Concentration of mercury in human hair and associated factors in residents of the Gulf of Trieste (North-Eastern Italy)

The Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic Sea, Italy) is the coastal area of the Mediterranean Sea most highly contaminated by mercury (Hg) due to fluvial inputs from the Isonzo/Soča River system, draining over 500 years' worth of cinnabar extraction activity from the Idrija mining district (Western Slovenia). The aim of this research is to investigate the concentration of Hg in hair samples taken from the general population of the Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG) Region coastal area, as a marker of chronic exposure to Hg. Three hundred and one individuals - 119 males and 182 females - were recruited by convenience sampling in Trieste in September 2021. An amount of approximately 100 mg of hair was collected from the occipital scalp of each participant to measure the respective Hg concentrations (expressed as mg/kg). Moreover, participants completed a self-report questionnaire collecting extensive socio-demographic and life-style information. A multiple linear regression analysis was employed to investigate factors associated with increased levels of Hg concentration in hair. A mean Hg concentration in hair of 1.63 mg/kg was found, slightly above the 1.0 mg/kg threshold recommended by the WHO for pregnant women and children, although still well below the no observed adverse effects level (NOAEL) of 10 mg/kg. Among respondents, 55.6% showed a Hg concentration in hair > 1 mg/kg, 22.9% > 2 mg/kg, and 2 participants exhibited Hg levels > 10 mg/kg. The adjusted mean hair Hg level increased in those subjects who reported a preference for shellfish/crayfish/mollusks (RC = 0.35; 95%CI: 0.16; 0.55), whereas it decreased in those who reported a preference for frozen fish (RC = -0.23; 95%CI: - 0.39; - 0.06). Though a risk alert for Hg exposure for coastal residents from FVG is deemed unnecessary at this time, it is recommended that pregnant women limit their ingestion of locally caught fish to < 4 servings/month.

Occupational exposure to mercury from cinnabar enriched sand in workers of Grado Beach, Gulf of Trieste (North-eastern Italy, upper Adriatic Sea)

Health and safety of occupations entailing extensive skin contact with cinnabar-enriched sand in beaches of Friuli-Venezia Giulia (FVG) Region (North-eastern Italy) have been questioned for possible skin absorption of mercury (Hg). One hundred mg hair was collected from the occipital scalp of 50 male workers of Grado beach and 121 males from FVG general population. Factors associated with hair Hg content were investigated by multivariable logistic (considering Hg levels >1 vs ≤1 mg/kg) and log-transformed linear regression. The median hair concentration of Hg in male beach workers was 0.70 (IQR = 0.42; 1.34) mg/kg, lower than FVG general population's [1.29 (IQR = 0.87-2.06) mg/kg (p < 0.001)]. In both regression models the hair Hg increased with fish consumption, both among beach workers of Grado and FVG general population. The mean Hg levels in beach workers of Grado fell within an acceptable range, not requiring restrictions of their occupational activities.

The Legacy of the Idrija Mine Twenty-Five Years after Closing: Is Mercury in the Water Column of the Gulf of Trieste Still an Environmental Issue?

Mercury (Hg) contamination in the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea) due to mining activity in Idrija (Slovenia) still represents an issue of environmental concern. The Isonzo/Soča River's freshwater inputs have been identified as the main source of Hg into the Gulf, especially following periods of medium-high discharge. This research aims to evaluate the occurrence and distribution of dissolved (DHg) and particulate (PHg) Hg along the water column in the northernmost sector of the Gulf, a shallow and sheltered embayment suitable for the accumulation of fine sediments. Sediment and water samples were collected under unperturbed and perturbed environmental conditions induced by natural and anthropogenic factors. Mercury in the sediments (0.77-6.39 µg g-1) and its relationship to grain size were found to be consistent with previous research focused on the entire Gulf, testifying to the common origin of the sediment. Results showed a notable variability of DHg ( Collapse

Key Words

• mercury
• sediments
• suspended particulate matter
• water column

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MESH Headings

• Environmental Monitoring
• Geologic Sediments
• Mercury/analysis
• Mining
• Rivers
• Water
• Water Pollutants, Chemical/analysis

