Seasonal variation in indicator organisms infiltrating from permeable pavement parking lots at the Edison Environmental Center, New Jersey

Four types of permeable pavements were monitored at the Edison Environmental Center in Edison, New Jersey, for three water quality indicator organisms consisting of fecal coliform, enterococci, and Escherichia coli. This study expands a previously published result based on less than a year of available data. The current study reflects nearly 5 years of data collection with efforts focusing on collection of data in all four seasons to analyze seasonal effects and to understand the effects of pH on infiltrate concentrations. All three indicators were detected in infiltrates from all four permeable surfaces and as well as asphalt and roof runoff. Seasonally, the infiltrate during winter had fewer detections and lower enumerations and was most often significantly different than surface infiltrate and runoff for the other seasons. More significant concentration reductions were observed in summer and fall, and the lowest reduction was observed in winter. Pervious Asphalt treatment removed the most microorganisms for all three indicator organisms. A permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) that was a replacement for pervious concrete during the study performed better than the original PICP most likely due to smaller gap spacing (8 mm compared to 12.7 mm) and correspondingly smaller specified surface aggregate compared to the original PICP. Percent concentration removal reductions based on geometric means were 89% or greater for PC, PA, and PICP for fecal coliform; 75% or better for PC, PA and PICP for E. coli; and 95% or greater for PC and PA for enterococci, while there were no annual removals for enterococci for original or new PICP nor removals for E. coli for original PICP and minimal removal for fecal coliform for original PICP. The major sources of fecal indicators in the stormwater runoff were most likely from the feces of deer, geese, and other wild animals. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The infiltrate during winter had fewer detections and lower enumerations and was most often significantly different than surface infiltrate and runoff for the other seasons. More significant concentration reductions were observed in summer and fall, and the lowest reduction was observed in winter. Pervious Asphalt treatment removed the most microorganisms for all three indicator organisms.

Air Temperature Reductions at the Base of Tree Canopies

Trees in urban settings have a significant role in regulating urban hydrologic cycles. Urban trees, either as standalone plantings or as part of a tree pit, are an increasingly popular stormwater management tool. Beyond their aesthetic contribution to urban environments, trees are widely accepted as reducing the ambient air temperature. However, there is limited long-term quantitative information regarding the temperature mitigation performed by urban trees through the use of temperature sensors over a large urban area. This study monitored air temperature at locations throughout the city of Camden, New Jersey. Sensors were installed under canopies of trees of different sizes throughout the city using a statistical experimental design. The tree size (small or large) and canopy (intersecting or nonintersecting), along with the street orientation (predominantly north-south or east-west) and time of day (daylight, nighttime, or full-day), were experimental design factors. Sensors attached to poles along the streets or in parking lots served as controls. This study recorded temperatures at 10-min intervals from early August through late November 2017 using logging thermistors mounted in radiation shields about 4 m above the ground surface. Using the maximum daily air temperature at control sites, all temperature data were categorized into three groups of hot, average, and cool days. The groups were analyzed separately using the analysis of variance to test the significance of the categorical variables. During hot days (a maximum temperature larger than 30°C), there was a meaningful statistical difference between recorded mean air temperatures under trees with intersecting canopies and the control sites. A categorical analysis of street orientation for hot and average days showed that during the daytime, east-west streets were hotter than north-south streets, while this trend reversed at night when north-south streets were hotter than east-west streets. For cool days, there were no differences for the studied categorical factors.

Biosorption of Rhodamine B onto novel biosorbents from Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria salicornia and Gracilaria edulis

In the present investigation seaweeds of macroalgae like Kappaphycus alvarezii, Gracilaria salicornia and Gracilaria edulis used as novel biosorbent in native (KA, GS, GE) and ethanol modified (EKA, EGS, EGE) for Rhodamine B (RB) removal from aqueous solution in batch process. Effect of various biosorption parameters such as pH, initial concentration of RB, biosorbent dosage and contact time were studied. The maximum biosorption capacity determined as 9.84 (KA), 11.03 (GS), 8.96 (GE), 112.35 (EKA), 105.26 (EGS) and 97.08 mg/g (EGE), respectively towards the removal of RB from aqueous solutions. Better removal of RB was observed using EKA, EGS, and EGE biosorbents at 2.0 pH. The characterizations of the biosorbents were performed using Scanning Electron microscope and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. Biosorption equilibrium data evaluated using Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin-Radushkevich and Jovanovic isotherm model. The Langmuir isotherm model best suited the equilibrium data for all the biosorbents studied. The rate of RB removal subjected to kinetic analysis using pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, intra-particle diffusion and Elovich models. Pseudo-second-order kinetic model better described the experimental data of the RB biosorption. Desorption studies performed using 0.1 M sodium hydroxide as eluting agents for regeneration and recycle analysis. The recyclability of the six biosorbents showed consistent biosorption capacity towards RB removal up to the entire three cycles. The studied biosorbents sourced from large volume and easily available, further biosorption performance indicated that the KA, GS, GE, EKA, EGS and EGE could be used as efficient, alternative and eco-friendly biosorbents for the removal of harmful dyes in the environment.

