Vertical eDNA distribution of cold-water fishes in response to environmental variables in stratified lake

In summer, the survival zones of cold-water species are predicted to narrow by both increasing water temperatures from the surface and by expanding hypoxic zones from the lake bottom. To examine how the abundance of cold-water fishes changes along environmental gradients, we assessed the vertical environmental DNA (eDNA) distributions of three salmonid species which may have different water temperature tolerances during both stratification and turnover periods using quantitative PCR (qPCR). In addition, we examined on the vertical distribution of diverse fish fauna using an eDNA metabarcoding assay. The results suggested that the kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) eDNA were abundant in deep, cold waters. On the other hand, rainbow trout (O. mykiss) eDNA were distributed uniformly throughout the water column, suggesting that they may have high water-temperature tolerance compared with kokanee salmon. The eDNA concentrations of masu salmon (O. masou) were below the detection limit (i.e., <10 copies μL-1) at all stations and depths and hence could not be quantified during stratification. Together with the finding that the eDNA distributions of other prey fish species were also constrained vertically in species-specific ways, our results suggest that climate change will result in substantial changes in the vertical distributions of lake fish species and thus affect their populations and interactions.

Diazotrophic nitrogen fixation through aerial roots occurs in Avicennia marina: implications for adaptation of mangrove plant growth to low-nitrogen tidal flats

Nitrogen limitation of primary production is common in coastal ecosystems. Mangrove trees maintain high levels of nitrogen fixation around their roots. The interior aerial space of mangrove roots, in which atmospheric gas is supplied through lenticels, could be efficient sites for nitrogen fixation. We measured tidal variations of partial pressure of N2 in root aerenchyma and conducted field experiments using 15 N2 as a tracer to track N2 movement through aerial roots of Avicennia marina. We used the acetylene reduction assay to identify the root parts harboring diazotrophs. The nitrogenase activity and estimated nitrogen fixation through aerenchyma were higher in pneumatophores and absorbing roots than in cable roots. Positive correlations between root nitrogen contents and turnover rates of root nitrogen derived from N2 through aerenchyma suggested that the internal supply of N2 to diazotrophs could be the main source for nitrogen assimilation by A. marina roots. Our results confirmed that N2 is supplied to diazotrophs through aerial roots and that nitrogen fixation occurs in A. marina roots. The aerial root structures, which occur across families of mangrove plants, could be an adaptation to survival in not only low-oxygen environments but also tidal flats with little plant-available nitrogen.

Identifying the true drivers of abrupt changes in ecosystem state with a focus on time lags: Extreme precipitation can determine water quality in shallow lakes

A better understanding of abrupt ecosystem changes is needed to improve prediction of future ecosystem states under climate change. Chronological analysis based on long-term monitoring data is an effective way to estimate the frequency and magnitude of abrupt ecosystem changes. In this study, we used abrupt-change detection to differentiate changes of algal community composition in two Japanese lakes and to identify the causes of long-term ecological transitions. Additionally, we focused on finding statistically significant relationships between abrupt changes to aid with factor analysis. To estimate the strengths of driver-response relationships underlying abrupt algal transitions, the timing of the algal transitions was compared to that of abrupt changes in climate and basin characteristics to identify any synchronicities between them. The timing of abrupt algal changes in the two study lakes corresponded most closely to that of heavy runoff events during the past 30-40 years. This strongly suggests that changes in the frequency of extreme events (e.g., heavy rain, prolonged drought) have a greater effect on lake chemistry and community composition than do shifts in the means of climate and basin factors. Our analysis of synchronicity (with a focus on time lags) could provide an easy method to identify better adaptative strategies for future climate change.

Inferring causal impacts of extreme water-level drawdowns on lake water clarity using long-term monitoring data

Although long-term ecosystem monitoring provides essential knowledge for practicing ecosystem management, analyses of the causal effects of ecological impacts from large-scale observational data are still in an early stage of development. We used causal impact analysis (CIA)-a synthetic control method that enables estimation of causal impacts from unrepeated, long-term observational data-to evaluate the causal impacts of extreme water-level drawdowns during summer on subsequent water quality. We used more than 100 years of transparency and water level monitoring data from Lake Biwa, Japan. The results of the CIA showed that the most extreme drawdown in recorded history, which occurred in 1994, had a significant positive effect on transparency (a maximum increase of 1.75 m on average over the following year) in the north basin of the lake. The extreme drawdown in 1939 was also shown to be a trigger for an increase in transparency in the north basin, whereas that in 1984 had no significant effects on transparency. In the south basin, contrary to the pattern in the north basin, the extreme drawdown had a significant negative effect on transparency shortly after the extreme drawdown. These different impacts of the extreme drawdowns were considered to be affected by the timing and magnitude of the extreme drawdowns and the depths of the basins. Our approach of inferring the causal impacts of past events on ecosystems will be helpful in implementing water-level management for ecosystem management and improving water quality in lakes.

