Epilepsy self-management mobile health application: A needs assessment in people with epilepsy and caregivers in Viet Nam

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine (1) the needsof Vietnamese people with epilepsy (PWE) and their caregivers for self-management mobile health applications and (2) the self-management features expected to be included in an application.

METHODS

The survey consisted of an anonymous self-administered questionnaire that was distributed to PWE and caregivers from the age of 18 in Vietnam through online platforms and onsite at Nguyen Tri Phuong Hospital and University Medical Center, Ho Chi Minh City, from February 2022 to May 2022. The questionnaire assessed the participants' attitudes toward epilepsy self-management mobile applications, their willingness to use applications, and their expectations of the contents of an application.

RESULTS

Responses from 103 participants were submitted. Eighty-one participants (78.6%) reported using a smartphone, but only 50.6% of those claimed to know about self-management applications. Most respondents (70.9%) thought the applications would be useful for disease self-management, and 68.9% were willing to use epilepsy self-management applications. In addition, the most expected features to be included in self-management applications were epilepsy information, seizure first aid, connecting with medical professionals, and a seizure diary.

CONCLUSION

Most Vietnamese PWE and caregivers had a willingness to use epilepsy self-management applications.The expected features are related to all aspects of self-management, including information, seizure, medication, and safety management.

Coexistence of liquid and solid phases in flowing soft-glassy materials

Magnetic-resonance-imaging rheometrical experiments show that concentrated suspensions or emulsions cannot flow steadily at a uniform rate smaller than a critical value (gamma(c)). As a result, a "liquid" region (sheared rapidly, i.e., at a rate larger than gamma(c)) and a "solid" region (static) coexist. The behavior of the fluid in the liquid region follows a simple power-law model, while the extent of the solid region increases with the degree of jamming of the material.

Effects of plant-derived phenols on rat liver cytochrome P450 2B1 activity

Dietary constituents contain a variety of compounds that are known to modulate liver enzyme activity. In this report, the plant-derived phenols catechin, chlorogenic acid, diosmin, epigallo-catechin gallate (EGCG), naringenin, quercetin and resveratrol were studied for their effects on the activity of cytochrome P450 2B1 in liver microsomes from 6- and 20-month male Fisher F344 rats. The compounds at two concentrations (0.1 and 0.25 mM) were incubated with 0.2 mg liver microsomal protein and 50 microM 7-ethoxy-4-trifluoromethyl coumarin (EFC). O-deethylation of EFC to the fluorescence product 7-hydroxy-4-trifluoromethyl coumarin (HFC) is catalyzed by CYP450 2B1. EGCG, naringenin, quercetin and resveratrol inhibited the in vitro O-deethylation of EFC in liver microsomes from both 6- and 20-month rats. Quercetin was the most effective inhibitor. Catechin inhibited the in vitro O-deethylation of EFC only in microsomes from 6-month-old rats whereas diosmin inhibited the reaction only in microsomes from 20-month-old rats. Chlorogenic acid inhibited the in vitro O-deethylation of EFC in microsomes from both age groups at the 0.25 mM concentration only. These results suggest that plant phenols have varied effects on liver microsomal cytochrome P450 2B1 activity that may be influenced by the age of the animal.

Avalanche behavior in yield stress fluids

We show that, above a critical stress, typical yield stress fluids (gels and clay suspensions) and soft glassy materials (colloidal glasses) start flowing abruptly and subsequently accelerate, leading to avalanches that are remarkably similar to those of granular materials. Rheometrical tests reveal that this is associated with a bifurcation in rheological behavior: for small stresses, the viscosity increases in time; the material eventually stops flowing. For slightly larger stresses the viscosity decreases continuously in time; the flow accelerates. Thus the viscosity jumps discontinuously to infinity at the critical stress. We propose a simple physical model capable of reproducing these effects.

