Prevalence, Molecular Detection, and Antimicrobial Resistance of Salmonella Isolates from Poultry Farms across Central Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas

A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the prevalence, molecular detection, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella isolates within 162 poultry farms in selected urban and peri-urban areas of central Ethiopia. A total of 1515 samples, including cloacal swabs (n = 763), fresh fecal droppings (n = 188), litter (n = 188), feed (n = 188), and water (n = 188), were bacteriologically tested. The molecular detection of some culture-positive isolates was performed via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) by targeting spy and sdfl genes for Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, respectively. Risk factors for the occurrence of the bacterial isolates were assessed. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of PCR-confirmed Salmonella isolates was conducted using 12 antibiotics. In this study, it was observed that 50.6% of the farms were positive for Salmonella. The overall sample-level prevalence of Salmonella was 14.4%. Among the analyzed risk factors, the type of production, breed, and sample type demonstrated a statistically significant association (p < 0.05) with the bacteriological prevalence of Salmonella. The PCR test disclosed that 45.5% (15/33) and 23.3% (10/43) of the isolates were positive for genes of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, respectively. The antimicrobial susceptibility test disclosed multi-drug resistance to ten of the tested antibiotics that belong to different classes. Substantial isolation of Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis in poultry and on poultry farms, along with the existence of multi-drug resistant isolates, poses an alarming risk of zoonotic and food safety issues. Hence, routine flock testing, farm surveillance, biosecurity intervention, stringent antimicrobial use regulations, and policy support for the sector are highly needed.

The Burden and Risk Factors of Helicobacter Pylori Infection Among Government Employees Who Clinically Complain of Indigestion but Allergic Diseases in Southeastern Ethiopia: A Multi-Institution Cross-Sectional Study

Background

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is believed to have spread from East Africa, but its burden is still unknown in less privileged regions of Ethiopia. Indigestion is an upset stomach, upper abdomen discomfort, heartburn, and bloating. This study evaluated the burden and risk factors for H. pylori infection among government employees who clinically complained of indigestion but allergic diseases in five public health institutions in Southeastern Ethiopia.

Methods

A health facilities-based cross-sectional survey study was conducted in Southeastern Ethiopia from March to November 2022, employing cluster sampling. Blood specimens, clinical data, and semi-structured questionnaires about risk factors were collected. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive, bivariate, and multivariable logistic regression in STATA software, Windows version 16.1.

Results

The overall prevalence of infection was found to be 77.6%. The sampled health institution (ρ-value < 0.05), engagement in sideline business (ρ-value < 0.05), sharing local spoon on meal [AOR = 39.30; CI:19.52 -78.31; ρ-value < 0.001], admitting "Gursha" during meal [AOR = 71.48; CI:3.99 -1279.77; ρ-value < 0.05], the toilet type [AOR = 1410.98; CI:121.16 -16,431.19; ρ-value < 0.001], alcohol drinking [AOR = 15.15; CI:1.90 -120.62; ρ-value < 0.05], sleeping hours length [AOR = 15.01; CI:13.48-55.96; ρ-value < 0.001], chewing Khat [AOR = 76.73; CI:8.57-687.07; ρ-value < 0.001], and regular hand washing before eating [AOR = 0.15; CI:0.12-0.19; ρ-value < 0.05] were the independent predictors of H. pylori infection.

Conclusion

The prevalence rate of H. pylori infection in Southeastern Ethiopia is agonizingly high, exceeding the world average by 27.6%, the first report, and seems to be one of the neglected infectious diseases. Hence, the Oromia Region Health Bureau should reinvigorate the basic infectious disease control methods, establish routine laboratory diagnostic platforms, and intervene in selected societal practices spreading infections.

Epidemiology of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato in the Greater Horn of Africa: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a neglected zoonotic disease that is caused by Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.), the life cycle of which involves multiple hosts. We conducted a systematic review (SR) on E. granulosus s.l. in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA), to provide a picture of its recent epidemiology across all hosts.

METHODS

For this SR, conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, five electronic databases, as well experts in the region were consulted to retrieve records published between 2000 and 2022, reporting the presence of E. granulosus s.l. infections in any natural host in the GHA (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Somalia, South Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda).