Differences in the isotopic signature of activated sludge in four types of advanced treatment processes at a municipal wastewater treatment plant

The natural abundance of stable isotopes is a powerful tool for evaluating biological reactions and process conditions. However, there are few stable isotope studies on the wastewater treatment process. This study carried out the first investigation on variations in natural abundance of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) of activated sludge in four types of advanced treatment process (extended aeration activated sludge (EAAS), aerobic-anoxic-aerobic (A²O), recycled nitrification-denitrification (RND), and modified Bardenpho (MB)) at a municipal wastewater treatment plant. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of influent suspended solids settled in the primary sedimentation tank (i.e., primary sludge) ranged from -25.4‰ to -24.6‰ and 0.5‰-2.9‰, respectively, during monitoring periods. The δ¹³C values of the activated sludge were -24.6‰ to -23.6‰ (EAAS), -25.4‰ to -24.3‰ (A²O), -25.7‰ to -24.9‰ (RND), and -25.7‰ to -24.3‰ (MB). The δ¹³C values of the activated sludge were similar to those of influent suspended solids. However, the δ¹³C values of activated sludge in EAAS was significantly higher than in A²O, RND, and MB. Meanwhile, the δ¹⁵N values of activated sludge were obviously higher than influent suspended solids; 5.8‰-7.5‰ (EAAS), 6.6‰-8.1‰ (A²O), 5.5‰-7.5‰ (RND), and 5.3‰-7.6‰ (MB). Changes in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of the activated sludge within the treatment system were also found. These findings indicate that changes in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of the activated sludge rely on important function for biological wastewater treatment such as nitrification, denitrification, and methane oxidation through wastewater treatment over time.

Evaluation of stable isotope ratios (δ15N and δ18O) of nitrate in advanced sewage treatment processes: Isotopic signature in four process types

Stable isotope ratios of nitrate are a powerful tool to evaluate aquatic environment stress from treated and untreated sewage. However, there is generally a lack of knowledge on the change in stable isotope ratios within wastewater treatment plants. We investigated nitrogen and oxygen stable isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) of nitrate in four types of advanced treatment processes operated in parallel; (A) extended aeration activated sludge, (B) anaerobic-anoxic-aerobic (A²O), (C) recycled nitrification-denitrification, and (D) modified Bardenpho. The results exhibited spatial variation of δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O for nitrate within the treatment steps. The changes in δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O may result from the reactor conditions (aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic) and the order of these processes. As decreasing nitrate concentration in the anoxic stages, the δ¹⁵N/δ¹⁸O ratio for nitrate increased at a rate of 1.3 to 1.6 coupling with the reduction in the nitrate concentration in the anoxic stages. The δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O signatures were attributed to process performance in regard to nitrogen removal. In particular, the modified Bardenpho process has higher nitrogen removal efficiency over other processes, producing effluent with lower nitrate concentration and higher stable isotopes (δ¹⁵N: 23.6 to 25.5‰, δ¹⁸O: 2.8 to 4.5‰). We concluded that the stable isotope signatures mirrored the treatment efficiency and effluent characteristics.

Seasonal dynamics of the activities of dissolved 137Cs and the 137Cs of fish in a shallow, hypereutrophic lake: Links to bottom-water oxygen concentrations

Remobilization of radiocesium from anoxic sediments can be an important mechanism responsible for long-term contaminations of lakes. However, it is unclear whether such remobilization occurs in shallow lakes, where concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the hypolimnion (bottom DO) change temporally in response to meteorological conditions, and whether remobilized radiocesium influences the activity in fish. We examined the seasonal dynamics of the activities of dissolved ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³⁷Cs in fish (pond smelt and crucian carp) from Lake Kasumigaura, a shallow, hypereutrophic lake, five years after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident. The activities of both dissolved ¹³⁷Cs and ¹³⁷Cs in fish declined during that time, but the declines showed a clear seasonal pattern that included a summer peak of ¹³⁷Cs activity. The activity of dissolved ¹³⁷Cs increased when the bottom DO concentration decreased, and a nonlinear causality test revealed significant causal forcing of dissolved ¹³⁷Cs activity by bottom DO. The fact that NH₄-N concentrations in bottom waters were higher in the summer suggested that remobilization of ¹³⁷Cs from sediments could result from highly selective ion-exchange with NH₄-N. Despite the shallow depth of Lake Kasumigaura, winds had little influence bottom DO concentrations or dissolved ¹³⁷Cs activities. The fact that seasonal means of ¹³⁷Cs activities in pond smelt and crucian carp were positively correlated with the seasonal means of dissolved ¹³⁷Cs activities suggested that remobilized ¹³⁷Cs may have influenced the seasonal dynamics of radiocesium in fish through food-chain transfer, but higher feeding rates in warm water could may have also contributed to the seasonal dynamics of ¹³⁷Cs activity in fish. Our findings suggest that in shallow lakes, intermittent but repeated hypoxic events may enhance remobilization of radiocesium from sediments, and remobilized radiocesium may contributed to long-term retention of radiocesium in aquatic organisms.