Cloning and characterization of a novel gene that is regulated by estrogen and is associated with mammary gland carcinogenesis

Estrogens play a role in mammary gland function and are implicated in mammary carcinogenesis. We report the cloning of a novel gene [steroid-sensitive gene 1 (SSG1)] that is regulated by E(2) in the rat uterus and mammary gland. The full-length SSG1 complementary DNA has an open reading frame of 1158 nucleotides encoding a putative protein of 385 amino acids. A SSG1-specific antibody recognizes a 40-kDa protein localized to myoepithelial cells of normal mammary tissue and to endothelial cells of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)antracene-induced mammary tumors. Treatment of rats with E(2) at 1.2 or 2.4 microg/kg.day for 21 days increases SSG1 protein levels in mammary tissue by 16-fold compared with controls. Removal of E(2) after a 14-day treatment decreases SSG1 protein levels 6-fold and 3-fold at 120 and 144 h, respectively. Treatment of rats with the estrogen antagonists tamoxifen or ICI 182,780 did not affect SSG1 protein levels compared with controls. SSG1 protein levels in 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)antracene-induced rat mammary tumors were 23-fold greater than SSG1 levels in resting mammary tissue, and 8-fold higher than protein levels expressed in lactating mammary glands. We propose that SSG1 plays a role in estrogen functions, and its overexpression is correlated with mammary carcinogenesis.

Steroid-sensitive gene-1 is an androgen-regulated gene expressed in prostatic smooth muscle cells in vivo

Steroid-sensitive gene-1 (SSG1) is a novel gene we cloned, found regulated by 17beta-estradiol in the rat uterus and mammary gland, and over-expressed in 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced rat mammary tumors. We show here that SSG1 mRNA and protein expression are regulated by androgens in the rat ventral prostate. Increases in SSG1 mRNA levels were detected by Northern blotting after 24 h and reached a 27-fold peak 96 h following castration, relative to SSG1 mRNA expression in sham-operated rats. Dihydrotestosterone or testosterone supplementation of castrated rats prevented this rise in SSG1 mRNA. In contrast with SSG1 mRNA expression, SSG1 protein was decreased 16-fold 2 weeks following castration but was at control levels in the prostates of castrated rats receiving dihydrotestosterone or testosterone. Although SSG1 is regulated by androgens in vivo, treatment of LnCap cells with dihydrotestosterone, cyproterone acetate or flutamide did not result in the regulation of SSG1 protein levels in vitro. Immunofluorescence studies show that SSG1 is mainly expressed in prostatic smooth muscle cells. These results indicate that SSG1 is an androgen-regulated gene that is expressed in the smooth muscle component of the rat ventral prostate in vivo.

Regulation of the gap junction connexin 43 gene by androgens in the prostate

Androgens play an important role in prostate gland development and function, and have been implicated in prostate carcinogenesis. We report the regulation of the gap junctional intercellular communication gene connexin 43 (Cx43) by androgens in the prostate gland. In rat ventral prostate tissue, only trace levels of Cx43 mRNA were detected. Castration, however, resulted in a high increase in Cx43 mRNA and protein. Cx32 was unchanged. Castration-induced Cx43 mRNA and protein were abolished by administration of dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Following castration, prostate weights were approximately 16% of sham-treated controls. However, DHT replacement resulted in prostate weights which were not different from sham-treated controls. Under similar castration conditions, Cx43 induction coincided with pronounced apoptosis in the prostate gland cells, and DHT prevented the induction of apoptosis. Given the physiological role of gap junctions and androgens in the regulation of prostate tissue homeostasis, our observations are relevant to the understanding of androgen-dependent prostate carcinogenesis.

Selective induction of apoptosis in human mammary cancer cells (MCF-7) by pycnogenol

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death in women in the United States. The 1999 Cancer Facts and Figures, published by the American Cancer Society, estimates that almost 43,700 women and men will die of breast cancer in the United States. In this study, we compared the response of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and normal human mammary cells (MCF-10) to apoptosis in the presence of pycnogenol. Pycnogenol is a mixture of flavonoid compounds extracted from the bark of pine trees. MCF-7 and MCF-10 cells were plated out in culture dishes and grown in medium containing 0, 40, or 80 micrograms pycnogenol/ml culture medium. Cells were harvested at confluency, incubated with DAPI for 15 min and viewed microscopically for evidence of apoptosis. Apoptosis is detectable by morphology, chromatin condensation, nuclear DNA fragmentation, DNA strand breakage or apoptotic bodies. DAPI is a DNA-binding fluorescent dye used to visualize DNA fragmentation. Apoptosis, as detected by DAPI staining, was significantly higher in MCF-7 cells treated with pycnogenol than the untreated cells. The presence of pycnogenol did not significantly alter the number of apoptotic cells in MCF-10 samples. These results suggest that pycnogenol selectively induced death in human mammary cancer cells (MCF-7) and not in normal human mammary MCF-10 cells.