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Grants Collapse

Affiliation(s)

Elena Pavoni Dipartimento di Matematica e Geoscienze, Università Degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss 2, 34128 Trieste, Italy; (E.P.); (E.P.); (G.F.)
Elisa Petranich Dipartimento di Matematica e Geoscienze, Università Degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss 2, 34128 Trieste, Italy; (E.P.); (E.P.); (G.F.)
Sergio Signore Autorità di Sistema Portuale del Mare Adriatico Orientale-Porto di Trieste, Via Karl Ludwig Von Bruck 3, 34144 Trieste, Italy;
Giorgio Fontolan Dipartimento di Matematica e Geoscienze, Università Degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss 2, 34128 Trieste, Italy; (E.P.); (E.P.); (G.F.)
Stefano Covelli Dipartimento di Matematica e Geoscienze, Università Degli Studi di Trieste, Via Weiss 2, 34128 Trieste, Italy; (E.P.); (E.P.); (G.F.)

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Mercury vertical and horizontal concentrations in agricultural soils of a historically contaminated site: Role of soil properties, chemical loading, and cultivated plant species in driving its mobility

The long term vertical and horizontal mobility of mercury (Hg) in soils of agricultural areas of a historically contaminated Italian National Relevance Site (SIN Brescia-Caffaro) was investigated. The contamination resulted from the continuous discharge of Hg in irrigation waters by an industrial plant (Caffaro S.p.A), equipped with a mercury-cell chlor-alkali process. The contamination levels with depth ranged from about 20 mg/kg dry weight (d.w.) of soil in the top (plow) layer to less than 0.1 mg/kg d.w. at 1 m depth. The concentrations varied also spatially, up to one order of magnitude within the same field and showing a decreasing trend from the Hg source (i.e., irrigation ditches). The concentration profiles and gradients measured were explained considering Hg loading, soil properties, such as the texture, organic carbon content, pH and cation exchange capacity. A Selective Sequential Extraction (SSE) was also applied on soil samples from an ad hoc greenhouse experiment to investigate the role of different plant species in influencing Hg speciation in soils. Although most of the extracted Hg was included in scarcely mobile or immobile forms, some plant species (i.e., alfalfa) showed to importantly increase the soluble and exchangeable fractions with respect to the unplanted control soils, thus affecting mobility and potential bioavailability of Hg.

Can Sediments Contaminated by Mining be a Source of Mercury in the Coastal Environment Due to Dredging? Evidence from Thermo-Desorption and Chemical Speciation

The sediments in the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea, Italy) are contaminated by mercury (Hg) due to historic mining which took place in Idrija (Slovenia). Despite many studies having been done regarding Hg, no information is available on the potential impact of dredging required along the main channel approaching the Port of Monfalcone. Sixteen surface sediment samples were collected along the channel to determine both total Hg concentration and chemical species using the thermo-desorption (TD) technique. Six samples were also chosen to apply a selective sequential extraction (SSE). The TD technique showed the maximum Hg release approximately at 260 and 335°C, corresponding to metacinnabar (β-HgS) and cinnabar (α-HgS), respectively. The SSE demonstrated that Hg was mainly associated with poorly soluble or insoluble compounds (98.7%). A resuspension event over a limited period of time can be considered of negligible impact to the water column due to the scarce Hg mobility from sediments.