Organism Detection in Permeable Pavement Parking Lot Infiltrates at the Edison Environmental Center, New Jersey

  Three types of permeable pavements were monitored at the Edison Environmental Center in Edison, New Jersey, for indicator organisms such as fecal coliform, enterococci, and Escherichia coli. Results showed that porous asphalt had a much lower concentration in monitored infiltrate compared to pervious concrete and permeable interlocking concrete pavers; concentrations of monitored organisms in infiltrate from porous asphalt were consistently below the bathing water quality standard and actually had limited detection. Fecal coliform and enterococci exceeded bathing water quality standards more than 72 and 34% of the time for permeable interlocking concrete pavers and pervious concrete, respectively. Concentration reductions greater than 90% were observed for all three indicator organisms for porous asphalt and fecal coliform and E. coli for pervious concrete when compared to runoff values, while permeable interlocking concrete pavers only had a modest (39%) observable reduction for E. coli only. The near absence of indicator organisms observed in the porous asphalt infiltrate may be due to the high pH potentially due to asphalt processing. Neither rain intensity nor temperature was demonstrated to have an observable effect in both concentrations of organisms and performance of permeable pavement; but this may due to the limitations of the dataset consisting of 16 events over an 8-month period.

Demonstration and Evaluation of Innovative Rehabilitation Technologies for Water Infrastructure Systems

The needs associated with the deteriorating water infrastructure are immense and have been estimated at more than $1 trillion over the next 20 years for water and wastewater utilities. To meet this growing need, utilities require the use of innovative technologies and procedures for managing their systems. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) developed a demonstration program for pipe rehabilitation methods to help fill this gap. The program's objective is to evaluate pipe rehabilitation technologies that can increase the effectiveness of the operation, maintenance, and renewal of pipelines. This paper provides an impartial assessment of the effectiveness and cost of four innovative technologies for water distribution and wastewater collection pipes. The technologies demonstrated include spray-on polymeric lining and cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining for water mains; and spray applied geopolymer mortar and an internal pipe sealing system for wastewater mains.

Soluble and membrane-bound interleukin (IL)-15 Rα/IL-15 complexes mediate proliferation of high-avidity central memory CD8+ T cells for adoptive immunotherapy of cancer and infections

The lack of persistence of infused T cells is a principal limitation of adoptive immunotherapy in man. Interleukin (IL)-15 can sustain memory T cell expansion when presented in complex with IL-15Rα (15Rα/15). We developed a novel in-vitro system for generation of stable 15Rα/15 complexes. Immunologically quantifiable amounts of IL-15 were obtained when both IL-15Rα and IL-15 genes were co-transduced in NIH 3T3 fibroblast-based artificial antigen-presenting cells expressing human leucocyte antigen (HLA) A:0201, β₂ microglobulin, CD80, CD58 and CD54 [A2-artificial antigen presenting cell (AAPC)] and a murine pro-B cell line (Baf-3) (A2-AAPC^15Rα/15 and Baf-3^15Rα/15 ). Transduction of cells with IL-15 alone resulted in only transient expression of IL-15, with minimal amounts of immunologically detectable IL-15. In comparison, cells transduced with IL-15Rα alone (A2-AAPC^Rα ) demonstrated stable expression of IL-15Rα; however, when loaded with soluble IL-15 (sIL-15), these cells sequestered 15Rα/15 intracellularly and also demonstrated minimal amounts of IL-15. Human T cells stimulated in vitro against a viral antigen (CMVpp65) in the presence of 15Rα/15 generated superior yields of high-avidity CMVpp65 epitope-specific T cells [cytomegalovirus-cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CMV-CTLs)] responding to ≤ 10^{- 13} M peptide concentrations, and lysing targets cells at lower effector : target ratios (1 : 10 and 1 : 100), where sIL-15, sIL-2 or sIL-7 CMV-CTLs demonstrated minimal or no activity. Both soluble and surface presented 15Rα/15, but not sIL-15, sustained in-vitro expansion of CD62L⁺ and CCR7⁺ central memory phenotype CMV-CTLs (T_CM ). 15Rα/15 complexes represent a potent adjuvant for augmenting the efficacy of adoptive immunotherapy. Such cell-bound or soluble 15Rα/15 complexes could be developed for use in combination immunotherapy approaches.

Biomolecule-assisted solvothermal synthesis of Cu2SnS3 flowers/RGO nanocomposites and their visible-light-driven photocatalytic activities

Elimination of organic pollutants from wastewaters under visible-light irradiation is a venerable challenge in the fields of environmental and material science.