Neuronal and endothelial nitric oxide synthase isoforms: quantification of protein and mRNA in the normal rat penis

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is an important enzyme for erection. We evaluated the content of neuronal (nNOS) and endothelial (eNOS) isoforms and their mRNA in the penis and major pelvic ganglion (MPG) of adult male rats by Western and Northern blot analysis. The cerebellum was evaluated as a control. nNOS protein and its mRNA were detected in abundance in the MPG, cerebellum, pelvic urethra and within the crura of the penis. In contrast, the penile urethra, neurovascular bundle and the shaft of penis contained smaller amounts of this protein. eNOS protein was most abundant in the penile and pelvic parts of the urethra, whereas a moderate level was found in the penile shaft, crura, neurovascular bundle, MPG and cerebellum. Similarly eNOS mRNA was abundant in the penile and pelvic parts of the urethra, MPG and cerebellum. Penile shaft, crura and neurovascular bundle showed moderate amounts of eNOS mRNA. In conclusion, nNOS and its mRNA are most abundant in the MPG and crura of penis whereas eNOS is most abundant in the urethra and to a lesser extent present in the penis. Importantly eNOS protein and mRNA were demonstrated in the MPG, where eNOS function has to be studied.

Deficiency of connexin43 gap junctions is an independent marker for breast tumors

Gap junctions are intercellular channels that are formed from members of a family of proteins, the connexins (Cxs). Gap junctions play an important role in vital functions, including the regulation of cell growth and cell differentiation. Here, we examined the expression of Cx43, a major Cx in breast tissue, in 32 surgical specimens obtained from breast cancer patients who underwent a primary surgical resection prior to chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatments. The expression of Cx43 gap junctions was compared to the levels of estrogen, progesterone, and erbB2 tyrosine kinase receptors. In addition, a panel of breast cancer cell lines and a series of normal rat mammary tissues and rat mammary tumors induced in vivo by dimethylbenz(a)anthracene were studied. We demonstrated that the lack of Cx43 gap junctions is a common feature of human mammary cancer tissues compared to nonneoplastic breast tissues surrounding primary tumors. Cx43 gap junctions were not observed in ductal carcinomas in situ, infiltrating ductal carcinomas, and infiltrating lobular carcinomas, and they seem to be independent of estrogen, progesterone, and erbB2 receptor status. In breast cancer cell lines and rodent mammary carcinoma tissues, down-regulation of Cx43 occurs at the mRNA level, suggesting a transcriptional mechanism for the decrease of Cx43 protein in breast cancer. In summary, this study provides evidence of decreased expression of Cx43 gap junctions in breast cancer at various stages of progression as well as breast cancer cell lines and raises the possibility that Cx43 may be a useful marker for detecting early oncogenesis in the breast. Because Cx43 gap junctions are lacking in breast cancer and restoration of Cx43 has been shown to reverse the malignant phenotype in vitro, pharmacological up-regulation of Cx43 may prove beneficial in cancer therapeutics.

Lack of the inhibitory effect of intragastrically administered capsaicin on NNK-induced lung tumor formation in the A.J mouse

Capsaicin is the principal component in Capsicum fruits consumed by humans worldwide as a food additive. The tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is thought to be an important causative factor in human lung cancer. Dietary factors are reported to modify lung tumor formation in laboratory animals and in humans. In this study, NNK-induced lung tumor formation in female A/J mice given intragastric doses of capsaicin (5 mg/kg body wt) was compared to mice not receiving capsaicin. At the end of the 21 week study, mice treated with capsaicin had an average of 17.1 +/- 1.8 lung tumors/mouse while untreated mice had 19.6 +/- 2. There were 100% lung tumor bearers in each group. Capsaicin alone did not affect spontaneous formation of lung tumors. Our results do not support a possible chemoprotective effect of dietary capsaicin toward NNK-induced lung tumors in human smokers.