Mercury and arsenic mobility in resuspended contaminated estuarine sediments (Asturias, Spain): A laboratory-based study

Estuarine sediments must be dredged to allow for navigation, and where these sediments are placed after dredging depends upon guidelines based only on the total concentration of contaminants. However, resuspension events could seriously affect the mobility and speciation of contaminants, including potentially toxic trace elements stored in sediments. The effects of resuspension on the cycling of mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As) between the sediment and water column was investigated in a mesocosm study. Four experiments were conducted in three estuaries in northern Spain based on samples collected from sites which have been impacted by decommissioned Hg and As mines and periodically subjected to dredging activities. Designed to mimic the resuspension of particles, each of the experiments revealed that the release of Hg and As species does not only depend on the total concentration in the sediments (16.3-50.9 mg kg^-1, for As and 0.52-5.01 mg kg^-1 for Hg). The contribution from porewaters and the subsequent reductive dissolution and/or desorption appear to be the main processes responsible for the abrupt increase in dissolved Hg and As species (maximum release of 427% and 125%, respectively). In some cases, As and Hg continued to remain at high concentrations in the water column even after the experiments were completed, thus testifying to their critical persistence in the dissolved form. Conversely, at the other sites, the restoration of pre-resuspension conditions was observed only a few hours after resuspension, mainly due to the role of Fe oxy-hydroxides which provides suitable surfaces for adsorption and/or co-precipitation involving dissolved Hg (maximum removal of -58%) and As (maximum removal of -25%) species. The results of this research could be helpful to take appropriate decisions regarding dredging especially at the Nalòn estuary, where the release of dissolved As(V) and MeHg appeared to be favoured by sediment resuspension.

Trace elements in the estuarine systems of the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea): A chemometric approach to depict partitioning and behaviour of particulate, colloidal and truly dissolved fractions

Estuaries are transitional water systems where the hydrodynamic processes governing water circulation actively influence suspended particle transport and deposition. In the estuarine mixing zone, the strong physico-chemical gradients resulting from the interaction between river freshwater and seawater may affect the distribution, mobility and fate of several potentially toxic compounds, among which trace elements are of major concern. Knowledge regarding the partitioning behaviour of trace elements would provide essential scientific support for the environmental management of estuaries. In this study, trace element occurrence and phase partitioning among suspended particulate matter, colloidal material and the truly dissolved fraction were investigated in the main Italian and Slovenian estuarine environments of the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea). Further information about the water quality at the river mouths was provided and, in addition to the traditional evaluation of single chemical parameters, a multi-way principal component analysis was employed in order to depict disparities among sampling sites, water layers and seasonal conditions with the final aim of evaluating trace element phase partitioning. Results indicated that the suspended particulate matter acts as the main effective vehicle for Cu, Cr, Fe, Ni and Pb, and enhanced adsorption processes resulted in elevated partitioning coefficients, especially for Fe and Pb. Although disparities occurred between sampling sites and seasons, trace elements showing affinity for the solid phase appeared to be partially bound to the colloidal material. Conversely, As and Cs prevailed in the truly dissolved fraction, especially in seawater and showed scarce affinity for both the suspended particles and colloids.

Organotin compounds in touristic marinas of the northern Adriatic Sea: occurrence, speciation and potential recycling at the sediment-water interface

Butyltin compound (BTC) contamination was evaluated in two north Adriatic marinas, San Rocco (Italy) and Lucija (Slovenia). BTC sedimentary concentrations (121 ± 46 and 352 ± 30 ng Sn g^-1 in San Rocco and Lucija, respectively) evidenced the past use of antifouling paints, confirmed by the reduced tributyltin content (~ 46%) with respect to the sum of BTC. Elemental and organic carbon isotopic (δ¹³C) analyses of bulk sediments and its lipid and humic substances were performed in order to evaluate their role in BTC partitioning and preservation. The δ¹³C of sedimentary bulk and refractory organic matter suggested that diagenetic processes could play a role in the preservation or release of pollutants. No contamination was found in water collected from the benthic chamber and thus, fluxes at the sediment-water interface were not assessed, except for MBT efflux at Lucija (28.9 ng Sn m^-2 day^-1). Nevertheless, BTC concentrations in porewaters (up to 75 ng Sn l^-1) and rather low sediment-porewater partitioning coefficients (K_d) with respect to the data reported in the literature would suggest a potential risk of the reintroduction of BTC into the water column at both sites: at Lucija, sedimentary contamination is high despite the greater Log K_d, whilst at San Rocco, the low BTC concentration is associated with a reduced sediment affinity.