Patterns of CO2 concentration and inorganic carbon limitation of phytoplankton biomass in agriculturally eutrophic lakes

Lake eutrophication is a pervasive problem globally, particularly serious in agricultural and densely populated areas. Whenever nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus do not limit phytoplankton growth directly, high growth rates will rapidly lead to biomass increases causing self-shading and light-limitation, and eventually CO₂ depletion. The paradigm of phytoplankton limitation by nutrients and light is so pervasively established, that the lack of nutrient limitation is ordinarily interpreted as sufficient evidence for the condition of light limitation, without considering the possibility of limitation by inorganic carbon. Here, we firstly evaluated how frequently CO₂ undersaturation occurs in a set of eutrophic lakes in the Pampa plains. Our results confirm that conditions of CO₂ undersaturation develop much more frequently (yearly 34%, summer 44%) in these agriculturally impacted lakes than in deep, temperate lakes in forested watersheds. Secondly, we used Generalized Additive Models to fit trends in CO₂ concentration considering three drivers: total incident irradiance, chlorophyll a concentration, and lake depth; in eight multi-year datasets from eutrophic lakes from Europe, North and South America, Asia and New Zealand. CO₂ depletion was more often observed at high irradiance levels, and shallow water. CO₂ depletion also occurred at high chlorophyll concentration. Finally, we identified occurrences of light- and carbon-limitation at the whole-lake scale. The different responses of chlorophyll a and CO₂ allowed us to develop criteria for detecting conditions of CO₂ limitation. For the first time, we provided whole-lake evidence of carbon limitation of phytoplankton biomass. CO₂ increases and eutrophication represent two major and converging environmental problems that have additive and contrasting effects, promoting phytoplankton, and also leading to carbon depletion. Their interactions deserve further exploration and imaginative approaches to deal with their effects.

Microdiversity and phylogeographic diversification of bacterioplankton in pelagic freshwater systems revealed through long-read amplicon sequencing

BACKGROUND

Freshwater ecosystems are inhabited by members of cosmopolitan bacterioplankton lineages despite the disconnected nature of these habitats. The lineages are delineated based on > 97% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity, but their intra-lineage microdiversity and phylogeography, which are key to understanding the eco-evolutional processes behind their ubiquity, remain unresolved. Here, we applied long-read amplicon sequencing targeting nearly full-length 16S rRNA genes and the adjacent ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequences to reveal the intra-lineage diversities of pelagic bacterioplankton assemblages in 11 deep freshwater lakes in Japan and Europe.

RESULTS

Our single nucleotide-resolved analysis, which was validated using shotgun metagenomic sequencing, uncovered 7-101 amplicon sequence variants for each of the 11 predominant bacterial lineages and demonstrated sympatric, allopatric, and temporal microdiversities that could not be resolved through conventional approaches. Clusters of samples with similar intra-lineage population compositions were identified, which consistently supported genetic isolation between Japan and Europe. At a regional scale (up to hundreds of kilometers), dispersal between lakes was unlikely to be a limiting factor, and environmental factors or genetic drift were potential determinants of population composition. The extent of microdiversification varied among lineages, suggesting that highly diversified lineages (e.g., Iluma-A2 and acI-A1) achieve their ubiquity by containing a consortium of genotypes specific to each habitat, while less diversified lineages (e.g., CL500-11) may be ubiquitous due to a small number of widespread genotypes. The lowest extent of intra-lineage diversification was observed among the dominant hypolimnion-specific lineage (CL500-11), suggesting that their dispersal among lakes is not limited despite the hypolimnion being a more isolated habitat than the epilimnion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our novel approach complemented the limited resolution of short-read amplicon sequencing and limited sensitivity of the metagenome assembly-based approach, and highlighted the complex ecological processes underlying the ubiquity of freshwater bacterioplankton lineages. To fully exploit the performance of the method, its relatively low read throughput is the major bottleneck to be overcome in the future. Video abstract.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging as a Novel Method for Elucidating Sediment Burrow Structures and Functions

Burrow structures produced by various benthic animals in sediments are important components of aquatic ecosystems, allowing the circulation of interstitial water via ingress of fresh bottom water into the burrows upon feeding and intraburrow migration. Although X-ray computed tomography has been used to visualize burrow structures, it could not reveal the structures in the soft mud in Lake Kasumigaura, where evaluation of the water-circulation effect of burrows is an important issue. Here, we describe the first attempt to use magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (MRI) to visualize intact burrow structures in the soft mud sediment cores collected from a eutrophic lake. Our MRI application clarified the dynamic distribution of burrows inhabited by chironomids in the soft mud that previous studies could not visualize. By examining the relationships between the degree of chloride ion depletion in deeper layers and the burrow density calculated from the MR images, we were able to consistently explain the water-circulation effect of burrows, suggesting the higher reliability of burrow density calculated from MR images. In addition, we were able to evaluate the activity of burrows, which is difficult to achieve in sediment core experiments. We observed a smaller water-circulation effect of burrows on ammonium ions than on chloride ions, suggesting the enhancement of ammonium production or release in burrow-rich sediments.

