately 30%, approximately 60%, and 30% of the controls, respectively. These effects were accompanied by an increase in basal and insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt(Thr308), Akt(Ser473), and GSK3alpha/beta. Troglitazone also powerfully suppressed pyruvate decarboxylation, which was followed by a significant increase in basal ( approximately 3.5-fold) and insulin-stimulated ( approximately 5.5-fold) rates of lactate production by muscle cells. In summary, we provide novel evidence that troglitazone exerts acute insulin sensitizing effects by increasing FA oxidation, reducing FA uptake, suppressing pyruvate dehydrogenase activity, and shifting glucose metabolism toward lactate production in muscle cells. These effects seem to be at least partially dependent on AMPK activation and may account for potential acute PPAR-gamma-independent anti-diabetic effects of thiazolidinediones in skeletal muscle.

Evaluation of acute toxicity and genotoxicity of liquid products from pyrolysis of Eucalyptus grandis wood

Slow pyrolysis of Eucalyptus grandis wood was performed in an oven laboratory, and smoke was trapped and condensed to yield liquid products. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phenolic fractions were isolated from the former liquid products using adsorption column chromatography (ACC) and identified by GC/MS. Concentrations of PAH and phenolic fractions in total pyrolysis liquids were respectively 48.9 microg/g and 8.59% (w/w). Acute toxicity of total samples of pyrolysis liquids and the phenolic fraction was evaluated by means of two bioassays, namely, 24-h immobilization bioassay with Daphnia magna and Microtox bioassays, the latter employing the luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. Total pyrolysis liquids and the PAH fraction were evaluated for genotoxicity by the Microtox bioassay conducted using rehydrated freeze-dried dark mutant of the luminescent bacteria Vibrio fisheri strain M169. Total pyrolysis liquids and the phenolic fraction, respectively, in concentrations of 170 and 68 mg/L were able to immobilize 50% (EC(50)) of the D. magna population following 24-h exposure. Concentrations of 19 and 6 mg/L, respectively, for total pyrolysis liquids and phenolic fraction were the effective concentrations that resulted in a 50% (EC(50)) reduction in light produced by bacteria in the Microtox bioassay. Accordingly, the Microtox bioassay was more sensitive to toxic effects of both kind of samples than the D. magna bioassay, particularly for the phenolic fraction. Regarding to the genotoxicity evaluation, the results achieved by Microtox bioassay showed that total pyrolysis liquids had no genotoxic effects with and without exogenous metabolic activation using rat liver homogenate (S9). However, the PAH fraction showed toxic effects with rat liver activation and had a dose-response number (DRN) equal to 1.6, being in this way suspected genotoxic. The lowest detected concentration (LDC) of the PAH fraction able to cause genotoxic effects was 375 microg/L.