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

A total of 247 records were retained, describing the presence of E. granulosus s.l. throughout the GHA, except for Djibouti. Only few population surveys on human CE were conducted in the area, with the prevalence ranging between 0.3 and 11.3%. In animals, the reported prevalence ranged up to 61.6% in camels, 88.4% in cattle; 65.2% in goats, 9.9% in pigs, 67.8% in sheep and 94.5% in dogs. In addition, E. granulosus s.l. was also reported in wildlife. A total of five species were reported in the different hosts, namely E. granulosus sensu stricto (G1, G3, GOmo), E. canadensis (G6/7), E. ortleppi (G5), E. felidis, and E. equinus (G4).

CONCLUSIONS

We confirm that E. granulosus s.l. is prevalent throughout the GHA. Nevertheless, despite our efforts to screen grey literature, an accurate assessment of the epidemiology in GHA remains challenging, due to the lack of combined host, in-depth risk factor and behavioural studies, as well as the wide diversity in subpopulations studied and diagnostic tools used. Interdisciplinary and transboundary partnerships would be essential for the design of effective control strategies, tuned to the GHA setting.

Cryptosporidium in human-animal-environment interphase at Adama and Asella areas of Oromia regional state, Ethiopia

Background

In Ethiopia, several studies have reported the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in young calves, lambs, and HIV positive patients. However, research on cattle and sheep of all ages, as well as humans, has been limited.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in dairy cattle, sheep, humans, and manure samples. Dairy cattle and sheep were stratified according to their age groups and randomly sampled. Stool samples from volunteered dairy farm workers and rural household members were collected purposefully. A semi-structured questionnaire was also used to collect information about manure handling practices and socio-demographic variables. All collected samples were processed with the sugar floatation technique and the modified Ziehl–Neelsen staining method. Logistic regression was used to analyze the association of risk factors with the occurrence of Cryptosporidium in study subjects (p < 0.05).

Results

The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium in dairy cattle, sheep, humans, and manure samples was 20.5%, 14%, 16%, and 13.20%, respectively. Cryptosporidium infection was significantly higher in dairy cattle aged 1–12 months and 13–36 months with odds of 3.48 and 3.07 times higher, respectively, compared to others. Similarly, its occurrence was 2.69 times higher in sheep aged 1–6 months than those above 6 months. And also, a higher average oocyst count (above 10 oocysts) per-field was observed in cattle aged 1–12 months, followed by sheep aged 1–6 months. Furthermore, the likelihood of infection was 13 times greater in farm workers compared to household members of smallholder farmers. In addition, the occurrence of oocysts was 22.8 times higher in manures from dairy cattle than that of sheep. About 16.8% of the study respondents had manure disposal pit, 98.1% of them used manure as fertilizer for crop and vegetable production without any treatment.

Conclusions

The study revealed the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in all age groups of dairy cattle and sheep, humans engaged in animal production. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium in manure suggests it potential contamination of environment and water sources.

Utility of the Intradermal Skin Test in a Test-and-Cull Approach to Control Bovine Tuberculosis: A Pilot Study in Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is one of the top three, high-priority, livestock diseases in Ethiopia and hence, the need for evaluation of potential control strategies is critical. Here, we applied the test-and-segregate followed by cull strategy for the control of bTB in the intensive Alage dairy farm in Ethiopia. All cattle reared on this farm were repeatedly skin tested using the Comparative Cervical Tuberculin (CCT) test for a total of five times between 2015 and 2021. During the first (October 2015) and second (March 2017) rounds of testing, all reactor animals (>4 mm) were culled, while those that were deemed as inconclusive (1–4 mm) were segregated and retested. At retest, animals with CCT >2 mm were removed from the herd. In the third (December 2017) and fourth (June 2018) rounds of tuberculin testing, a more stringent approach was taken wherein all reactors per the severe mode of CCT test interpretation (>2 mm) were culled. A final herd status check was performed in May 2021. In summary, the number of CCT positives (>4 mm) in the farm dropped from 23.1% (31/134) in October 2015 to 0% in December 2017 and remained 0% until May 2021. In contrast, the number of Single Cervical Tuberculin (SCT) test positives (≥4 mm) increased from 1.8 to 9.5% (from 2017 to 2021), indicating that CCT test might not be sufficient to effectively clear the herd of bTB. However, a more stringent approach would result in a drastic increase in the number of false positives. The total cost of the bTB control effort in this farm holding 134–200 cattle at any given time was conservatively estimated to be ~US$48,000. This, together with the need for culling an unacceptably high number of animals based on skin test status, makes the test-and-cull strategy impractical for nationwide implementation in Ethiopia and other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) where the infection is endemic. Hence, there is an increased emphasis on the need to explore alternate, affordable measures such as vaccination alongside accurate diagnostics to help control bTB in endemic settings.