Characterization of dissolved organic matter in wastewater during aerobic, anaerobic, and anoxic treatment processes by molecular size and fluorescence analyses

Changes in the characteristics of dissolved organic matter (DOM: the dissolved fraction of natural organic matter) during a series of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) processes were investigated by using a combination of molecular size analysis and excitation emission matrix (EEM) spectroscopy coupled with parallel factor analysis. The characteristics of DOM were compared following aerobic, anoxic, and anaerobic treatments. Three peaks at about 100,000 Da (high-molecular-size DOM, Peak 1) and about 900-1,100 Da (intermediate-molecular-size DOM, Peak 2; low-molecular-size DOM, Peak 3 as the shoulder of Peak 2) were observed in the distribution of total organic carbon molecular sizes in the influent of the WWTPs. In this study, five fluorescent components (C1 to C5) were identified in the EEM spectra. Molecular size analysis and molecular size fractionation revealed that the C3 (humic-like) and C5 (specific to sewage) fluorophores had intermediate or low molecular sizes. Comparison of the changes of the concentrations of dissolved organic carbon in each reaction tank and investigation of the removal selectivity of each treatment (aerobic, anaerobic, and anoxic) suggested that the heterogenous compounds present in DOM of the influent were homogenized into intermediate-molecular-size DOM with high hydrophobicity and aromaticity, or into C4 fluorophores (DOM-X), during anaerobic or anoxic treatment. DOM-X was able to be transformed or removed by aerobic treatment. The results suggested that introduction of aerobic treatment at the appropriate stage of wastewater treatment or inclusion of physical or chemical treatment should be an effective way to optimize DOM removal.

Incorporation characteristics of exogenous 15N-labeled thymidine, deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine and deoxycytidine into bacterial DNA

Bacterial production has been often estimated from DNA synthesis rates by using tritium-labeled thymidine. Some bacteria species cannot incorporate extracellular thymidine into their DNA, suggesting their biomass production might be overlooked when using the conventional method. In the present study, to evaluate appropriateness of deoxyribonucleosides for evaluating bacterial production of natural bacterial communities from the viewpoint of DNA synthesis, incorporation rates of four deoxyribonucleosides (thymidine, deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine and deoxycytidine) labeled by nitrogen stable isotope (¹⁵N) into bacterial DNA were examined in both ocean (Sagami Bay) and freshwater (Lake Kasumigaura) ecosystems in July 2015 and January 2016. In most stations in Sagami Bay and Lake Kasumigaura, we found that incorporation rates of deoxyguanosine were the highest among those of the four deoxyribonucleosides, and the incorporation rate of deoxyguanosine was approximately 2.5 times higher than that of thymidine. Whereas, incorporation rates of deoxyadenosine and deoxycytidine were 0.9 and 0.2 times higher than that of thymidine. These results clearly suggest that the numbers of bacterial species which can incorporate exogenous deoxyguanosine into their DNA are relatively greater as compared to the other deoxyribonucleosides, and measurement of bacterial production using deoxyguanosine more likely reflects larger numbers of bacterial species productions.

Distribution in natural abundances of stable isotopes of nitrate and retained sludge in a nitrifying bioreactor: Drastic changes in isotopic signatures

This study determined the spatial and temporal changes in natural abundance of stable isotopes (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ¹⁸O) with regard to nitrate (NO₃^-) and retained sludge in a nitrifying bioreactor. The bioreactor was continuously fed with synthetic wastewater including ammonium for 61 days at 20 °C. After the start-up period of the bioreactor, the NO₃^- concentration in the effluent gradually increased. The stable isotopes (δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) of NO₃^- in the effluent also increased in a phase of incomplete nitrification. The profile experiments showed that the concentration and stable isotopes of NO₃^- changed simultaneously along the wastewater flow in the bioreactor. The stable isotope analysis revealed that nitrification efficiency seems to be strongly related to the δ¹⁵N of NO₃^-. Moreover, the δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N of the retained sludge drastically changed along the reactor length, from -26‰ to -18‰ and from 5‰ to 30‰, respectively, after 61 days of operation. The isotopic composition of the retained sludge might be affected by the isotope ratios (δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) of NO₃^- in the bioreactor. Therefore, the isotope signatures of the retained sludge seem to closely reflect process performance such as nitrification efficiency throughout the operational period. Our findings suggest that the spatial distribution of the isotopic composition of the retained sludge can be used to detect process occurrence within the bioreactor over time.