Artificial Antigen Presenting Cells: An Off the Shelf Approach for Generation of Desirable T-Cell Populations for Broad Application of Adoptive Immunotherapy

Adoptive transfer of antigen specific T-cells can lead to eradication of cancer and viral infections. The broad application of this approach has further been hampered by the limited availability of adequate numbers of T-cells for treatment in a timely manner. This has led to efforts for the development of efficient methods to generate large numbers of T-cells with specificity for tumor or viral antigens that can be harnessed for use in cancer therapy. Recent studies have demonstrated that during encounter with tumor antigen, the signals delivered to T-cells by professional antigen-presenting cells can affect T-cell programming and their subsequent therapeutic efficacy. This has stimulated efforts to develop artificial antigen-presenting cells that allow optimal control over the signals provided to T-cells. In this review, we will discuss the cellular artificial antigen-presenting cell systems and their use in T-cell adoptive immunotherapy for cancer and infections.

Knowledge, beliefs, and health care practices relating to treatment of HIV in Vellore, India

In India, little is known about health care-seeking behavior among HIV-infected individuals. Similarly, little is known about how HIV is being treated in the community, in particular by Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) providers. Therefore, while ART implementation programs continue to expand, it is important to determine whether the knowledge, attitudes, and treatment practices of HIV-infected individuals and their health care providers are aligned with current treatment recommendations. We conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with persons with HIV (n = 9 men and 17 women), family members of persons with HIV (n = 14 men and 3 women), and ISM providers (n = 7). Many of the patients we studied turned at some point to ISM providers because they believed that such practitioners offer a cure for HIV. ISM treatments sometimes had negative impacts including side effects, unchecked progression of an underlying illness, and financial depletion. Indian women tended to be less knowledgeable about HIV and HIV treatments, and had less access to financial and other resources, than men. Finally, most of the ISM providers reported dangerous misconceptions about HIV transmission, diagnosis, and treatment. While the existence of ART in India is potentially of great benefit to those with HIV infection, this study shows that a variety of social, cultural and governmental barriers may interfere with the effective use of these therapies. Partnerships between the allopathic and traditional/complementary health sectors in research, policy, and practice are essential in building comprehensive HIV/AIDS treatment strategies.

Removal of selected pollutants from aqueous media by hardwood mulch

Generic hardwood mulch, usually used for landscaping, was utilized to remove several selected pollutants (heavy metals and toxic organic compounds) typically found in urban stormwater (SW) runoff. The hardwood mulch sorbed all the selected pollutants from a spiked stormwater mixture, including copper (Cu(2+)), cadmium (Cd(2+)), chromium (Cr(6+)), lead (Pb(2+)), zinc (Zn(2+)), 1,3 dichlorobenzene (DCB), naphthalene (NP), fluoranthene (FA), butylbenzylphthalate (BBP), and benzo(a)pyrene (B[a]P). Masses of the pollutants sorbed depended upon the pollutant species, contact time, and initial concentration which varied from 20 to 100%. Sorption rates of the metals, in general, were more rapid than those of the organics; however, mass removals (percent) of the organics, in contrast to those of the metals, were independent of their initial concentrations. With the exception of Cd, percentages (weight) of the metals removed declined as their initial concentrations decreased. None of the sorbed pollutants desorbed to any significant extent upon extended washing with water. It is quite feasible that in the presence of mulch the uptake of these pollutants by the aquatic species will be reduced significantly.

Variation of microorganism concentrations in urban stormwater runoff with land use and seasons

Stormwater runoff samples were collected from outfalls draining small municipal separate storm sewer systems. The samples were collected from three different land use areas based on local designation (high-density residential, low-density residential and landscaped commercial). The concentrations of microorganisms in the stormwater runoff were found to be similar in magnitude to, but less variable than, those reported in the stormwater National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) database. Microorganism concentrations from high-density residential areas were higher than those associated with low-density residential and landscaped commercial areas. Since the outfalls were free of sanitary wastewater cross-connections, the major sources of microorganisms to the stormwater runoff were most likely from the feces of domestic animals and wildlife. Concentrations of microorganisms were significantly affected by the season during which the samples were collected. The lowest concentrations were observed during winter except for Staphylococcus aureus. The Pearson correlation coefficients among different indicators showed weak linear relationships and the relationships were statistically significant. However, the relationships between indicators and pathogens were poorly correlated and were not statistically significant, suggesting the use of indicators as evidence of the presence of pathogens is not appropriate. Further, the correlation between the concentration of the traditionally monitored indicators (total coliforms and fecal coliforms) and the suggested substitutes (enterococci and E. coli) is weak, but statistically significant, suggesting that historical time series will be only a qualitative indicator of impaired waters under the revised criteria for recreational water quality by the US EPA.