Dissolved Gaseous Mercury Production at a Marine Aquaculture Site in the Mercury-Contaminated Marano and Grado Lagoon, Italy

Dissolved gaseous mercury (DGM) production was examined in relation to ultraviolet radiation within a marine aquaculture site in the contaminated Marano and Grado Lagoon (Italy). The measured rates of DGM production relative to time elapsed (17.06 and 20.68 pg h^-1, respectively) were substantially (6-20 times) higher than what has been observed in other marine Hg studies. We measured similar levels of DGM relative to dissolved total mercury (THg_D) (0.84%-8.91%) at these sites in comparison to uncontaminated marine sites, however relative to other moderately-contaminated marine sites in Portugal the % DGM/THg_D was high. These results suggest a substantial capacity for Hg volatilization from these highly contaminated lagoons to the atmosphere due to photoreduction mechanisms.

Diurnal fluxes of gaseous elemental mercury from the water-air interface in coastal environments of the northern Adriatic Sea

A crucial step towards developing a more complete understanding of mercury (Hg) biogeochemical cycling in coastal environments is the measurement of the fluxes of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM), at the water-air interface (W-A interface). A floating flux chamber coupled with a real-time atomic adsorption spectrometer (Lumex-RA 915M) was applied to measure GEM concentrations, and to estimate the diurnal evasion flux at the W-A interface during three seasonal campaigns at four selected sites: two in a lagoon-based fish farm, one in an open lagoon environment highly impacted by long-term activities from the Idrija mercury mine (Slovenia), and an uncontaminated area of the Gulf of Trieste, the Bay of Piran (Slovenia). In this study, the regional background concentration measured at the uncontaminated site of atmospheric GEM (from 1.60 ± 0.95 to 2.87 ± 1.52 ng m^-3) was determined. GEM fluxes at the W-A interface were found to be significantly higher during the summer (from 51.2 ± 8.8 ng m^-2 h^-1 to 79.9 ± 11.4 ng m^-2 h^-1) and correlated to incident solar radiation and water temperature. This finding confirms the importance of these two parameters in the photoreduction and biotic reduction of Hg²⁺ to dissolved gaseous mercury (DGM), which is volatile and easily released to the atmosphere in the form of GEM. These new insights will be of help for future estimates of Hg mass balance in one of the most contaminated areas in the Adriatic Sea.

Benthic nutrient cycling at the sediment-water interface in a lagoon fish farming system (northern Adriatic Sea, Italy)

Metabolism and carbon, oxygen, and nutrient fluxes (DIC, DOC, DO₂, NO₂^-, NO₃^-, NH₄⁺, PO₄^3- and SiO₄^4-) were studied during three surveys at two sites (VN1 and VN3) located at a fish farm at the Marano and Grado Lagoon (northern Adriatic Sea), using an in situ benthic chamber. Field experiments were conducted in July and October 2015 and March 2016 at a depth of approximately 2 m along the main channels of the fish farm. Water samples were collected by a scuba diver every 2 h in order to investigate daily fluxes of solutes across the sediment-water interface (SWI). Regarding the solid phase, C_org/N_tot and C_org/P_org molar ratios suggested an autochthonous marine origin of the organic matter and a minor preservation of P in the sediments, respectively; high values of sulphur (S_tot) were also encountered (0.8-2%). The conditions at VN3 were mostly anoxic with high NH₄⁺ levels (30-1027 μM) and the absence of NO₃^-. Substantial daily patterns of all solutes occurred especially in autumn and winter. On the contrary, fluxes at VN1 were less pronounced. Usually, inverse correlations appeared between dissolved O₂ and DIC trends, but in our system this was observed only at VN3 in autumn and accomplished by a parallel increase in NH₄⁺, PO₄^3- and SiO₄^4- during intense nutrient regeneration. These results are significantly different than those reported for open lagoon environments, where nutrient regeneration at the SWI and in surface sediments is the primary source of nutrients available for assimilation processes, especially during the warmer period of the year when the natural nutrient input by fresh water inflows is limited. Due to the importance of this site for aquaculture, biodiversity and ecosystem services, useful suggestions have been provided from this study in order to improve the quality of this unique aquatic system.