Bovine trypanosomosis in upstream and downstream of Ghibe-III hydroelectric dam: parasitological and entomological study, southern Ethiopia

Two-point cross-sectional study design in dry and rainy seasons was employed near Ghibe-III Dam from December 2018 to July 2019. Trypanosomosis prevalence comparison between downstream (Kindodidaye) and upstream (Loma districts), associated risk factors, vector dispersion, identification and vector infection rate considered. Blood sample collected from 1280 cattle from two districts during dry and rainy seasons; the assumed risk factors recorded. Samples were examined using heamatological and parasitological techniques. In this study 9.1% (116/1280) trypanosomosis prevalence recorded. Prevalence was significantly (p < 0.05) different between Kindodidaye (11.7%) and Loma (6.4%). Most of the infections were due to T. congolense (79.3%) followed by T. vivax (17.2%) and T. brucei (2.6%) and one mixed infection recorded. Significant (p < 0.05) difference observed in season, within district and between districts. Among the assumed risk factors: district, season, Kebele and body condition score showed significant (p < 0.05) difference; whereas sex, age, color weren't significantly (p > 0.05) different. Significantly (p < 0.05) low mean PCV observed in infected group, dry season and Kindodidaye district. Entomological survey revealed 1030 tsetse spp. (G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes) and 2045 biting flies mainly Stomoxysis and Tabanus, and other unidentified spp. recorded. Tsetse apparent density were significantly (p < 0.05) high in Kindodidaye and rainy season with value of 5.3 and 7.1 F/T/D, respectively. Out of 182 tsetse fly dissected twenty seven (14.6%) of them were infected. A proportion of 23.0%, 30.8% and 46.2% infection rate recorded in proboscis, salivary gland and mid gut, respectively. The study shows Kindodidaye and rainy season had high trypanosomosis and tsetse apparent density than Loma. The difference might be associated with water reserve created due to Ghibe III hydroelectric dam and this could be a golden opportunity in the area to contribute tsetse control program. Stakeholders' need to aware to use this opportunity before tsetse adapts itself into new environment or niche for their survival.

Histopathological lesions in reproductive organs, distal spinal cord and peripheral nerves of horses naturally infected with Trypanosoma equiperdum

Background

Dourine, a venereal transmitted trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma equiperdum, has different clinical signs related to the reproductive and nervous system. Pathologic tissue changes associated with the disease are poorly described. The present study describes the histopathological lesions in naturally T. equiperdum-infected horses in the chronical stage of dourine.

Results

Four chronically dourine diseased horses underwent a post-mortem examination. They were Woo test negative, but CATT/T. evansi positive, had a low packed cell volume (PCV) and exhibited obvious clinical signs of dourine. Post-mortem examination did not reveal gross lesions in the organs assumed to be responsible for the symptomatology. On histopathology, genital organs were affected, with mononuclear cell infiltration and erosions and degeneration of seminiferous tubules and perivascular lymphoplasmacytic cuffing in the uterus. In the nervous system, mononuclear cell infiltration was located in peripheral nerves, ganglia and in the spinal cord, leading to axonal degeneration. Real-time PCR using ITS primer revealed the presence of trypanosomes in these organs and conventional PCRs using maxicircle and RoTat1.2 primers further confirmed the involvement of T. equiperdum since the DNAs from the vagina, testicle, distal spinal cord, sciatic and obturator nerves found to be positive for maxicircle and negative for RoTat 1.2.

Conclusions

The histopathological lesions in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves explain the incoordination of the hind legs in T. equiperdum-infected horses, whilst its presence in the genital tract exemplifies the venereal transmission.