Effects of sample holding time on concentrations of microorganisms in water samples

This research investigated the effects of extending the holding time of samples for microbial analysis beyond the standard of 24 hours for purposes such as watershed characterization. Experiments were conducted with both sanitary wastewater and stormwater samples. The refrigerated samples (4 degrees C) were held for up to 9 days before being analyzed for two pathogens (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus) and five indicator organisms (total coliform, fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, enterococcus, and Escherichia coli) by membrane filtration. The concentrations (as colony-forming units per 100 mL) were normalized by log10(transformation and used in subsequent statistical analysis testing for significant differences. The results suggested that the concentrations of microorganisms in water samples analyzed on days 1 and 2 did not vary significantly in 8 of 13 analyses. The results of a field study concluded that the concentration of fecal coliform did not change significantly between 7 hours holding time and greater than 24 hours holding time for fecal coliform.

Particle-associated microorganisms in stormwater runoff

This research investigated the effects of blending and chemical addition before analysis of the concentration of microorganisms in stormwater runoff from a single summer storm to determine whether clumped or particle-associated organisms play a significant role. The standard membrane filtration method was used to enumerate the microorganisms. All organisms, except for Escherichia coli, showed an increase in the measured concentration after blending samples at 22,000 rpm with or without the chemical mixture. Other than fecal streptococci, the organism concentrations decreased with the addition of the Camper's solution in both blended and unblended samples before analyses. There was a statistically significant interaction between the effects of Camper's solution and the effects of blending for all the organisms tested, except for total coliform. Blending did not alter the mean particle size significantly. The results show no correlation between increased total coliform, fecal coliform, and fecal streptococcus concentrations and the mean particle size.

Multiple transcripts of the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor family, KIR3DL1 (NKB1), are expressed by natural killer cells of a single individual

Natural killer (NK) cells express receptors that are ligands for HLA class I molecules. One family of such NK receptors are called killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR). The KIR2DL (inhibiting) and KIR2DS (activating) molecules recognize HLA-Cw antigens, while the KIR3DL (inhibiting) and KIR3DS (activating) molecules interact with HLA-B antigens with the Bw4 epitope. No NK receptors have yet been identified for HLA-B antigens with the Bw6 epitope. We here report four novel full length cDNA transcripts encoding KIR3DL1-like proteins isolated from mRNA obtained from interleukin-2-activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells of a donor with two HLA-B antigens expressing the Bw6 epitope. These four transcripts belong to a group of closely related KIR3DL1-like molecules initially defined by the cDNA clone NKB1. They differ from NKB1 by only 2 to 7 nucleotides and have 2 to 4 codon changes within the 423 residues of the mature protein. All transcripts were detected by RT-PCR, together with the previously reported KIR3DL1 transcripts, NKB1 and KIR3DL1v, in mRNA from NK cells of 10 of 10 donors tested, and in seven of eight NK clones derived from one donor. Functionally, the KIR3DL1 receptors expressed by five DX9-positive NK clones were not inhibiting NK-mediated cytotoxicity when tested against the 721.221 B-lymphoblastoid cell line expressing a HLA-B antigen with Bw4 epitope. All NK clones were, however, inhibited by 721.221 cells transfected with a HLA-B antigen carrying the Bw6 epitope.

LCK-phosphorylated human killer cell-inhibitory receptors recruit and activate phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

HLA-specific killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) are thought to impede natural killer (NK) and T cell activation programs through recruitment of the SH2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and SHP-2, to their cytoplasmic tails (CYT). To identify other SH2 domain-containing proteins that bind KIR CYT, we used the recently described yeast two-bait interaction trap and a modified version of this system, both of which permit tyrosine phosphorylation of bait proteins. Using these systems, we show that KIR CYT, once phosphorylated by the src-family tyrosine kinase LCK, additionally bind the p85alpha regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase. Furthermore, we show that in an NK cell line, NK3.3, cross-linking of KIR results in recruitment of p85alpha to KIR and activation of PI 3-kinase lipid kinase activity. One consequence of KIR coupling to PI 3-kinase is downstream activation of the antiapoptotic protein kinase AKT. Therefore, in addition to providing negative signals, KIR may also contribute positive signals for NK and T cell growth and/or survival.

Nucleotide and amino acid sequence alignment for human killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR), 1998

We present alignments of nucleotide sequences and deduced amino acid sequences for all currently identified killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR). The genes for these receptors have been localized to human chromosome 19q13.4 and constitute a large gene family. They all encode structures typical of type I transmembrane molecules belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily (Ig-SF). Extensive polymorphism exists within the genes and many of the currently identified cDNA clones represent alternatively spliced forms of previously reported full-length clones. The sequence alignments have been posted on the World Wide Web and are accessible at the Tissue Antigens web site at: http://www.tissue-antigens.dk/kir-align.html. The alignments will be updated at intervals.

