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Hahn MB, Kuiper G, O'Dell K, Fischer EV, Magzamen S. Wildfire Smoke Is Associated With an Increased Risk of Cardiorespiratory Emergency Department Visits in Alaska. Geohealth 2021; 5:e2020GH000349. [PMID: 34036208 PMCID: PMC8137270 DOI: 10.1029/2020gh000349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Alaskan wildfires have major ecological, social, and economic consequences, but associated health impacts remain unexplored. We estimated cardiorespiratory morbidity associated with wildfire smoke (WFS) fine particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) in three major population centers (Anchorage, Fairbanks, and the Matanuska-Susitna Valley) during the 2015-2019 wildfire seasons. To estimate WFS PM2.5, we utilized data from ground-based monitors and satellite-based smoke plume estimates. We implemented time-stratified case-crossover analyses with single and distributed lag models to estimate the effect of WFS PM2.5 on cardiorespiratory emergency department (ED) visits. On the day of exposure to WFS PM2.5, there was an increased odds of asthma-related ED visits among 15-65 year olds (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.08, 1.16), people >65 years (OR = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.31), among Alaska Native people (OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.09, 1.23), and in Anchorage (OR = 1.10, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.15) and Fairbanks (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.07, 1.17). There was an increased risk of heart failure related ED visits for Alaska Native people (Lag Day 5 OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.25). We found evidence that rural populations may delay seeking care. As the frequency and magnitude of Alaskan wildfires continue to increase due to climate change, understanding the health impacts will be imperative. A nuanced understanding of the effects of WFS on specific demographic and geographic groups facilitates data-driven public health interventions and fire management protocols that address these adverse health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. B. Hahn
- Institute for Circumpolar Health StudiesUniversity of Alaska‐AnchorageAnchorageAKUSA
| | - G. Kuiper
- Institute for Circumpolar Health StudiesUniversity of Alaska‐AnchorageAnchorageAKUSA
| | - K. O'Dell
- Department of Atmospheric ScienceColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
| | - E. V. Fischer
- Department of Atmospheric ScienceColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
| | - S. Magzamen
- Department of Environmental and Radiological Health SciencesColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
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Tzompa-Sosa ZA, Henderson BH, Keller CA, Travis K, Mahieu E, Franco B, Estes M, Helmig D, Fried A, Richter D, Weibring P, Walega J, Blake DR, Hannigan JW, Ortega I, Conway S, Strong K, Fischer EV. Atmospheric implications of large C 2-C 5 alkane emissions from the U.S. oil and gas industry. J Geophys Res Atmos 2019; 124:1148-1169. [PMID: 32832312 PMCID: PMC7433792 DOI: 10.1029/2018jd028955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Emissions of C2-C5 alkanes from the U.S. oil and gas sector have changed rapidly over the last decade. We use a nested GEOS-Chem simulation driven by updated 2011NEI emissions with aircraft, surface and column observations to 1) examine spatial patterns in the emissions and observed atmospheric abundances of C2-C5 alkanes over the U.S., and 2) estimate the contribution of emissions from the U.S. oil and gas industry to these patterns. The oil and gas sector in the updated 2011NEI contributes over 80% of the total U.S. emissions of ethane (C2H6) and propane (C3H8), and emissions of these species are largest in the central U.S. Observed mixing ratios of C2-C5 alkanes show enhancements over the central U.S. below 2 km. A nested GEOS-Chem simulation underpredicts observed C3H8 mixing ratios in the boundary layer over several U.S. regions and the relative underprediction is not consistent, suggesting C3H8 emissions should receive more attention moving forward. Our decision to consider only C4-C5 alkane emissions as a single lumped species produces a geographic distribution similar to observations. Due to the increasing importance of oil and gas emissions in the U.S., we recommend continued support of existing long-term measurements of C2-C5 alkanes. We suggest additional monitoring of C2-C5 alkanes downwind of northeastern Colorado, Wyoming and western North Dakota to capture changes in these regions. The atmospheric chemistry modeling community should also evaluate whether chemical mechanisms that lump larger alkanes are sufficient to understand air quality issues in regions with large emissions of these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z A Tzompa-Sosa
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Colorado, USA
| | - B H Henderson
- Air Quality Modeling Group, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, US Environmental Protection Agency, USA
| | - C A Keller
- Universities Space Research Association / GESTAR, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Maryland, USA
- Global Modeling and Assimilation Office, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
