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Mathew NE, McCaffrey D, Walker AK, Mallitt KA, Masi A, Morris MJ, Ooi CY. The search for gastrointestinal inflammation in autism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of non-invasive gastrointestinal markers. Mol Autism 2024; 15:4. [PMID: 38233886 PMCID: PMC10795298 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-023-00575-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gastrointestinal symptoms and inflammatory gastrointestinal diseases exist at higher rates in the autistic population. It is not clear however whether autism is associated with elevated gastrointestinal inflammation as studies examining non-invasive faecal biomarkers report conflicting findings. To understand the research landscape and identify gaps, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies measuring non-invasive markers of gastrointestinal inflammation in autistic and non-autistic samples. Our examination focused on faecal biomarkers as sampling is non-invasive and these markers are a direct reflection of inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract. METHODS We extracted data from case-control studies examining faecal markers of gastrointestinal inflammation. We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Web of Science Core Collection and Epistemonikos and forward and backwards citations of included studies published up to April 14, 2023 (PROSPERO CRD42022369279). RESULTS There were few studies examining faecal markers of gastrointestinal inflammation in the autistic population, and many established markers have not been studied. Meta-analyses of studies examining calprotectin (n = 9) and lactoferrin (n = 3) were carried out. A total of 508 autistic children and adolescents and 397 non-autistic children and adolescents were included in the meta-analysis of calprotectin studies which found no significant group differences (ROM: 1.30 [0.91, 1.86]). Estimated differences in calprotectin were lower in studies with siblings and studies which did not exclude non-autistic controls with gastrointestinal symptoms. A total of 139 autistic participants and 75 non-autistic controls were included in the meta-analysis of lactoferrin studies which found no significant group differences (ROM: 1.27 [0.79, 2.04]). LIMITATIONS All studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis examined children and adolescents. Many studies included non-autistic controls with gastrointestinal symptoms which limit the validity of their findings. The majority of studies of gastrointestinal inflammation focused on children under 12 with few studies including adolescent participants. Most studies that included participants aged four or under did not account for the impact of age on calprotectin levels. Future studies should screen for relevant confounders, include larger samples and explore gastrointestinal inflammation in autistic adolescents and adults. CONCLUSIONS There is no evidence to suggest higher levels of gastrointestinal inflammation as measured by calprotectin and lactoferrin are present in autistic children and adolescents at the population level. Preliminary evidence suggests however that higher calprotectin levels may be present in a subset of autistic participants, who may be clinically characterised by more severe gastrointestinal symptoms and higher levels of autistic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha E Mathew
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
- Laboratory of ImmunoPsychiatry, Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia
| | - Delyse McCaffrey
- Laboratory of ImmunoPsychiatry, Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Adam K Walker
- Laboratory of ImmunoPsychiatry, Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
- Drug Discovery Biology Theme, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Kylie-Ann Mallitt
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
- Sydney School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Anne Masi
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Margaret J Morris
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Chee Y Ooi
- School of Clinical Medicine, Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, UNSW Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia.
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sydney Children's Hospital, High Street, Randwick, NSW, 2031, Australia.