Error rate for HLA-B antigen assignment by serology: implications for proficiency testing and utilization of DNA-based typing methods

Until recently, the majority of HLA class I typing has been performed by serology. Expensive commercial typing trays are frequently used for testing non-Caucasian subjects and new strategies using DNA-based methods have been adopted for improving clinical histocompatibility testing results and adapted as supplements in proficiency testing. A double-blind comparison of the typing of HLA-B specificities in 40 samples was carried out between serology and two polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods, PCR amplification with sequence-specific primers (PCR-SSP) and PCR amplification and subsequent hybridization with sequence-specific oligonucleotide probes (PCR-SSOP). The results demonstrated 22.5% misassignments of HLA-B antigens by serology. There was complete concordance between the results obtained with the two PCR based typing methods. A second panel of 20 donor samples with incomplete or ambiguous serologic results was analyzed by PCR-SSP and SSOP Both PCR methods identified correctly the HLA-B antigens. Our results suggest that more accurate typing results can be achieved by complementing serologic testing with DNA-based typing techniques. The level of resolution for HLA-B antigen assignment can be obtained by this combination of serology and limited DNA-based typing is equivalent to the HLA-B specificities defined by the WHO-HLA Committee. This level of resolution cannot routinely be achieved in clinical histocompatibility testing or in proficiency testing using serologic reagents only.

The killer cell inhibitory receptor genomic region on human chromosome 19q13.4

Multiple genes encoding type I transmembrane molecules and belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily have recently been localized to human chromosome 19q13.4. These include a family of genes encoding killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) expressed on natural killer (NK) cells and subsets of T-lymphocytes, immunoglobulin-like transcripts (ILT-1, -2 and 3) expressed on myeloid cells and subsets of lymphoid cells, the gp49 family of receptors expressed on mast cells and NK cells and the gene encoding human myeloid immunoglobulin A Fc receptor (CD89). The receptors have one to four extracellular immunoglobulin domains, and the ligands are known for some of these molecules. This includes the Fc alpha R and KIRs of the p58/p50 and p70/p70 delta, but the ligands for many others are unknown. Except for CD89, each subfamily of receptors exist, in two forms, of which one has a long cytoplasmic domain containing one to four immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIM) and another form with a short cytoplasmic tail without ITIMs. ITIM-containing receptors can recruit cytoplasmic tyrosine phosphatases and provide inhibitory signals for cell activation, whereas receptors with a "short" tail induce activating signals. The 19q13.4 chromosomal region is therefore now emerging as the immunoglobulin superfamily linkage group of genes differentially expressed on hematopoietic cell lineages and encoding pairs of receptors with opposing effects on signal transduction pathways and effector functions in hematopoietic cells.

Genomic organization and allelic polymorphism of the human killer cell inhibitory receptor gene KIR103

Killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily of molecules and are expressed on natural killer (NK) cells. The KIRs of the p58/p50 family have two immunoglobulin domains and are ligands for HLA-Cw antigens, whereas the p70/p70 delta family has three immunoglobulin domains and comprises ligands for HLA-B antigens and possibly some HLA-A antigens. Members of a third KIR family, KIR103, have two immunoglobulin domains but have highest nucleotide sequence homology to the p70 family. The ligands for KIR103 on target cells are currently unknown. We here report the complete genomic organization of KIR103. It spans about 12 kb of DNA and consists of eight exons of which exon 1 and exon 2 encode the leader sequence. Exon 3 encodes the first immunoglobulin domain (gamma 1), and exon 4 encodes the main part of the second immunoglobulin domain (gamma 3), which also contains sequences contributed by exon 5 and exon 6. Exon 6 encodes the transmembrane domain, whereas exons 7 and 8 encode most of the cytoplasmic domain. KIR103 is polymorphic, and two alleles, 103AS and 103LP, are defined in this study. Additional full-length cDNA clones for KIR103 have been isolated and are shown to be formed by alternative mRNA splicing with exon skipping. Some of these truncated KIR103 cDNA could encode shorter transmembrane molecules, whereas others lack the transmembrane domain and are candidate genes for secreted KIR products. KIR103 is localized to the KIR genetic region on chromosome 19q13.4.

Polymorphism and domain variability of human killer cell inhibitory receptors

Thirty-two different full-length cDNA clones for human killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) have been identified. They all belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily and encode mature proteins with one, two or three extracellular Ig domains. The inhibitory receptors have nearly identical transmembrane domains and cytoplasmic domains ranging in length from 76 to 95 amino-acid residues. The activating receptors have a characteristic transmembrane domain with a charged lysine residue and a short cytoplasmic tail without the protein tyrosine phosphatase binding motif I/VXYXXL present in the inhibitory receptors. Sequence analysis demonstrates that three clusters correspond to the inhibitory receptors of 58 kDa, while two clusters encode activating receptors of 50 kDa. Two other clusters correspond to the inhibitory receptors of 70 kDa and one cluster encodes genes with sequence homology to one of the two p70 clusters but contains the transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains characteristic of activating receptors. The data are consistent with a genomic organization of the KIR genetic region containing at least three KIR genes encoding receptors for each of the gene products of the HLA class I loci. Alternative mRNA splicing could be responsible for generation of activating or inhibitory receptors with the same extracellular domains. Separate genes encoding receptors with opposite function is, however, an equally likely possibility.