Trypanocidal drug resistance: A threat to animal health and production in Gidami district of Kellem Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Western Ethiopia

This study was conducted from May 08 to June 08, 2017 in Gidami District, Kellem Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to assess the occurrence of trypanocidal drug resistance in naturally infected cattle in identified hot spots villages of Gidami district. An initial cross-sectional prevalence study was conducted in seven villages from November 2015 to June 2016. Based on the outcome of the cross-sectional study, Kellem and Gry Sonka villages with highest trypanosome prevalence (28% and 30.85%) respectively were selected. An abbreviated 28-day field prototocol study was used to estimate resistance to 1 mg/kg bw isometamidium chloride (ISM) and 7.0 mg/kg bw diminanzene aceturate (DA). In this study, 100 purposively selected trypanosome positive cattle were ear-tagged and allocated into two treatment groups: a group I were treated with 2% solution of 1 mg/kg bw ISM and a group II were treated with 7% solution of 7 mg/kg bw DA. The treatment day was considered as day 0 and the treated cattle were monitored for trypanosomes and packed cell volume (PCV) levels on days 14 (for DA and ISM) and 28 (for ISM) post treatment. A treatment failure rate of 25% of the cattle in the ISM treated group on days 14 and 28 were indicative of resistance, whereas in the DA treated group the response was assessed only on day 14 post-treatment. The results of the study confirmed the presence of drug resistance to the maximum recommended doses of ISM and DA in Giray Sonka and Kellem villages of Gidami district. Out of 50 trypanosome positive cattle treated with ISM, 68% had persistent infections on day 28 post-treatment. Similarly, of the 50 trypanosome positive cattle treated with 7 mg/kg bw DA, 36% had persistent trypanosomes on day 14 post treatment. Of all ISM and DA treatment failures T. congolense accounted for (70.59%; 66.67%), T. vivax (23.53%; 27.78%) and T. brucei (5.88%; 5.55%) respectively. Drug resistance has indeed been a considerable threat in all villages of Gidami district, but the situation is magnified in Giray Sonka and Kellem villages. Thus, an integrated control approach of trypanosomosis should be conducted to ensure sustainable animal health and production in the area. In addition beside tsetse control, rational use of trypanocidal drugs and control of co-infections to exploit self-cure against resistant trypanosome populations are recommended. Furthermore, extensive data on trypanocidal drug sensitivity tests using advanced molecular techniques considered as elucidative.

Aberrant use and poor quality of trypanocides: a risk for drug resistance in south western Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Trypanocidal drugs have been used to control African animal trypanosomosis for several decades. In Ethiopia, these drugs are available from both authorized (legal) and unauthorized (illegal) sources but documentation on utilization practices and quality of circulating products is scanty. This study looked at the practices of trypanocidal drug utilization by farmers and the integrity of active ingredient in trypanocides sold in Gurage zone, south western Ethiopia. The surveys were based on a structured questionnaire and drug quality determination of commonly used brands originating from European and Asian companies and sold at both authorized and unauthorized markets. One hundred farmers were interviewed and 50 drug samples were collected in 2013 (Diminazene aceturate = 33 and Isometamidium chloride = 17; 25 from authorized and 25 from unauthorized sources). Samples were tested at the OIE-certified Veterinary Drug Control Laboratory (LACOMEV) in Dakar, Senegal, by using galenic standards and high performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

Trypanosomosis was found to be a major threat according to all interviewed livestock keepers in the study area. Diminazene aceturate and isometamidium chloride were preferred by 79% and 21% of the respondents respectively, and 85% of them indicated that an animal receives more than six treatments per year. About 60% of these treatments were reported to be administered by untrained farmers. Trypanocidal drug sources included both unauthorized outlets (56%) and authorized government and private sources (44%). A wide availability and usage of substandard quality drugs was revealed. Twenty eight percent of trypanocidal drugs tested failed to comply with quality requirements. There was no significant difference in the frequency of non-compliance between diminazene-based and isometamidium chloride products (P = 0.87) irrespective of the marketing channel (official and unofficial). However, higher rates of non-compliant trypanocides were detected for drugs originating from Asia than from Europe (P = 0.029).