Effects of intragastrically administered Pycnogenol on NNK metabolism in F344 rats

NNK is a tobacco-specific nitrosamine that requires metabolic activation by cytochrome P450 enzymes. NNK may be metabolized via carbonyl reduction, N-oxidation, and alpha-carbon hydroxylation. Pycnogenol is a mixture of flavonoid compounds extracted from pine tree bark and is available as a dietary supplement. We have previously shown that Pycnogenol inhibits the in vitro metabolism of NNK in lung and liver microsomes of F344 rats in a concentration-dependent manner. In this report, intragastrically administered Pycnogenol in saline affected NNK metabolism in lung microsomes differently than in liver microsomes of F344 rats. The administered Pycnogenol was inhibitory toward NNK activation in lung microsomes but not in liver microsomes suggesting that Pycnogenol may afford chemoprotection toward NNK-induced lung tumorigenesis when administered orally but not toward NNK-induced liver tumorigenesis. The effects of intragastrically administered Pycnogenol on NNK metabolism in lung and liver microsomes were similar in 6 mo and 20 mo old rats although the level of NNK metabolism was less in the 20 mo old animals.

Effects of pycnogenol on the microsomal metabolism of the tobacco-specific nitrosamine NNK as a function of age

NNK is a potent environmental carcinogen to which smokers and non-smokers are exposed. The response to NNK can be altered by various factors including nutrition. In this study, we examined the effects of pycnogenol on the in vitro metabolism of the tobacco-specific nitrosamine NNK by liver and lung microsomes from 6- and 20-month-old male F344 rats. The major NNK metabolic pathway in liver microsomes was carbonyl reduction, while alpha-hydroxylation was the major pathway in lung microsomes irrespective of age. Pycnogenol (40 and 120 microg/ml) exhibited a statistically significant inhibition of carbonyl reduction and alpha-hydroxylation pathways in liver microsomes from both age groups and in addition to these pathways, pycnogenol inhibited the N-oxidation pathway in lung microsomes. The liver and lung microsomes from 20-month-old rats were less active than from 6-month-old rats although the difference was not statistically significant.

Involvement of insulin-like growth factor-1 and its binding proteins in proliferation and differentiation of murine bone marrow-derived macrophage precursors

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and its binding proteins (IGFBPs) are involved in proliferation and differentiation of many cell types. In the present study, the involvement of IGF-1 and IGFBPs in proliferation and differentiation of murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) was investigated. L929-conditioned media (LCM) containing abundant macrophage colony-stimulating factor CSF-1 were used to stimulate BMDM development from their bone marrow precursors. The alteration of IGF-1 and IGFBPs during LCM-induced BMDM proliferation and differentiation was first studied. The cells were cultured in RPMI complete media containing 20% LCM for different time periods and then incubated in serum-free media for 24 h. The supernatants were collected for Western ligand blotting and immunoblotting analyses, and the cell pellets for Northern blotting analyses. The mRNA level of IGF-1 increased in a time-dependent manner. An increase of IGFBP-4 accumulation in the conditioned media was also observed during this process. However the mRNA expression of IGFBP-4 remained constant, indicating a posttranscriptional regulation of IGFBP-4 secretion and/or stability. The effects of exogenous recombinant human IGF-1 (rhIGF-1) on BMDM proliferation and differentiation were further studied. Two IGF-1 analogs (long R3 IGF-1 and des [1-3] IGF-1) were also used in parallel with regular IGF-1 to indicate the involvement of IGFBPs in BMDM development. Cells were cultured in complete media containing 20% LCM for different time periods, and then incubated in serum-free media in the presence of rhIGF-1 or its analogs for 24 h. These three forms of IGF-1 all potentiated the proliferation of freshly isolated BMDM precursors (d 0). rhIGF-1 and long R3 IGF-1, but not des (1-3) IGF-1, continued to stimulate the cell proliferation on d 1. The effects of these three forms of IGF-1 on BMDM differentiation were investigated using mannose receptor expression as a marker. Long R3 IGF-1 and des (1-3) IGF-1, but not rhIGF-1, enhanced BMDM differentiation on d 4. The different effects of rhIGF-1 and its analogs on BMDM differentiation suggest that the accumulation of IGFBP-4 in BMDM development might have an inhibitory effect on IGF-1 actions by sequestering free IGF-1.