Tracking the route of atmospheric nitrogen to diazotrophs colonizing buried mangrove roots

Nitrogen-fixing activity has been observed in the rhizosphere of mangrove ecosystems, suggesting a close mangrove-diazotroph relationship. In regularly flooded soil, however, the pathway by which atmospheric nitrogen reaches the diazotrophs in the rhizosphere is unknown. This study provides evidence that mangrove aerial roots serve as pathways that supply nitrogen gas to the diazotrophs colonizing buried roots. A plastic chamber was attached on the exposed part of a Rhizophora stylosa Griff prop root, and 15N2 tracer gas was injected into it. The entire root, including the below-ground part, was collected for analysis of 15N labelling and nitrogenase activity. We detected 15N labelling in buried root materials 2 h after gas injection. Compared with the δ15N contents in root material from an untreated tree, the increment was >10‰ in lateral roots. The nitrogenase activity measured on the other R. stylosa roots was highest in lateral roots, matching well with the results of 15N labelling. Our results indicate that atmospheric nitrogen is taken into aerial mangrove roots through lenticels, diffuses into the buried root system and is fixed by diazotrophs. The unusual appearance of mangrove aerial roots, which has intrigued researchers for many years, could be a key to the high productivity of mangrove ecosystems.

Vertical variation of bulk and metabolically active prokaryotic community in sediment of a hypereutrophic freshwater lake

This study was conducted to acquire novel insight into differences between bulk (16S rDNA) and metabolically active (16S rRNA) prokaryotic communities in the sediment of a hypereutrophic lake (Japan). In the bulk communities, the class Deltaproteobacteria and the order Methanomicrobiales were dominant among bacteria and methanogens. In the metabolically active communities, the class Alphaproteobacteria and the order Methanomicrobiales and the family Methanosaetaceae were frequently found among bacteria and methanogens. Unlike the bulk communities of prokaryotes, the composition of the metabolically active communities varied remarkably vertically, and their diversities greatly decreased in the lower 20 cm of sediment. The metabolically active prokaryotic community in the sediment core was divided into three sections based on their similarity: 0-6 cm (section 1), 9-18 cm (section 2), and 21-42 cm (section 3). This sectional distribution was consistent with the vertical pattern of the sedimentary stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios and oxidation-reduction potential in the porewater. These results suggest that vertical disturbance of the sediment may influence the communities and functions of metabolically active prokaryotes in freshwater lake sediments. Overall, our results indicate that rRNA analysis may be more effective than rDNA analysis for evaluation of relationships between actual microbial processes and material cycling in lake sediments.

Evaluation of trophic transfer in the microbial food web during sludge degradation based on 13C and 15N natural abundance

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) were determined in activated sludge, which was exposed to endogenous conditions for 36 days and contained a wide diversity of organisms across several trophic levels. The aim of this study was to elucidate the fluctuation of δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N through trophic transfer in the microbial consortia. The sludge was evaluated in view of sludge mass, bacterial community, higher trophic organisms, sludge δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N, and δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O of nitrate. The results show that the activated sludge became more enriched with ¹⁵N as degradation proceeded. Eventually, the mixed liquor volatile suspended solid concentrations in the activated sludge decreased from 1610 to 710 mg/L and the δ¹⁵N of the sludge increased from 8.3‰ to 10.8‰. In contrast, the δ¹³C values of the sludge were stable. Microscope observations confirmed that consumers such as Rotifera, Tardigrada and Annelida (Aelosoma sp.) were present in the activated sludge for the entire operational period. The abundance of those organisms drastically changed during the operational periods, and the diversity in bacterial community also changed, resulting in community succession. Changes in biotic community, reduction in sludge mass, and increase in δ¹⁵N of the sludge occurred during the sludge degradation processes. This implies that the sludge degradation was partly caused by the trophic conversion of the sludge-derived nitrogen in the food web. The δ¹⁵N of the sludge can be used as an indicator of the sludge degradation through trophic transfer in wastewater treatment reactors. These findings provide new insights into understanding trophic transfer during microbial community succession and the effects of the feeding process on sludge degradation.

Coniferous coverage as well as catchment steepness influences local stream nitrate concentrations within a nitrogen-saturated forest in central Japan

High concentrations of nitrate have been detected in streams flowing from nitrogen-saturated forests; however, the spatial variations of nitrate leaching within those forests and its causes remain poorly explored. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influences of catchment topography and coniferous coverage on stream nitrate concentrations in a nitrogen-saturated forest. We measured nitrate concentrations in the baseflow of headwater streams at 40 montane forest catchments on Mount Tsukuba in central Japan, at three-month intervals for 1 year, and investigated their relationship with catchment topography and with coniferous coverage. Although stream nitrate concentrations varied from 0.5 to 3.0 mgN L^-1, those in 31 catchments consistently exceeded 1 mgN L^-1, indicating that this forest had experienced nitrogen saturation. A classification and regression tree analysis with multiple environmental factors showed that the mean slope gradient and coniferous coverage were the best and second best, respectively, at explaining inter-catchment variance of stream nitrate concentrations. This analysis suggested that the catchments with steep topography and high coniferous coverage tend to have high nitrate concentrations. Moreover, in the three-year observation period for five adjacent catchments, the two catchments with relatively higher coniferous coverage consistently had higher stream nitrate concentrations. Thus, the spatial variations in stream nitrate concentrations were primarily regulated by catchment steepness and, to a lesser extent, coniferous coverage in this nitrogen-saturated forest. Our results suggest that a decrease in coniferous coverage could potentially contribute to a reduction in nitrate leaching from this nitrogen-saturated forest, and consequently reduce the risk of nitrogen overload for the downstream ecosystems. This information will allow land managers and researchers to develop improved management plans for this and similar forests in Japan and elsewhere.