CONCLUSION

The findings revealed the presence of risk factors for the development of drug resistance, i.e. wide distribution of poor quality drugs as well as substandard administration practices. Therefore, it is strongly recommended to enforce regulatory measures for quality control of veterinary drugs, to expand and strengthen veterinary services and to undertake trypanocidal drug efficacy studies of wider coverage.

Bovine trypanosomosis: changes in parasitemia and packed cell volume in dry and wet seasons at Gidami District, Oromia Regional State, western Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Animal trypanosomosis is one of the major disease problems affecting agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. The impact of the disease is believed to vary with season and agro-ecologies in line with fly vector distribution. A cross-sectional study on bovine trypanosomosis was conducted from November 2015 to June 2016, in seven selected villages of Gidami district, Oromia Regional State, western Ethiopia. A total of 930 blood samples were collected and subjected to parasitological and hematological analysis.

RESULT

The overall prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis was 14.1%. The seasonal prevalence shows 9.06% in early dry and 18.4% in early rainy seasons. Three trypanosome species, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma brucei were identified in the examined animals. T. congolense followed by T. vivax were the predominant species (respectively 59.0 and 35.9% in early dry season and 62.0 and 22.8% in early rainy season). The prevalence of T. vivax remained similar in both early dry and early rainy seasons in both lowland and midland agroecologies whereas T. congolense was more dominant in the lowland area in both seasons compared to mid land study sites. The disease was more prevalent in lowland (23.9%) compared to midland (11.1%) during early rainy season (P < 0.001) whereas no significant difference was observed between the two agroecologies during early dry season (P = 0.165). Packed cell volume (PCV) was much lower in parasitemic animals than in aparasitemic cattle whereas the mean PCV value for parasitemic animals (20.36%; 95% CI 19.56 to 21.16) in early dry season was similar to values in early rainy season (20.46%, 95% CI 18.84 to 21.08%). A similar situation was noticed for animals in both low land and mid land study sites.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the detection of trypanosomes in blood was significantly affected by agro-ecology, season and body condition of the animals. Special emphasis should be given to integrated trypanosomosis management in early rainy months where fly population is believed to start increasing.

Prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and assessment of trypanocidal drug resistance in tsetse infested and non-tsetse infested areas of Northwest Ethiopia

The Northwestern region of Ethiopia is affected by both tsetse and non-tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis with a significant impact on livestock productivity. The control of trypanosomosis in Ethiopia relies on either curative or prophylactic treatment of animals with diminazene aceturate (DA) or isometamidium chloride (ISM). In the present work; questionnaire survey, cross-sectional and experimental studies were carried out to; a) assess the utilization of trypanocidal drugs; b) determine the prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis and; c) assess the drug resistant problems respectively in Tsetse and non-tsetse infested areas on NW Ethiopia. A total of 100 respondents were included for the survey and the questionnaires focused on the drug utilization practices for the control of Trypanosomosis. Blood from cattle 640 (324 cattle tested in 2011, 316 cattle tested in 2012) and 795 (390 cattle tested in 2011, 405 cattle tested in 2012) were examined from tsetse infested and non-tsetse infested areas respectively using the buffy coat technique and thin blood smear for the detection of trypanosomes and measurement of packed cell volume (PCV). For the assessment of trypanocidal drug resistance three isolates, one from tsetse (TT) and two from non-tsetse (NT) areas were used on thirty six trypanosome naïve calves. The experimental animals were divided randomly into six groups of six animals (TT-ETBS2-DA, TT-ETBS2-ISM, NT-ETBD2-DA, NT-ETBD2-ISM, NT-ETBD3-DA and NT-ETBD3-ISM), which were infected with T. vivax isolated from a tsetse-infested or non-tsetse infested area with 2 × 10⁶ trypanosomes from donor animals, and in each case treated with higher dose of DA or ISM. The results of the questionnaire survey showed trypanosomosis was a significant animal health constraint for 84% and 100% of the farmers questioned in non-tsetse and tsetse infested areas of Northwest Ethiopia respectively. Responses on trypanocidal drug utilization practices indicated that risk factors for the development of drug resistance are common and treatment failures are frequently seen. Accordingly, the majority of farmers in tsetse infested area get trypanocides from drug stores and unauthorized sources whereas those from non-tsetse area get from veterinary clinics. Moreover, treatment administration is mainly by animal health personnel and treatment frequency is a maximum of three times/year/animal in non-tsetse area whereas it is administered mainly by the farmers more than seven times/year/animal in tsetse infested area. The prevalence of trypanosomosis varied from 17.59% in 2011 to 25.0% in 2012 in tsetse infested areas with a significant (P = 0.023) difference. Similarly, in non-tsetse infested area the prevalence was varied from 3.85% in 2011 to 5.93% in 2012 without significant rise. Trypanosoma congolense (75%) was the most prevalent followed by T. vivax (20.58%) and mixed infections (4.41%) in tsetse infested area while in non-tsetse infested area only T. vivax was detected. The overall mean PCV in parasitaemic animals (20 ± 2.3 SD) was significantly (P < 0.001) lower than that of aparasitaemic animals (27 ± 4.3 SD). The assessment of trypanocidal drug resistance tests revealed one isolate of non-tsetse infested area against DA in group NT-ETBD2-DA is resistant to the higher dose used with 3 relapsing animals (50% relapses) in the group. Another two relapses were detected one against ISM for the isolate from tsetse infested area (TT-ETBS2-ISM) and one against DA for another isolate (NT-ETBD3-DA) from the non-tsetse area. In conclusion, trypanosomosis is widely prevalent in both study areas causing significant reduction in the mean PCV values. Farmers' trypanocidal utilization practices appear to pose risks of drug resistance problems. The in vivo drug resistance tests indicated the presence of resistant parasites with the higher dose against DA for NT-ETBD2 isolate and suspected resistance problems were detected against ISM and DA for TT-ETBS2 and NT-ETBD3 isolates respectively. Therefore, trypanosomosis is a major constraint in Northwest Ethiopia and drug resistance is a threat in the control of trypanosomosis in both study areas.