Mobility of metal(loid)s at the sediment-water interface in two tourist port areas of the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea)

One of the main environmental issues affecting coastal marine environments is the accumulation of contaminants in sediments and their potential mobility. In situ benthic chamber experiments were conducted at two tourist ports (marinas) located in the Gulf of Trieste, one in Slovenia and one in Italy. The aim was to understand if and where recycling at the sediment-water interface (SWI) may affect metal(loid)s. Short sediment cores were also collected near the chamber to investigate the solid (sediments) and dissolved phases (porewaters). Both diffusive and benthic fluxes were estimated to elucidate the release of metal(loid)s at the SWI. Total element concentrations and their labile fractions were determined in sediments to quantify their potential mobility. The total element contents were found to be two orders of magnitude higher in the Italian marina than in the Slovenian one, especially for Hg (up to 1000 mg kg^-1), whereas the labile fraction was scarce or null. The opposite occurred in the Slovenian marina. Metal(loid)s in porewaters showed a clear diagenetic sequence and a close dependence upon the suboxic/anoxic conditions of sediments. The results suggest that although the sediments of the Italian marina exhibit the highest total metal(loid) concentration, these elements are scarcely remobilisable. Conversely, in the Slovenian marina, sediments seem to be comparatively more prone to release metal(loid)s at the SWI.

Evaluation of mercury biogeochemical cycling at the sediment-water interface in anthropogenically modified lagoon environments

The Marano and Grado Lagoon is well known for being contaminated by mercury (Hg) from the Idrija mine (Slovenia) and the decommissioned chlor-alkali plant of Torviscosa (Italy). Experimental activities were conducted in a local fish farm to understand Hg cycling at the sediment-water interface. Both diffusive and benthic fluxes were estimated in terms of chemical and physical features. Mercury concentration in sediments (up to 6.81μg/g) showed a slight variability with depth, whereas the highest methylmercury (MeHg) values (up to 10ng/g) were detected in the first centimetres. MeHg seems to be produced and stored in the 2-3cm below the sediment-water interface, where sulphate reducing bacteria activity occurs and hypoxic-anoxic conditions become persistent for days. DMeHg in porewaters varied seasonally (from 0.1 and 17% of dissolved Hg (DHg)) with the highest concentrations in summer. DHg diffusive effluxes higher (up to 444ng/m²/day) than those reported in the open lagoon (~95ng/m²/day), whereas DMeHg showed influxes in the fish farm (up to -156ng/m²/day). The diurnal DHg and DMeHg benthic fluxes were found to be higher than the highest summer values previously reported for the natural lagoon environment. Bottom sediments, especially in anoxic conditions, seem to be a significant source of MeHg in the water column where it eventually accumulates. However, net fluxes considering the daily trend of DHg and DMeHg, indicated possible DMeHg degradation processes. Enhancing water dynamics in the fish farm could mitigate environmental conditions suitable for Hg methylation.

Suspended particulate mercury associated with tidal fluxes in a lagoon environment impacted by cinnabar mining activity (northern Adriatic Sea)

The Isonzo River has been demonstrated to be a continuing point source of mercury (Hg) in the Gulf of Trieste although the Idrija mine was last active in 1996. The present study aims to investigate the role of the suspended particulate matter (SPM) associated with tidal fluxes to disperse particulate Hg (PHg) into the Grado coastal lagoon system. PHg concentrations (avg. 3.11±2.62μg/g, d.w.), notwithstanding the ebb or flood tides, were significantly higher than the local sediment background (0.13μg/g). The relative affinity of Hg for the particulate phase in surface waters was confirmed by higher average distribution coefficient (K_d) values (5.6-6.7). PHg contents showed the highest values in ebb tide conditions, thus suggesting their origin from the erosion of tidal flats and saltmarshes of the lagoon. When compared to river discharge, high PHg surface concentrations in flood tide are related to rainfall events occurring within the river basin. Results can be used to make an indicative assessment of the amount of Hg bound to SPM which is transported in and out of the lagoon basin following the action of tidal fluxes. A simple estimation provides a negative budget for the Grado lagoon sub-basin which loses between 0.14 and 1.16kg of PHg during a tidal semi-cycle. This conclusion is in agreement with the evidence of morphological deterioration which has emerged from recent studies on the lagoon environment, and which testifies to a current sedimentary loss from the lagoon into the northern Adriatic Sea.