An Algal Diet Accelerates Larval Growth of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) and Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae)

The population sizes of Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) and Anopheles arabiensis Patton (Diptera: Culicidae) increase dramatically with the onset of the rainy season in sub-Saharan Africa, but the ecological mechanisms underlying the increases are not well understood. As a first step toward to understand, we investigated the proliferation of algae, the major food of mosquito larvae, in artificial fresh water bodies exposed to sunlight for a short period, and old water bodies exposed to sunlight for a long period, and the effects thereof on the development of these anopheline larvae. We found that an epizoic green algal species of the genus Rhopalosolen (Chlorophyta: Chlorophyceae) proliferated immediately after water freshly taken from a spring was placed in sunlight. This alga proliferated only briefly (for ~10 d) even if the water was repeatedly exposed to sunlight. However, various algal species were observed in water that remained under sunlight for 40 d or longer (i.e., in old water bodies). The growth performance of larvae was higher in sunlight-exposed (alga-rich) water than in shade-stored (alga-poor) water. Stable isotope analysis suggested that these two anopheline species fed on Rhopalosolen algae in fresh water bodies but hardly at all on other algae occurring in the old water bodies. We concluded that freshly formed ground water pools facilitate high production of anopheline species because of the proliferation of Rhopalosolen algae therein, and the increase in the number of such pools in the rainy season, followed by rapid increases in A. gambiae and A. arabiensis numbers.

Ubiquity and quantitative significance of bacterioplankton lineages inhabiting the oxygenated hypolimnion of deep freshwater lakes

The oxygenated hypolimnion accounts for a volumetrically significant part of the global freshwater systems. Previous studies have proposed the presence of hypolimnion-specific bacterioplankton lineages that are distinct from those inhabiting the epilimnion. To date, however, no consensus exists regarding their ubiquity and abundance, which is necessary to evaluate their ecological importance. The present study investigated the bacterioplankton community in the oxygenated hypolimnia of 10 deep freshwater lakes. Despite the broad geochemical characteristics of the lakes, 16S rRNA gene sequencing demonstrated that the communities in the oxygenated hypolimnia were distinct from those in the epilimnia and identified several predominant lineages inhabiting multiple lakes. Catalyzed reporter deposition fluorescence in situ hybridization revealed that abundant hypolimnion-specific lineages, CL500-11 (Chloroflexi), CL500-3, CL500-37, CL500-15 (Planctomycetes) and Marine Group I (Thaumarchaeota), together accounted for 1.5-32.9% of all bacterioplankton in the hypolimnion of the lakes. Furthermore, an analysis of single-nucleotide variation in the partial 16S rRNA gene sequence (oligotyping) suggested the presence of different sub-populations between lakes and water layers among the lineages occurring in the entire water layer (for example, acI-B1 and acI-A7). Collectively, these results provide the first comprehensive overview of the bacterioplankton community in the oxygenated hypolimnion of deep freshwater lakes.

Microbial nitrification in throughfall of a Japanese cedar associated with archaea from the tree canopy

To investigate the nitrification potential of phyllospheric microbes, we incubated throughfall samples collected under the canopies of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) and analyzed the transformation of inorganic nitrogen in the samples. Nitrate concentration increased in the unfiltered throughfall after 4 weeks of incubation, but remained nearly constant in the filtered samples (pore size: 0.2 and 0.4 µm). In the unfiltered samples, δ¹⁸O and δ¹⁵N values of nitrate decreased during incubation. In addition, archaeal ammonia monooxygenase subunit A (amoA) genes, which participate in the oxidation of ammonia, were found in the throughfall samples, although betaproteobacterial amoA genes were not detected. The amoA genes recovered from the leaf surface of C. japonica were also from archaea. Conversely, nitrate production, decreased isotope ratios of nitrate, and the presence of amoA genes was not observed in rainfall samples collected from an open area. Thus, the microbial nitrification that occurred in the incubated throughfall is likely due to ammonia-oxidizing archaea that were washed off the tree canopy by precipitation.

Dynamics of particulate phosphorus in a shallow eutrophic lake

We tested the hypothesis that in shallow, eutrophic Lake Kasumigaura, the concentration of particulate phosphorus (PP) is controlled by biogenic P (P in living or dead phytoplankton and bacterial cells), rather than by resuspension of inorganic P in sediment. Increases in wind velocity and turbidity were associated with bottom shear stress exceeding the critical value for the lake (τc=0.15Nm(-2)); this increased turbidity was due to sediment resuspension. However, concentrations of PP; HCl-extractable, reactive P in PP (P-rP); and HCl-extractable, non-reactive P in PP (P-nrP) were not correlated with wind velocity (PP vs. wind velocity: r=0.40, p>0.05). Rather, the P-nrP concentration accounted for approximately 79% of PP, and the concentrations of PP, P-rP, and P-nrP were correlated with the particulate organic carbon (POC) concentration (POC vs. PP: r=0.90, p<0.01; POC vs. P-rP: r=0.82, p<0.01; POC vs. P-nrP: r=0.86, p<0.01). In our (31)P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy results, mononucleotides accounted for the largest proportion among the detected P compound classes. In addition, concentrations of mononucleotides, orthophosphate, and pyrophosphate were significantly higher in samples with high POC concentrations, whereas the DNA-P concentration was not. These results suggest that biogenic P affects PP concentrations more strongly than does sediment resuspension, and the production of biogenic P creates a pool of mononucleotides, a class of easily degradable P, even in shallow, eutrophic Lake Kasumigaura.