Analysis of CD28 cytoplasmic tail tyrosine residues as regulators and substrates for the protein tyrosine kinases, EMT and LCK

The CD28 cell surface receptor provides an important costimulatory signal for T cells necessary for their response to Ag. Early events in CD28 signaling include recruitment and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) and activation of the protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), LCK and EMT. Recruitment and activation of PI3-kinase is known to be dependent upon phosphorylation of tyrosine 173 of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail contained within a YMNM motif. By contrast, little is known of which residues of the CD28 tail, including tyrosines, are required for the activation of PTKs. To address this we studied the ability of truncation mutants and tyrosine to phenylalanine substitution mutants of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail to activate LCK and EMT in Jurkat T leukemia cells. Our results indicate that 1) activation of EMT is partially dependent upon tyrosine 173 of the CD28 tail, although it does not require PI3-kinase activation; 2) activation of LCK is independent of CD28 cytoplasmic tail tyrosine residues; and 3) elements sufficient for the activation of both kinases are contained within the first half of the tail. In addition we studied the CD28 tail as a substrate for both PTKs in in vitro kinase assays. We demonstrate that EMT can phosphorylate all four tyrosines of the CD28 tail, in contrast to LCK, which phosphorylates only tyrosine 173. Together with evidence that in vivo, tyrosines other than tyrosine 173 become phosphorylated following CD28 stimulation, this finding suggests that, like LCK, one function of EMT during CD28 signaling is phosphorylation of the receptor.

Analysis of CD28 cytoplasmic tail tyrosine residues as regulators and substrates for the protein tyrosine kinases, EMT and LCK

The CD28 cell surface receptor provides an important costimulatory signal for T cells necessary for their response to Ag. Early events in CD28 signaling include recruitment and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) and activation of the protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), LCK and EMT. Recruitment and activation of PI3-kinase is known to be dependent upon phosphorylation of tyrosine 173 of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail contained within a YMNM motif. By contrast, little is known of which residues of the CD28 tail, including tyrosines, are required for the activation of PTKs. To address this we studied the ability of truncation mutants and tyrosine to phenylalanine substitution mutants of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail to activate LCK and EMT in Jurkat T leukemia cells. Our results indicate that 1) activation of EMT is partially dependent upon tyrosine 173 of the CD28 tail, although it does not require PI3-kinase activation; 2) activation of LCK is independent of CD28 cytoplasmic tail tyrosine residues; and 3) elements sufficient for the activation of both kinases are contained within the first half of the tail. In addition we studied the CD28 tail as a substrate for both PTKs in in vitro kinase assays. We demonstrate that EMT can phosphorylate all four tyrosines of the CD28 tail, in contrast to LCK, which phosphorylates only tyrosine 173. Together with evidence that in vivo, tyrosines other than tyrosine 173 become phosphorylated following CD28 stimulation, this finding suggests that, like LCK, one function of EMT during CD28 signaling is phosphorylation of the receptor.

New HLA-DR haplotypes containing the DRB6 pseudogene

An unexpected probe reaction pattern was observed in two samples during HLA-DR typing by PCR-Sequence Specific Oligonucleotide Probes. In order to confirm the unusual typings, samples were analyzed by PCR-Sequence Specific Primers, cloning, and nucleotide sequencing of the second exon of the HLA-DRB-genes. The confirmed DR, DQ phenotype for one sample was DRB1*0701, DRB4*01, DRB5*0101, DRB6*0201, DQB*0602, DQB1*0202. The phenotype of other sample was DRB1*1602, DRB1*1302, DRB3*0301, DRB6*0101, DQB1*0501, DQB1*0502. The first sample has the novel combination of DRB1*0701 with DRB5*0101 and DRB6*0201. The second sample has either DRB6*0101 together with DRB1*1602 in absence of any DRB5 allele or DRB6*0101 together with DRB1*1302, DRB3*0301. We postulate that the most likely haplotype in sample #1 is DRB1*0701; DRB5*0101, DRB1*0602 which could have arisen from gene conversion. The most likely haplotype in sample #2, DRB1*1602, DRB6*0101, DQB1*0502 would have arisen from an homologous recombination event.