Steroidogenic properties of a spontaneously established porcine granulosa cell line (PGC-2)

A spontaneously established porcine granulosa cell line (PGC-2) was cloned through the continuous culturing of primary granulosa cells collected from equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG)-treated prepubertal gilts. This established cell line has undergone approximately 100 passages and shows contact-inhibition of growth. PGC-2 stained with a monoclonal antibody (mAb) directed against cytokeratin, indicating its epithelial nature, but not with a mAb directed against vimentin, suggesting that it is not fibroblast-derived. Immunoblotting revealed that PGC-2 expresses cadherin, an epithelial Ca+2-dependent cell adhesion molecule. The cells were dependent on serum for growth and had a doubling time of approximately 20 hr when cultured with 10% fetal bovine serum. The cell line was examined for the presence of FSH receptors, cAMP responses, and steroidogenic capabilities. The cell line lacks FSH receptors as assessed by radiolabelled-ligand binding, and no transcripts for FSH receptor were detected by Northern blotting of total cellular RNA. Neither FSH nor cholera toxin (0.5 ng/mL) stimulated increases in cAMP levels in these cells, whereas forskolin (10 microM) induced a fivefold increase in cAMP production. When a higher concentration of cholera toxin (300 ng/mL) was used, however, cAMP levels doubled by 2 hr. Despite a lack of responsiveness to purified of SH or oLH, the cells were capable of progesterone and estradiol production when provided with the appropriate substrates. We conclude that PGC-2 display properties that are similar to immature granulosa cells and may provide a suitable in vitro model for the study of granulosa cell function.

Tumor suppressor activity of the gene encoding mammary-derived growth inhibitor

The gene encoding mammary-derived growth inhibitor (MDGI), a protein previously purified from bovine mammary gland and shown to have modest antiproliferative activity for human breast cancer cells in vitro, is demonstrated to function as a potent tumor suppressor gene. Human breast cancer cells transfected with a MDGI expression construct exhibited differentiated morphology, reduced proliferation rate, reduced clonogenicity in soft agar, and reduced tumorgenicity in nude mice relative to mock-transfected or untransfected controls. We mapped the human homologue of this gene to chromosome 1p33-35, a locus previously shown to exhibit frequent loss of heterozygosity in human breast cancer. MDGI immunoreactivity was detected in epithelial cells of human breast tissue, but not on ductal carcinoma cells on the same sections. Our results suggest that MDGI is a strong candidate for the distal 1p breast tumor suppressor gene. Furthermore, as prior reports have demonstrated that MDGI is hormonally regulated in breast epithelial cells and maximally expressed at the time of maximal differentiated function (just prior to lactation), MDGI is a candidate mediator of the differentiating effect of pregnancy on breast epithelial cells, which may be involved in the protective effect of early parity on subsequent breast cancer incidence.

Insulin-like growth factor I gene expression in the uterus is stimulated by tamoxifen and inhibited by the pure antiestrogen ICI 182780

Estrogen-induced uterine insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) expression has been demonstrated to mediate at least in part the uterotrophic action of estradiol. We studied the effects of tamoxifen, a partial antagonist to the estrogen receptor widely used in the treatment of breast cancer, and ICI 182780, a pure antagonist to the estrogen receptor, on uterine weight and uterine IGF-I gene expression in the rat. Tamoxifen increased uterine weight to 125% of control values and doubled uterine IGF-I expression. In contrast, ICI 182780 reduced uterine weight to 60% of control and uterine IGF-I gene expression to 13% of control. These results demonstrate for the first time that uterine IGF-I expression is a molecular marker that correlates with the effects of partial agonists and antagonists to the estrogen receptor on the uterus. Furthermore, the induction of uterine IGF-I expression by tamoxifen provides a molecular mechanism to account for the uterotrophic effects which are commonly seen with tamoxifen therapy and which have been associated with endometrial neoplasia.

In vivo inhibition of insulin-like growth factor I gene expression by tamoxifen

Tamoxifen, a partial antagonist to the estrogen receptor, is widely used in the treatment of breast cancer and is currently being evaluated as a breast cancer preventative agent in large-scale clinical trials. Recent clinical research has demonstrated that tamoxifen administration is associated with a reduction of serum insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) concentration. We demonstrate here that tamoxifen, when administered in an in vivo experimental system previously used to demonstrate its cytostatic effect on breast cancer cell proliferation, inhibits the expression of the IGF-I gene in common target organs for breast cancer metastasis. Furthermore, while our prior experimental studies have demonstrated an inhibitory effect of tamoxifen on growth hormone output, we show here for the first time that the suppression of IGF-I gene expression associated with tamoxifen administration is in part a consequence of a pituitary-independent action of the drug. Because IGF-I is a potent mitogen for breast cancer cells, this newly described activity of tamoxifen may contribute to its antineoplastic properties, particularly with regard to inhibition of metastasis seen both in animal models and clinically.