Temporal changes in carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of macrozoobenthos on an artificial tidal flat facing a hypertrophic canal, inner Tokyo Bay

Temporal changes in benthic food web structure were analyzed in an artificial tidal flat in inner Tokyo Bay, Japan, using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios (δ(13)C and δ(15)N). Microphytobenthos were the most important food sources of macrozoobenthos, due to high microphytobenthic biomass on the tidal flat, while phytoplankton in canal water (canal POMPP), terrestrial materials from urban surface runoff (canal POMTM), and marsh plants were less important. Dietary contribution of microphytobenthos was highest in April to June, while decreased towards December owing to the supply of canal POMPP and canal POMTM following red tides and heavy rainfall events in summer to fall. Temporal changes in δ(15)N (Δδ(15)N) of consumer corresponded well to the (15)N-enrichment in canal POMPP in summer. A meta-analysis showed that the consumer-Δδ(15)N was considerably larger in inner Tokyo Bay than those in other estuaries, which may be a specific characteristic of benthic food web in highly urbanized estuaries.

Biogenic phosphorus compounds in sediment and suspended particles in a shallow eutrophic lake: a ³¹P-nuclear magnetic resonance (³¹P NMR) study

Differences in biogenic phosphorus (P) compounds between sediment and suspended particles in aquatic environments are important for understanding the mechanisms of internal P loading, but these differences are still unknown. We used solution-state (31)P-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((31)P NMR) with NaOH-ethylenediaminetetraacetic extraction to detect the multiple P compounds in suspended particles and sediment in the eutrophic Lake Kasumigaura, including orthophosphate monoesters, orthophosphate diesters, pyrophosphate, and polyphosphate. We tested the hypothesis that there is a significant difference between these groups in suspended particles and sediment. Biogenic P other than orthophosphate was found in significantly higher proportions in suspended particles (74.3% of total P) than in sediment (25.6%). Orthophosphate monoesters were comparatively more abundant in suspended particles, as indicated by the ratio of orthophosphate diesters to monoesters (average, 0.31 for suspended particles; 1.05 for sediment). The compounds identified as orthophosphate monoesters by (31)P NMR spectroscopy originated mainly from phospholipids (α-glycerophosphate and β-glycerophosphate) and ribonucleic acid (RNA-P), whereas the orthophosphate diesters included mostly DNA (DNA-P). These results suggest that the dynamics of orthophosphate diesters, the production of DNA-P, or the degradation of phospholipids, play an important role in P cycling in Lake Kasumigaura.

Fast and precise method for HPLC-size exclusion chromatography with UV and TOC (NDIR) detection: importance of multiple detectors to evaluate the characteristics of dissolved organic matter

A new type of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-size exclusion chromatography (SEC) system with ultraviolet (UV) absorbance detection and non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) detection of total organic carbon is described. The introduction of an online degassing tube and a low-volume HPLC column helped to reduce the analytical time and increase the sensitivity of the SEC system. This study is the first in which linear calibration curves (R(2)>0.99) were obtained for both UV absorbance and NDIR data for polystyrene sulfonate standards, which are the most suitable standards for molecular size analysis of aquatic humic substances as well as dissolved organic matter (DOM). Using the calibration curves, the molecular size distribution of DOM in water collected from Lake Kasumigaura and in pore water from lake sediments was estimated. Most of the DOM had a molecular weight less than 4000 Daltons (Da), and the amount of low-molecular-weight DOM (∼ 2000 Da) with low UV absorbance increased with depth in the sediment pore water. This result shows the importance of combining quantitative analysis by NDIR detection with qualitative analysis by UV detection to determine the chemical and physical properties of DOM. The possible sources and reactivity of DOM in Lake Kasumigaura and its sediment pore water are also discussed.