NK cell receptor gene of the KIR family with two IG domains but highest homology to KIR receptors with three IG domains

The killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIRs) are surface glycoproteins expressed by natural killer (NK) cells and some T cells. They recognize polymorphic human HLA class I molecules. Two families of KIRs have been identified and named p58 and p70. The p58 family of genes encode type I membrane proteins with two extracellular immunoglobulin (Ig) domains, while the p70 genes have three Ig domains. We here report the cloning and characterization of a novel KIR cDNA obtained from tumor cell lines with NK reactivity (YT and NK-92). This gene is also expressed in the normal cell line NK 3.3 and in NK cells obtained from some but not all normal donors. The clone, KIR103AS, has an open reading frame consistent with a KIR with two extracellular Ig domains, a transmembrane region and a 114 amino acid long cytoplasmic domain containing a single src homology 2 (SH2) binding motif. The membrane distal Ig domain of KIR103AS has highest homology with the first Ig domain of p70 KIRs and differs significantly from the first Ig domain of p58 KIRs. The second, membrane proximal Ig domain of KIR103AS has similar and high homology with the membrane proximal Ig domains of both p70 and p58 KIRs. The extracellular domains of KIR103AS therefore share characteristic features with both p70 and p58 genes: the domain structure is identical to p58 KIRs but the sequence homology matches closely with p70 KIRs. The putative transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains are distinctly different from all previously reported KIR cDNAs.

Phosphorylation of each of the distal three tyrosines of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail is required for CD28-induced T cell IL-2 secretion

Signaling by the CD28 T cell costimulatory receptor is known to involve recruitment and activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) which is dependent upon phosphorylation of tyrosine 173 of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail, present in a YMNM motif. However, whether this phosphorylation is required for CD28 costimulation and whether or not phosphorylation of any of the other three tyrosines of the CD28 cytoplasmic tail (tyrosines 188, 191 and 200) is also important for CD28 induced responses is unclear. To address this we examined the ability of chimeric receptors, consisting of the extracellular plus transmembrane membrane domain of human CD8 alpha linked to different mutated human CD28 cytoplasmic tails, to induce IL-2 secretion in Jurkat T leukemia cells in the presence of PMA and ionomycin. A receptor in which tyrosine 173 of the CD28 tail was mutated to phenylalanine was able to induce IL-2. By contrast, receptors which contained single tyrosine 188, 191 or 200 to phenylalanine substitutions were unable to induce IL-2. These results imply that in this system phosphorylation of tyrosine 173 and hence activation of PI3-kinase is not required for CD28 induced IL-2 secretion. Further, they imply that phosphorylation of each of tyrosines 188, 191 and 200 is necessary for this response. Despite an apparent requirement for phosphorylation of all three of these tyrosines, however, receptors which contain tyrosine only at positions 191 or 200 and a truncated receptor which does not contain tyrosine 200 induce normal IL-2. These last findings, therefore, illustrate the complexity of CD28 mediated activation signals.

Novel isoforms of murine intercellular adhesion molecule-1 generated by alternative RNA splicing

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1)-deficient mice, produced by homologous recombination and previously recognized to be devoid of the common form of ICAM-1, are shown to express residual amounts of ICAM-1 Ag in thymus and lung. We demonstrate that this expression of ICAM-1 is possible because the mutated exon 5 in these animals has been skipped by alternative splicing of RNA. Three different alternative isoforms of ICAM-1 are expressed in mutant mice. Moreover, two of these isoforms are expressed in wild-type mice together with two additional alternative isoforms that cannot be produced in mutant mice. All alternatively spliced isoforms of ICAM-1 detected are missing complete extracellular Ig domains. In both mutant and wild-type mice, expression of alternatively spliced isoforms is up-regulated following stimulation of animals with LPS. Furthermore, all alternative isoforms of ICAM-1, except one, retain the ability to bind to the well-recognized ICAM-1 counter-receptor LFA-1. These findings, along with the restricted tissue distribution in mutant mice, indicate that alternative isoforms of ICAM-1 are significant physiologic adhesion structures which could play a distinct role in the functioning of the immune system of intact animals.

Novel isoforms of murine intercellular adhesion molecule-1 generated by alternative RNA splicing

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1)-deficient mice, produced by homologous recombination and previously recognized to be devoid of the common form of ICAM-1, are shown to express residual amounts of ICAM-1 Ag in thymus and lung. We demonstrate that this expression of ICAM-1 is possible because the mutated exon 5 in these animals has been skipped by alternative splicing of RNA. Three different alternative isoforms of ICAM-1 are expressed in mutant mice. Moreover, two of these isoforms are expressed in wild-type mice together with two additional alternative isoforms that cannot be produced in mutant mice. All alternatively spliced isoforms of ICAM-1 detected are missing complete extracellular Ig domains. In both mutant and wild-type mice, expression of alternatively spliced isoforms is up-regulated following stimulation of animals with LPS. Furthermore, all alternative isoforms of ICAM-1, except one, retain the ability to bind to the well-recognized ICAM-1 counter-receptor LFA-1. These findings, along with the restricted tissue distribution in mutant mice, indicate that alternative isoforms of ICAM-1 are significant physiologic adhesion structures which could play a distinct role in the functioning of the immune system of intact animals.