First report on seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs in Central Ethiopia

Background

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most widely prevalent cyst forming Apicomplexan parasites with significant impact on animal production particularly in sheep, goats and pigs. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to estimate the seroprevalence and to assess risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs. A systematic random sampling technique was used to collect 402 blood samples from pigs in Central Ethiopia. Direct Agglutination Test (DAT) was used to test sera. A questionnaire survey was made to assess potential risk factors and knowledge of farm attendants about toxoplasmosis.

Results

An overall seroprevalence of 32.1% [95% confidence interval (CI): 27.6%-36.9%] was found. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that extensively managed pigs (39.7%) are nearly twice (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]:=1.91, 95% CI: 1.01, 3.63) at higher risk of acquiring toxoplasmosis than intensively managed pigs (30.5%). Pigs supplied with feed containing animal byproducts had nearly four times (OR = 3.84, 95% CI: 2.01, 7.36) higher risk of acquiring T. gondii infection. Most of the farm attendants had little knowledge of health risks due to cats, neither to human nor to animals. Absence of rodent control, high neonatal mortality and history of abortion were found among herds of the studied pig farms.

Conclusions

T. gondii infections in pigs are wide spread. Extensive management systems and pig feed types containing animal byproducts are independent predictors of T. gondii seropositivity. The high seroprevalence suggests that pigs might serve as an important source of T. gondii infection for people. This is the first report of seroepidemiology of T. gondii infection in pigs in Ethiopia. Further studies are warranted for designing appropriate prevention and control strategies.

Farmers' perception of impacts of bovine trypanosomosis and tsetse fly in selected districts in Baro-Akobo and Gojeb river basins, Southwestern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Trypanosomosis, via causing anaemia, emaciation, production loss and death, is arguably the most important constraint to livestock development in Sub-Saharan countries, including Ethiopia and its impact in Baro-Akobo and Gojeb river basins (endemic areas for tsetse flies) is unknown. This study was carried out from November 2011 to April 2012 to assess farmers' perception on the presence, impact, management and the need of intervention programs of bovine trypanosomosis and tsetse fly in selected districts located in Baro-Akobo and Gojeb river basins, Southwestern Ethiopia. A standardized questionnaire survey was employed to collect the relevant information from the farmers.