| | - K Travis
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - E Mahieu
- Institut d'Astrophysique et de Géophysique, Université de Liège, Quartier Agora, Liège, Belgium
| | - B Franco
- Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Atmospheric Spectroscopy, Service de Chimie Quantique et Photophysique, Brussels, Belgium
| | - M Estes
- Air Modeling and Data Analysis Section, Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, Texas, USA
| | - D Helmig
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - A Fried
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - D Richter
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - P Weibring
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - J Walega
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - D R Blake
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - J W Hannigan
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - I Ortega
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - S Conway
- Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - K Strong
- Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - E V Fischer
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Colorado, USA
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Ford B, Val Martin M, Zelasky SE, Fischer EV, Anenberg SC, Heald CL, Pierce JR. Future Fire Impacts on Smoke Concentrations, Visibility, and Health in the Contiguous United States. Geohealth 2018; 2:229-247. [PMID: 32159016 PMCID: PMC7038896 DOI: 10.1029/2018gh000144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from U.S. anthropogenic sources is decreasing. However, previous studies have predicted that PM2.5 emissions from wildfires will increase in the midcentury to next century, potentially offsetting improvements gained by continued reductions in anthropogenic emissions. Therefore, some regions could experience worse air quality, degraded visibility, and increases in population-level exposure. We use global climate model simulations to estimate the impacts of changing fire emissions on air quality, visibility, and premature deaths in the middle and late 21st century. We find that PM2.5 concentrations will decrease overall in the contiguous United States (CONUS) due to decreasing anthropogenic emissions (total PM2.5 decreases by 3% in Representative Concentration Pathway [RCP] 8.5 and 34% in RCP4.5 by 2100), but increasing fire-related PM2.5 (fire-related PM2.5 increases by 55% in RCP4.5 and 190% in RCP8.5 by 2100) offsets these benefits and causes increases in total PM2.5 in some regions. We predict that the average visibility will improve across the CONUS, but fire-related PM2.5 will reduce visibility on the worst days in western and southeastern U.S. regions. We estimate that the number of deaths attributable to total PM2.5 will decrease in both the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios (from 6% to 4-5%), but the absolute number of premature deaths attributable to fire-related PM2.5 will double compared to early 21st century. We provide the first estimates of future smoke health and visibility impacts using a prognostic land-fire model. Our results suggest the importance of using realistic fire emissions in future air quality projections.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Ford
- Department of Atmospheric ScienceColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
| | - M. Val Martin
- Leverhulme Centre for Climate Change Mitigation, Department of Animal and Plant SciencesUniversity of SheffieldSheffieldUK
| | - S. E. Zelasky
- Department of Environmental Sciences and EngineeringUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillNCUSA
| | - E. V. Fischer
- Department of Atmospheric ScienceColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
| | - S. C. Anenberg
- Department of Environmental and Occupational HealthThe George Washington UniversityWashingtonDCUSA
| | - C. L. Heald
- Department of Civil and Environmental EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMAUSA
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary SciencesMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMAUSA
| | - J. R. Pierce
- Department of Atmospheric ScienceColorado State UniversityFort CollinsCOUSA
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Fischer EV, Jacob DJ, Yantosca RM, Sulprizio MP, Millet DB, Mao J, Paulot F, Singh HB, Roiger A, Ries L, Talbot R, Dzepina K, Pandey Deolal S. Atmospheric peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN): a global budget and source attribution. Atmos Chem Phys 2014; 14:2679-2698. [PMID: 33758588 PMCID: PMC7983850 DOI: 10.5194/acp-14-2679-2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) formed in the atmospheric oxidation of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) is the principal tropospheric reservoir for nitrogen oxide radicals (NOx = NO + NO2). PAN enables the transport and release of NOx to the remote troposphere with major implications for the global distributions of ozone and OH, the main tropospheric oxidants. Simulation of PAN is a challenge for global models because of the dependence of PAN on vertical transport as well as complex and uncertain NMVOC sources and chemistry. Here we use an improved representation of NMVOCs in a global 3-D chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) and show that it can simulate PAN observations from aircraft campaigns worldwide. The immediate carbonyl precursors for PAN formation include acetaldehyde (44% of the global source), methylglyoxal (30 %), acetone (7 %), and a suite of other isoprene and terpene oxidation products (19 %). A diversity of NMVOC emissions is responsible for PAN formation globally including isoprene (37 %) and alkanes (14 %). Anthropogenic sources are dominant in the extratropical Northern Hemisphere outside the growing season. Open fires appear to play little role except at high northern latitudes in spring, although results are very sensitive to plume chemistry and plume rise. Lightning NOx is the dominant contributor to the observed PAN maximum in the free troposphere over the South Atlantic.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. V. Fischer
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - D. J. Jacob
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - R. M. Yantosca
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - M. P. Sulprizio
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - D. B. Millet
- Department of Soil, Water and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - J. Mao
- Princeton University, GFDL, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - F. Paulot
- Department of Atmospheric Science, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - H. B. Singh
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA, USA
| | - A. Roiger
- Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - L. Ries
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - R.W. Talbot
- Federal Environment Agency, GAW Global Station Zugspitze/Hohenpeissenberg, Zugspitze, Germany
| | - K. Dzepina
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA
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Hu L, Millet DB, Kim SY, Wells KC, Griffis TJ, Fischer EV, Helmig D, Hueber J, Curtis AJ. North American acetone sources determined from tall tower measurements and inverse modeling. Atmos Chem Phys 2013; 13:3379-3392. [PMID: 33719355 PMCID: PMC7954043 DOI: 10.5194/acp-13-3379-2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
We apply a full year of continuous atmospheric acetone measurements from the University of Minnesota tall tower Trace Gas Observatory (KCMP tall tower; 244 m a.g.l.), with a 0.5° × 0.667° GEOS-Chem nested grid simulation to develop quantitative new constraints on seasonal acetone sources over North America. Biogenic acetone emissions in the model are computed based on the MEGANv2.1 inventory. An inverse analysis of the tall tower observations implies a 37% underestimate of emissions from broadleaf trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, and an offsetting 40% overestimate of emissions from needleleaf trees plus secondary production from biogenic precursors. The overall result is a small (16%) model underestimate of the total primary + secondary biogenic acetone source in North America. Our analysis shows that North American primary + secondary anthropogenic acetone sources in the model (based on the EPA NEI 2005 inventory) are accurate to within approximately 20%. An optimized GEOS-Chem simulation incorporating the above findings captures 70% of the variance (R = 0.83) in the hourly measurements at the KCMP tall tower, with minimal bias. The resulting North American acetone source is 11 Tg a-1, including both primary emissions (5.5 Tg a-1) and secondary production (5.5 Tg a-1), and with roughly equal contributions from anthropogenic and biogenic sources. The North American acetone source alone is nearly as large as the total continental volatile organic compound (VOC) source from fossil fuel combustion. Using our optimized source estimates as a baseline, we evaluate the sensitivity of atmospheric acetone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) to shifts in natural and anthropogenic acetone sources over North America. Increased biogenic acetone emissions due to surface warming are likely to provide a significant offset to any future decrease in anthropogenic acetone emissions, particularly during summer.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Hu
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - D. B. Millet
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - S. Y. Kim
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - K. C. Wells
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - T. J. Griffis
- Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - E. V. Fischer
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - D. Helmig
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Colorado, USA
| | - J. Hueber
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Colorado, USA
| | - A. J. Curtis
- Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, Colorado, USA