Prothymosin alpha gene in humans: organization of its promoter region and localization to chromosome 2

A genomic clone encoding prothymosin alpha (gene symbol: PTMA), a nuclear-targeted protein associated with cell proliferation, was isolated and the 5'-regulatory region subcloned and sequenced. Because of previously reported discrepancies between several cDNA clones and a genomic clone for prothymosin alpha, we determined the sequence of the first exon and of a 1.7-kb region 5' to the first exon. The sequence of the genomic clone reported here corresponds to the published cDNA sequences, suggesting that the previously noted discrepancies may be due to genetic polymorphism in this region. In addition, our sequence data extend the known 5'-upstream sequence by an additional 1.5 kb allowing the identification of numerous, potential cis-acting regulatory sites. This 5'-flanking cloned probe permitted us to localize the prothymosin gene to chromosome 2 in humans.

Genomic organization and chromosomal location of the human gene encoding the B-lymphocyte activation antigen B7

The human B lymphocyte activation antigen B7 provides regulatory signals for T lymphocytes as a consequence of binding to its ligands CD28 and CTLA-4. The cDNA for B7 has previously been isolated and predicted to encode a type I membrane protein. The predicted polypeptide has a secretory signal peptide followed by two contiguous Ig-like domains, a hydrophobic transmembrane region and a short cytoplasmic tail. Here we report the exon-intron genomic organization of human B7 and the chromosomal location. The gene has six exons that span approximately 32 kilobases of DNA. Exon 1 is not translated and the second exon contains the initiation ATG codon and encodes a predicted signal peptide. This gene structure is characteristic for several eukaryotic genes with tissue-specific expression. The third and fourth exons correspond to two Ig-like domains whereas the fifth and sixth exons encode respectively the trans-membrane portion and the cytoplasmic tail. This close relationship between exons and functional domains is a characteristic feature of genes of the Ig superfamily. Cell surface expression of the B7 gene product has previously been mapped to human chromosome 12 by antibody reactivity with the B7-specific monoclonal antibody BB-1. We here demonstrate that the B7 gene is located to the q21-qter region of chromosome 3 by DNA blot analysis of human x rodent somatic cell hybrids.

Characterization of a novel, human cytotoxic lymphocyte-specific serine protease cDNA clone (CSP-C)

A human cDNA clone encoding a novel serine protease, cytotoxic serine protease-C(CSP-C), has been isolated from a cDNA library prepared from recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2)-activated lymphocytes of a patient with a large granular lymphoproliferative disorder. The clone has a 741-base pair open reading frame encoding a putative 246-amino acid protein. The protein sequence contains the catalytic charge relay system characteristic of a serine protease and the conserved N-terminal amino acid sequence of the mature cytotoxic lymphocyte serine proteases found in both mouse and human. The amino acid sequence of CSP-C has 71% identity with the previously reported cytotoxic serine protease-B(CSP-B)/human lymphocyte protease (HLP)/SECT and 57% identity with the granulocyte-specific serine protease cathepsin G. The homology with another lymphocyte-specific serine protease, human Hanukah factor (HF)/Granzyme A was 41%. The transcript is expressed in lymphocytes stimulated with IL-2 or IL-2 plus phytohemagglutinin (PHA). CSP-C is not expressed in B-lymphoblastoid cell lines or in the T-leukemia cell line MOLT4. The cDNA sequence suggests that the protein is expressed as a prepropeptide, as has been found in the other murine and human serine proteases of lymphocyte origin. It has recently been reported that human chromosome 14q11, in addition to containing the genes encoding cytotoxic serine protease B (CSP-B), cathepsin G, and the T-cell receptor alpha and delta genes, also includes an additional genomic DNA clone which cross-hybridized with CSP-B and cathepsin G, cathepsin-like gene-2 (CGL-2). It is likely that the CSP-C cDNA clone reported in this study corresponds to CGL-2.

Distribution of HLA antigens in the native South Indian Tamil Hindus

Blood samples from 240 unrelated healthy Tamil-speaking South Indian Hindus residing in Madras (capital city of Tamil Nadu, India) were screened for HLA-A and -B antigen profiles. Antigen, gene and haplotype frequencies were calculated and compared with the literature. Tamil Hindus lack A31, A32, Aw33, B16, B21 and Bw41. However, except for minor differences (low occurrence of Aw19 antigen), the South Indians show similarity to North Indian and other Indian groups. The data confirm once more that the haplotype A1-B17 is characteristic of Indians.

Glyoxalase-I and esterase D polymorphisms in Kotas and Badagas of Nilgiri Hills, south India

Blood samples from 217 unrelated individuals belonging to two endogamous populations, Kotas and Badagas of the Nilgiri Hills, South India, were screened for glyoxalase I and esterase D polymorphisms using mixed starch-agarose gel electrophoresis. The GLO1*1 gene frequency estimates were 0.1887 and 0.1982 for Kotas and Badagas. The ESD*1 gene frequency estimates were 0.7123 and 0.7568 for Kotas and Badagas, respectively. The results are compared with those available for other Indian populations.