RESULTS

The result of this study showed that 94.1% of the respondents considered bovine trypanosomosis as an economically important cattle disease which accounted for 64.6% of the total annual deaths in the year 2011/2012. Estimated mean annual financial loss via mortality due to trypanosomosis was reported to be 3501 Ethiopian Birr (US$200)/household. The reported trypanosomosis suggestive signs were consistent with published reports and farmers strongly associated the occurrence of the disease with biting flies (particularly, tsetse fly). Respondents also explained that the seasonality of the disease and its vectors, i.e. May and June are peak risk months of the year. Chemotherapy was reported the major method to combating the problem, mean frequency of treatment being 5.7 times per animal per year. Because of the economic burden of the disease, farmers expressed their strong interest and support for the establishment of intervention program in their area.

CONCLUSION

The study revealed that livestock keepers are familiar with bovine trypanosomosis and its vectors as well as its impacts. Thus, trypanosomosis and tsetse control strategies should be integrated with the local communities' participation to minimize the impacts of the disease and its vectors in the area.

Comparative diagnosis of parasitological, serological, and molecular tests in dourine-suspected horses

Study on comparative sensitivity of parasitological, serological, and molecular tests on 237 horses originating from two dourine-suspected districts of Arsi-Bale highlands of Ethiopia was conducted to determine the prevalence of the disease and degree of agreement of the diagnostic tests. Accordingly, the prevalence of the disease was found to be 4.6%, 36.7%, and 47.6% by parasitological Woo test, RoTat 1.2 and 18S PCR tests, respectively. The seroprevalence of the disease was 27.6% in CATT/Trypanosoma evansi test. In Ethiopia, it was for the first time that trypanosomes from dourine suspected horses were demonstrated in 4.6% of the animals using Woo test. The findings of the present study disclosed that dourine is highly prevalent and one of the major diseases of horses in the area. There was no statistically significant difference (P>0.05) in prevalence of the disease between districts, sexes, and age groups of the animals. However, there was a statistically significant difference (P<0.05) in the prevalence of the disease between emaciated and animals with good body condition. Assessment of the degree of agreement of the diagnostic tests employed revealed low to fair (k = 0·1 - 0·4) with significantly higher sensitivity by PCR than other tests.

Study on coccidiosis of scavenging indigenous chickens in Central Ethiopia

An investigation was made into coccidiosis of 190 scavenging indigenous chickens between September 2000 and April 2001 in three selected agroclimatic zones, in central Ethiopia. This was done through clinical, postmortem and microscopic examinations. Data were processed by chi-square and Mantel-Haenzel test. The study indicated that 25.8% (49/190) of the chickens were infected with coccidiosis and found to harbour one to four different species of Eimeria. Of these infected chickens, 30 (15.8%) and 19 (10.0%) were positive for clinical and sub-clinical coccidiosis, respectively. There was a significant altitude difference (chi2 = 14.7, p <0.001) in coccidiosis prevalence: 42.2% in chickens from highland region followed by 21.5% in mid-altitude and 13.1% in low-altitude areas. When quantified, the prevalence of coccidiosis was 2.66 and 4.83 times higher in the high-altitude than in mid-altitude (odds ratio, OR = 2.66, p<0.05) and low-altitude (OR = 4.83, p<0.001) chickens. The pathogenic Eimeria species responsible for clinical coccidiosis were E. necatrix, E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella. With increasing demand for poultry products in developing countries, knowledge of production constraints in traditional management practices could help devise control strategies for constraints on backyard poultry production systems.

Study on skin diseases in sheep from northern Ethiopia

A study was conducted to determine the cause and prevalence of skin diseases in local sheep from northern Ethiopia. Of 520 sheep examined 174 (33%) had skin diseases of different causes. The identified causes were lice infestation due to Damalina ovis and Linognatus africanus (21%), sheep pox (8%), sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptic Scab. var. ovis) (4%), dermatophilosis due to Dermatophilus congolensis (3%), and orf (contagious ecthyma) (3%). There was no statistically significant (P > 0.05) association of any of the skin diseases with age and sex of the sheep examined. The occurrence and spread of the diseases were associated with poor management, climatic factors, feed scarcity and inadequate veterinary services. The increasing threat of skin diseases to the development of sheep production warranting an urgent control intervention is indicated.