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Mawer D, Byrne F, Drake S, Brown C, Prescott A, Warne B, Bousfield R, Skittrall JP, Ramsay I, Somasunderam D, Bevan M, Coslett J, Rao J, Stanley P, Kennedy A, Dobson R, Long S, Obisanya T, Esmailji T, Petridou C, Saeed K, Brechany K, Davis-Blue K, O'Horan H, Wake B, Martin J, Featherstone J, Hall C, Allen J, Johnson G, Hornigold C, Amir N, Henderson K, McClements C, Liew I, Deshpande A, Vink E, Trigg D, Guilfoyle J, Scarborough M, Scarborough C, Wong THN, Walker T, Fawcett N, Morris G, Tomlin K, Grix C, O'Cofaigh E, McCaffrey D, Cooper M, Corbett K, French K, Harper S, Hayward C, Reid M, Whatley V, Winfield J, Hoque S, Kelly L, King I, Bradley A, McCullagh B, Hibberd C, Merron M, McCabe C, Horridge S, Taylor J, Koo S, Elsanousi F, Saunders R, Lim F, Bond A, Stone S, Milligan ID, Mack DJF, Nagar A, West RM, Wilcox MH, Kirby A, Sandoe JAT. Cross-sectional study of the prevalence, causes and management of hospital-onset diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect 2019; 103:200-209. [PMID: 31077777 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2019.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The National Health Service in England advises hospitals collect data on hospital-onset diarrhoea (HOD). Contemporaneous data on HOD are lacking. AIM To investigate prevalence, aetiology and management of HOD on medical, surgical and elderly-care wards. METHODS A cross-sectional study in a volunteer sample of UK hospitals, which collected data on one winter and one summer day in 2016. Patients admitted ≥72 h were screened for HOD (definition: ≥2 episodes of Bristol Stool Type 5-7 the day before the study, with diarrhoea onset >48 h after admission). Data on HOD aetiology and management were collected prospectively. FINDINGS Data were collected on 141 wards in 32 hospitals (16 acute, 16 teaching). Point-prevalence of HOD was 4.5% (230/5142 patients; 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.9-5.0%). Teaching hospital HOD prevalence (5.9%, 95% CI 5.1-6.9%) was twice that of acute hospitals (2.8%, 95% CI 2.1-3.5%; odds ratio 2.2, 95% CI 1.7-3.0). At least one potential cause was identified in 222/230 patients (97%): 107 (47%) had a relevant underlying condition, 125 (54%) were taking antimicrobials, and 195 (85%) other medication known to cause diarrhoea. Nine of 75 tested patients were Clostridium difficile toxin positive (4%). Eighty (35%) patients had a documented medical assessment of diarrhoea. Documentation of HOD in medical notes correlated with testing for C. difficile (78% of those tested vs 38% not tested, P<0.001). One-hundred and forty-four (63%) patients were not isolated following diarrhoea onset. CONCLUSION HOD is a prevalent symptom affecting thousands of patients across the UK health system each day. Most patients had multiple potential causes of HOD, mainly iatrogenic, but only a third had medical assessment. Most were not tested for C. difficile and were not isolated.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Mawer
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK.
| | - F Byrne
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK
| | - S Drake
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK
| | - C Brown
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK
| | - A Prescott
- Department of Microbiology, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, LS9 7TF, UK
| | - B Warne
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - R Bousfield
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - J P Skittrall
- Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Papworth Everard, Cambridge, CB23 3RE, UK
| | - I Ramsay
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - D Somasunderam
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - M Bevan
- Department of Infection Prevention, Royal Gwent Hospital, Newport, NP20 2UB, UK
| | - J Coslett
- Department of Infection Prevention, Royal Gwent Hospital, Newport, NP20 2UB, UK
| | - J Rao
- Department of Microbiology, Barnsley Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Barnsley, S75 2EP, UK
| | - P Stanley
- Infection Prevention and Control, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, BD9 6RJ, UK
| | - A Kennedy
- Infection Prevention and Control, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, BD9 6RJ, UK
| | - R Dobson
- Infection Prevention and Control, Bradford Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Bradford, BD9 6RJ, UK
| | - S Long
- Department of Microbiology, East Lancashire Hospitals NHS Trust, Blackburn, BB2 3HH, UK
| | - T Obisanya
- Department of Microbiology, East Lancashire Hospitals NHS Trust, Blackburn, BB2 3HH, UK
| | - T Esmailji
- Department of Microbiology, East Lancashire Hospitals NHS Trust, Blackburn, BB2 3HH, UK
| | - C Petridou
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - K Saeed
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - K Brechany
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - K Davis-Blue
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - H O'Horan
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - B Wake
- Department of Microbiology, Hampshire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Winchester, SO22 5DG, UK
| | - J Martin
- Department of Microbiology, Harrogate and District NHS Foundation Trust, Harrogate, HG2 7SX, UK