Evaluation of wastewater nitrogen transformation in a natural wetland (Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia) using dual-isotope analysis of nitrate

The Tuul River, which provides water for the daily needs of many residents of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, has been increasingly polluted by wastewater from the city's sewage treatment plant. Information on water movement and the transformation of water-borne materials is required to alleviate the deterioration of water quality. We conducted a synoptic survey of general water movement, water quality including inorganic nitrogen concentrations, and isotopic composition of nitrogen (δ(15)N-NO(3)(-), δ(18)O-NO(3)(-), and δ(15)N-NH(4)(+)) and water (δ(18)O-H(2)O) in a wetland area that receives wastewater before it enters the Tuul River. We sampled surface water, groundwater, and spring water along the two major water routes in the wetland that flow from the drain of the sewage treatment plant to the Tuul River: a continuous tributary and a discontinuous tributary. The continuous tributary had high ammonium (NH(4)(+)) concentrations and nearly stable δ(15)N-NH(4)(+), δ(15)N-NO(3)(-), and δ(18)O-NO(3)(-) concentrations throughout its length, indicating that nitrogen transformation (i.e., nitrification and denitrification) during transit was small. In contrast, NH(4)(+) concentrations decreased along the discontinuous tributary and nitrate (NO(3)(-)) concentrations were low at many points. Values of δ(15)N-NH(4)(+), δ(15)N-NO(3)(-), and δ(18)O-NO(3)(-) increased with flow along the discontinuous route. Our results indicate that nitrification and denitrification contribute to nitrogen removal in the wetland area along the discontinuous tributary with slow water transport. Differences in hydrological pathways and the velocity of wastewater transport through the wetland area greatly affect the extent of nitrogen removal.

Food webs in Mongolian grasslands: the analysis of 13C and 15N natural abundances

Overgrazing often lowers species richness and productivity of grassland communities. For Mongolian grassland ecosystems, a lack of detailed information about food-web structures makes it difficult to predict the effects of overgrazing on species diversity and community composition. We analysed the delta13C and delta15N signatures of herbaceous plants, arthropods (grouped by feeding habit), wild and domestic mammals, and humans in central Mongolia to understand the predominant food-web pathways in this grassland ecosystem. The delta13C and delta15N values of mammals showed little variation within species, but varied considerably with slope position for arthropods. The apparent isotopic discrimination between body tissue and hair of mammals was estimated as 2.0 per thousand for delta13C and 2.1 per thousand for delta15N, which was large enough to cause overestimation of the trophic level of mammals if not taken into account when using hair samples to measure isotopic enrichment.

Isotopic composition of nitrogenous compounds with emphasis on anthropogenic loading in river ecosystems

Nitrogenous compounds with high delta(15)N values were recently found in human-dominated small rivers in the Lake Biwa area. A detailed survey was performed to determine the distribution and variation of delta(15)N values in nitrogenous compounds in a representative small river (Hebisuna River) that flows into Lake Nishinoko, an inner bay of Lake Biwa. A high delta(15)N value was detected in the lower reaches of the river and the inner bay, most likely due to denitrification. These results strongly suggest that denitrification in small river systems such as the Hebisuna watershed has contributed to (15)N enrichment in the Lake Biwa ecosystem during the past 40 years. We also observed a clear, stepwise, positive correlation between population density and delta(15)N values for particulate organic matter or sediments. These results demonstrate that delta(15)N (POM) and delta(15)N (sediment) are helpful indicators for assessing nitrogen loading from domestic sewage. Moreover, they will aid in the development of new concepts in the environmental capacity of river ecosystems and its relationship to redox conditions. Finally, our data suggest that a population density of 100-200 persons per km(2) is the upper limit for a watershed in which only simple conventional sewage treatment is in effect.

Use of stable nitrogen isotope signatures of riparian macrophytes as an indicator of anthropogenic N inputs to river ecosystems

Deterioration of aquatic ecosystems resulting from enhanced anthropogenic N loading has become an issue of increasing concern worldwide, and methods are needed to trace sources of N in rivers. Because nitrate from sewage is enriched in 15N relative to nitrate from natural soils, delta(15)N values of stream nitrate (delta(15)Nnitrate) should be an appropriate index of anthropogenic N loading to rivers, as should the delta(15)N values of riparian plants (delta(15)Nplant) because they are consumers of nitrate. We determined the delta(15)N values of stream nitrate and six species of riparian macrophytes in 31 rivers in the Lake Biwa Basin in Japan. We then tested the correlation between these values and various land-use parameters, including the percentage of land used for residential and agricultural purposes as well as for natural areas. These delta(15)N values were significantly positively correlated with land use (%) that had a high N load (i.e., residential or agricultural use) and significantly negatively correlated with forest (%). These findings indicate that delta(15)N values of stream nitrate and riparian plants might be good indicators of anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen.

Dynamics of 15N natural abundance in wood-decomposing fungi and their ecophysiological implications

Nine species of basidiomycota and one species of ascomycota were grown in an ammonium sulphate media and on beech wood; and the general (15)N dynamic patterns of the hyphae were examined. The fungal body initially became depleted in (15)N in both the types of incubation. However, the underlying mechanisms were quite different, that is, significant fungal (15)N drop on the beech wood is associated with the fungal N reallocation and the uptake of atmospheric ammonia and/or NO(x), in addition to isotope fractionation during assimilation. Although the (15)N values of the wood-decomposing basidiocarps were generally close to the (15)N values of the wood, it does not always indicate that the wood derived N was the sole N source for the fungi throughout the growth periods as shown in our wood-decomposing experiment.