Mercury uptake by halophytes in response to a long-term contamination in coastal wetland salt marshes (northern Adriatic Sea)

Mercury (Hg) distribution in saltmarsh sediments and in three selected halophytes (Limonium narbonense, Sarcocornia fruticosa and Atriplex portulacoides) of a wetland system (Marano and Grado Lagoon, Italy) following a contamination gradient in sediments was investigated. The Hg uptake was evaluated at the root system level by calculating the enrichment factor (EF) and in the aboveground tissues by means of the translocation factor (TF). The related methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in the halophytes were also investigated with regard to the location of the sites and their degree of contamination. Hg concentration in halophytes seemed poorly correlated both with the total Hg in rhizo-sediments and with the specific plant considered, supporting the evidence that the chemico-physical parameters of sediments could significantly affect metal availability for plants. Hg concentrations in roots increased with depth and were 20-fold higher than content measured in related rhizo-sediments (high EF). A low content of Hg is translocated in aboveground tissues (very low TF values), thus highlighting a kind of avoidance strategy of these halophytes against Hg toxicity. MeHg values were comparable between the two sites and among species, but the translocation from below- to aboveground plant tissues was more active.

Bioaccumulation of thallium and other trace metals in Biscutella laevigata nearby a decommissioned zinc-lead mine (Northeastern Italian Alps)

The mineral body exploited in Salafossa (Eastern Dolomites) was one of the largest lead/zinc-containing mineral deposits in Europe. Both metals were mainly present as sulphides (sphalerite, ZnS and galena, PbS). Mining activity started around 1550, but it was only around 1960 that the richest veins of the minerals were discovered. The mine closed in 1985, and concentrations of several trace metals, such as thallium (Tl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn), were detected in the soils and plant samples (Biscutella laevigata L.) that were collected from eighteen sites selected outside the mine. B. laevigata is a pseudometallophyta species, and it often grows near mining areas where the soil's metal concentrations are significantly higher than those of soil with a natural geochemical background. The total metal concentrations in the plant tissue (roots and leaves of Biscutella laevigata) and in the soil samples - both bulk-soil and the B. laevigata root system (rhizo-soil) - were determined through Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). The metal extractability and leachability of the soil samples were estimated using soil extractions with DTPA (Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid). In addition, metal mobility caused by rainwater runoff was estimated by using a leaching test with a dilute solution of H₂SO₄ and HNO₃. The results showed that metals were present in a chemical form available for uptake by the plants' roots. In fact, high concentrations of the metals were also found in the plant tissue (roots and leaves) of B. laevigata, and these concentrations were higher than those whose soils present natural geochemical background levels in the corresponding rhizo-soil. Thus, B. laevigata has shown a marked ability to bioaccumulate trace metals, especially Tl and, to a lesser extent, Zn, Pb, Fe and Mn, and it can influence metal mobility in the rhizo-soil. To assess the uptake and translocation processes of the trace metals, resulting in their bioaccumulation, two different indices were calculated: the enrichment factor in roots (EFr), as the ratio between the metal concentration in belowground biomass and in the respective rhizo-soil, and the translocation factor (TF), as the ratio between the metal concentration in the leaves and the corresponding roots. For both indices, values > 1 denoted enrichment of the metal in the roots or its translocation to the upper tissues. The results showed that EFr and TF were considerably high only for Tl, reaching a maximum value of 60 for EFr and 11.6 for TF. Conversely, the other investigated metals did not show significant bioaccumulation (EFr < 1), and they showed TF > 1 only at a few sites.