Receptor binding and growth-promoting activity of insulin-like growth factor-I in a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T3)

Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) has been known to be mitogenic to a variety of cell types, although a growth-regulatory role for IGF-I on bovine mammary epithelial cells has not been fully investigated. In the present study, we examined the receptor binding of IGF-I and its effect on growth in a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T3). Specific receptors for IGF-I were detected on cultured bovine mammary epithelial cells. Competitive binding revealed that half-maximal inhibition of 125I-labelled IGF-I binding by IGF-I was approximately 3 micrograms/l. Dissociation rate constant of the IGF-I receptor was 3.10 +/- 0.06 nmol/l (S.E.M.) with a receptor site concentration of 366 +/- 8 fmol/mg protein for the average of three experiments. IGF-I exerted a positive mitogenic effect on MAC-T3 cells according to both direct DNA assay and thymidine incorporation assay. Moreover, the mitogenic effect of IGF-I on MAC-T3 cells was enhanced by the addition of fetal calf serum in the culture media. The present results suggest that the bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T3) provides a useful model system with which to study the biological actions of insulin-like growth factors on the bovine mammary secretory tissue in vitro.

Tamoxifen reduces serum insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I)

Antiestrogens are widely used in the management of hormonally responsive breast cancer in both adjuvant and palliative settings, and are currently being evaluated as chemopreventive agents. The classical mechanism of action of these drugs involves inhibition of estrogen-stimulated neoplastic cell proliferation by blockade of estrogen receptors present on breast cancer cells. This paper reviews recent clinical and laboratory data that suggest that the commonly used antiestrogen tamoxifen also acts to reduce serum IGF-I levels. Estrogens appear to play a permissive role in growth hormone (GH) release by the pituitary gland and GH is known to stimulate IGF-I expression by hepatocytes. It is therefore possible that blockade of estrogen receptors in the hypothalamic-pituitary axis by tamoxifen interferes with GH release, leading to reduced hepatic IGF-I expression. In view of results suggesting that IGF-I is a more potent mitogen than estradiol for breast cancer cells and data demonstrating a positive correlation between estrogen receptor level and IGF-I receptor level of breast cancer cells, the IGF-I lowering effect of tamoxifen may contribute to the cytostatic activity of the drug. The interrelationships between steroid hormone physiology and IGF-I physiology may have relevance to a variety of commonly used treatments for hormonally responsive cancers.

Establishment of bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T): an in vitro model for bovine lactation

The hallmark of differentiated mammary epithelial cells is a copious secretion of milk-specific components regulated by lactogenic hormones. We describe an established clonal cell line produced from primary bovine mammary alveolar cells (MAC-T) by stable transfection with SV-40 large T-antigen. MAC-T cells show a population doubling time of approximately 17 h and have been cultured more than 350 passages without showing any sign of senescence. They show the characteristic "cobblestone" morphology of epithelial cells when grown on plastic substratum. Differentiation was induced by augmenting cell-cell interaction on a floating collagen gel in the presence of prolactin. The differentiated phenotype was characterized to include (1) increased abundance in beta-casein mRNA, (2) increased number and size of indirect immunofluorescent casein secretory vesicles in each cell and (3) alpha s- and beta-casein protein secretion. The clonal nature of the cells, their immortality, and their ability to uniformly differentiate and secrete casein proteins make this cell line unique.

Role of tissue remodeling in mammary epithelial cell proliferation and morphogenesis

Lactation is a physiological process characterized by the secretion of large quantities of protein, carbohydrate, and lipid. To achieve the production, the mammary gland must grow and then differentiate; both processes require extensive tissue remodeling. Remodeling begins with a carefully controlled proteolysis of the extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesion proteins. Plasmin is a serine protease that has been implicated in the tissue remodeling associated with the declining phase of lactation and mammary involution. As lactation progresses, the quantity of plasmin activity increases within the mammary tissue and milk. This has led to the hypothesis that gradual involution results from progressive tissue remodeling. Hormonal attenuation of gradual involution by bST would slow tissue remodeling and would be permissive for lactation. In vitro results indicate that insulin-like growth factor-I impairs the secretion of plasminogen activator by bovine mammary epithelial cells. As such, a mechanism of action for bST exists.