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Fischer EV, Jacob DJ, Millet DB, Yantosca RM, Mao J. The role of the ocean in the global atmospheric budget of acetone. Geophys Res Lett 2012; 39:10.1029/2011gl050086. [PMID: 33758438 PMCID: PMC7983863 DOI: 10.1029/2011gl050086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Acetone is one of the most abundant carbonyl compounds in the atmosphere and it plays an important role in atmospheric chemistry. The role of the ocean in the global atmospheric acetone budget is highly uncertain, with past studies reaching opposite conclusions as to whether the ocean is a source or sink. Here we use a global 3-D chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) simulation of atmospheric acetone to evaluate the role of air-sea exchange in the global budget. Inclusion of updated (slower) photolysis loss in the model means that a large net ocean source is not needed to explain observed acetone in marine air. We find that a simulation with a fixed seawater acetone concentration of 15 nM based on observations can reproduce the observed global patterns of atmospheric concentrations and air-sea fluxes. The Northern Hemisphere oceans are a net sink for acetone while the tropical oceans are a net source. On a global scale the ocean is in near-equilibrium with the atmosphere. Prescribing an ocean concentration of acetone as a boundary condition in the model assumes that ocean concentrations are controlled by internal production and loss, rather than by air-sea exchange. An implication is that the ocean plays a major role in controlling atmospheric acetone. This hypothesis needs to be tested by better quantification of oceanic acetone sources and sinks.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Fischer
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - D J Jacob
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - D B Millet
- Department of Soil, Water and Climate, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - R M Yantosca
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - J Mao
- Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
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Fischer EV, Perry KD, Jaffe DA. Optical and chemical properties of aerosols transported to Mount Bachelor during spring 2010. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jd015932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Fischer EV, Jaffe DA, Marley NA, Gaffney JS, Marchany-Rivera A. Optical properties of aged Asian aerosols observed over the U.S. Pacific Northwest. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jd013943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Fischer EV, Jaffe DA, Reidmiller DR, Jaeglé L. Meteorological controls on observed peroxyacetyl nitrate at Mount Bachelor during the spring of 2008. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jd012776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Russell LM, Mensah AA, Fischer EV, Sive BC, Varner RK, Keene WC, Stutz J, Pszenny AAP. Nanoparticle growth following photochemical α
- and β
-pinene oxidation at Appledore Island during International Consortium for Research on Transport and Transformation/Chemistry of Halogens at the Isles of Shoals 2004. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. M. Russell
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography; University of California; San Diego, La Jolla California USA
| | - A. A. Mensah
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography; University of California; San Diego, La Jolla California USA
| | - E. V. Fischer
- Mount Washington Observatory; University of New Hampshire; Durham New Hampshire USA
| | - B. C. Sive
- Climate Change Research Center, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space; University of New Hampshire; Durham New Hampshire USA
| | - R. K. Varner
- Climate Change Research Center, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space; University of New Hampshire; Durham New Hampshire USA
| | - W. C. Keene
- Department of Environmental Science; University of Virginia; Charlottesville Virginia USA
| | - J. Stutz
- Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences; University of California; Los Angeles California USA
| | - A. A. P. Pszenny
- Mount Washington Observatory; University of New Hampshire; Durham New Hampshire USA
- Climate Change Research Center, Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space; University of New Hampshire; Durham New Hampshire USA
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Fischer EV, Ziemba LD, Talbot RW, Dibb JE, Griffin RJ, Husain L, Grant AN. Aerosol major ion record at Mount Washington. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Fischer EV. Getting the equipment you need. Exec Housekeeper 1979; 26:31. [PMID: 10242773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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Fischer EV. Competing with outsiders: a question of attitude. Exec Housekeeper 1979; 26:24-5, 28. [PMID: 10239945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
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Fischer EV. The education and training of laundry personnel. Exec Housekeeper 1978; 25:40, 42, 44 passim. [PMID: 10238646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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Fischer EV. Laundry management and infection control. Exec Housekeeper 1978; 25:22, 24, 26-7. [PMID: 10307315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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Brashears EL, Haughton JG, Hague JE, Fischer EV. Cook County: the top of the team. Hospitals 1974; 48:66-71 passim. [PMID: 4813047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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