| | - J Featherstone
- Department of Microbiology, Harrogate and District NHS Foundation Trust, Harrogate, HG2 7SX, UK
| | - C Hall
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust, Hull, HU3 2JZ, UK
| | - J Allen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust, Hull, HU3 2JZ, UK
| | - G Johnson
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust, Hull, HU3 2JZ, UK
| | - C Hornigold
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust, Hull, HU3 2JZ, UK
| | - N Amir
- Department of Microbiology, Mid Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust, Wakefield, WF1 4DG, UK
| | - K Henderson
- Inverclyde Royal Hospital, Greenock, PA16 0XN, UK
| | - C McClements
- Inverclyde Royal Hospital, Greenock, PA16 0XN, UK
| | - I Liew
- Inverclyde Royal Hospital, Greenock, PA16 0XN, UK
| | - A Deshpande
- Department of Microbiology, Inverclyde Royal Hospital, Greenock, PA16 0XN, UK
| | - E Vink
- Department of Microbiology, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SA, UK
| | - D Trigg
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - J Guilfoyle
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - M Scarborough
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - C Scarborough
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, OX3 7FZ, UK
| | - T H N Wong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - T Walker
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - N Fawcett
- Department of Medicine, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - G Morris
- Department of Microbiology, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, S10 2JF, UK
| | - K Tomlin
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, S10 2JF, UK
| | - C Grix
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, S10 2JF, UK
| | - E O'Cofaigh
- Department of Medicine, Friarage Hospital, South Tees Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Northallerton, DL6 1JG, UK
| | - D McCaffrey
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, James Cook University Hospital, South Tees Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Middlesborough, TS4 3BW, UK
| | - M Cooper
- Department of Microbiology, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - K Corbett
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - K French
- Department of Microbiology, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - S Harper
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - C Hayward
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - M Reid
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - V Whatley
- Corporate Support Services, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - J Winfield
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, The Royal Wolverhampton NHS Trust, Wolverhampton, WV10 0QP, UK
| | - S Hoque
- Department of Microbiology, Torbay and South Devon Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, Torquay, TQ2 7AA, UK
| | - L Kelly
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Torbay and South Devon Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, Torquay, TQ2 7AA, UK
| | - I King
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - A Bradley
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - B McCullagh
- Pharmacy Department, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - C Hibberd
- Pharmacy Department, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - M Merron
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - C McCabe
- Department of Infection Prevention & Control, Ulster Hospital, South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust, Belfast, BT16 1RH, UK
| | - S Horridge
- Department of Microbiology, University Hospital Coventry, University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, Warwick, CV2 2DX, UK
| | - J Taylor
- Department of Virology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Coventry, University Hospitals of Coventry and Warwickshire, Warwick, CV2 2DX, UK
| | - S Koo
- Department of Microbiology, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, LE1 5WW, UK
| | - F Elsanousi
- Department of Microbiology, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, LE1 5WW, UK
| | - R Saunders
- Department of Microbiology, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, LE1 5WW, UK
| | - F Lim
- Department of Microbiology, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, LE1 5WW, UK
| | - A Bond
- Department of Microbiology, York Teaching Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, York, YO31 8HE, UK
| | - S Stone
- Royal Free Campus, University College Medical School, London, NW3 2QG, UK
| | - I D Milligan
- Department of Microbiology, Royal Free Hospital, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, NW3 2QG, UK
| | - D J F Mack
- Department of Microbiology, Royal Free Hospital, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, NW3 2QG, UK
| | - A Nagar
- Department of Microbiology, Antrim Area Hospital, Northern Health and Social Care Trust, Bush Road, Antrim, BT41 2RL, UK
| | - R M West
- Leeds Institute of Health Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - M H Wilcox
- Leeds Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - A Kirby
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - J A T Sandoe
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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