Temporal and spatial drivers of the structure of macroinvertebrate assemblages associated with Laminaria hyperborea detritus in the northeast Atlantic

Kelp forests occur on more than a quarter of the world's coastlines, serving as foundation species supporting high levels of biodiversity. They are also a major source of organic matter in coastal ecosystems, with the majority of primary production released and exported as detritus. Kelp detritus also provides food and shelter for macroinvertebrates, which comprise important components of inshore food-webs. Hitherto, research on kelp detritus-associated macroinvertebrate assemblages remains relatively limited. We quantified spatiotemporal variability in the structure of detritus-associated macroinvertebrate assemblages within Laminaria hyperborea forests and evaluated the influence of putative drivers of the observed variability in assemblages across eight study sites within four regions of the United Kingdom in May and September 2015. We documented 5167 individuals from 106 taxa with Malacostraca, Gastropoda, Isopoda and Bivalvia the most abundant groups sampled. Assemblage structure varied across months, sites, and regions, with highest richness in September compared to May. Many taxa were unique to individual regions, with few documented in all regions. Finally, key drivers of assemblage structure included detritus tissue nitrogen content, depth, sea surface temperature, light intensity, as well as L. hyperborea canopy density and canopy biomass. Despite their dynamic composition and transient existence, accumulations of L. hyperborea detritus represent valuable repositories of biodiversity and represent an additional kelp forest component which influences secondary productivity, and potentially kelp forest food-web dynamics.

Multiscale Spatial Variability and Stability in the Structure and Diversity of Bacterial Communities Associated with the Kelp Eisenia cokeri in Peru

Ecological communities are structured by a range of processes that operate over a range of spatial scales. While our understanding of such biodiversity patterns in macro-communities is well studied, our understanding at the microbial level is still lacking. Bacteria can be free living or associated with host eukaryotes, forming part of a wider "microbiome," which is fundamental for host performance and health. For habitat forming foundation-species, host-bacteria relationships likely play disproportionate roles in mediating processes for the wider ecosystem. Here, we describe host-bacteria communities across multiple spatial scales (i.e., from 10s of m to 100s of km) in the understudied kelp, Eisenia cokeri, in Peru. We found that E. cokeri supports a distinct bacterial community compared to the surrounding seawater, but the structure of these communities varied markedly at the regional (~480 km), site (1-10 km), and individual (10s of m) scale. The marked regional-scale differences we observed may be driven by a range of processes, including temperature, upwelling intensity, or regional connectivity patterns. However, despite this variability, we observed consistency in the form of a persistent core community at the genus level. Here, the genera Arenicella, Blastopirellula, Granulosicoccus, and Litorimonas were found in >80% of samples and comprised ~53% of total sample abundance. These genera have been documented within bacterial communities associated with kelps and other seaweed species from around the world and may be important for host function and wider ecosystem health in general.

Population structure and reproductive states of the dogwhelk Nucella lapillus differ between artificial structures and natural rocky shores

Artificial structures are an increasingly common feature of coastal marine environments. These structures are poor surrogates of natural rocky shores, and generally support less diverse communities and reduced population sizes. Little is known about sub-lethal effects of such structures in terms of demographic properties and reproductive potential, both of which may influence the dynamics and long-term viability of populations. This study examines the population structure, reproductive states and embryo production of Nucella lapillus populations on artificial structures and natural shores in Ireland and Wales. Population density was measured twice at six natural shores and six artificial structures: once in winter and once in spring. At each sampling, the shell height of 100 individuals from each site was measured. Monthly collections of adult specimens and egg capsules were made at each site from November-January and from March-May, in order to determine sex ratios, reproductive states, and embryo abundances. Artificial structures supported larger individuals and very few juveniles compared to natural shores. Between December and January, natural shores experienced a distinctive pulse in spawning activity followed by a decline in the proportion of females in a reproductive state, whereas on artificial structures the proportion of reproductive females remained relatively stable. Differences observed may be due to a lack of microhabitats on artificial structures, along with subtle variations in structure slope. Eco-engineering interventions, including the addition of refugia such as cracks and crevices, may allow N. lapillus populations on artificial structures to approximate those on natural shores.

The population structure, sex ratio and reproductive potential of limpets (Patella spp.) on natural shores and artificial structures in the Irish Sea

Artificial structures often support depauperate communities compared to natural rocky shores. Understanding variation in ecological success across shore types, particularly regarding habitat-forming species or those with structuring roles, is important to determine how artificial structure proliferation may influence ecosystem functioning and services. We investigated the population structure, sex ratio and reproductive potential of limpets on natural shores and artificial structures on Irish Sea coasts. Limpets were generally less abundant and Patella vulgata populations were often male dominated on artificial structures compared to natural shores, suggesting that shore type may influence these factors. P. vulgata length varied across sites within the Irish Sea (nested in coast and shore type) in autumn/winter, as well as temporally across sites along the Welsh coast. There was no difference in the proportion of P. vulgata in advanced stages of gonad development across shore types. The results suggest that rip-rap artificial structures may provide a habitat comparable to natural shores, however, the addition of ecological engineering interventions on artificial structures may allow limpet populations to better approximate those on natural shores.

Fucus vesiculosus populations on artificial structures have potentially reduced fecundity and are dislodged at greater rates than on natural shores

Artificial structures are widespread features of coastal marine environments. These structures, however, are poor surrogates of natural rocky shores, meaning they generally support depauperate assemblages with reduced population sizes. Little is known about sub-lethal effects of such structures, for example, in terms of demographic properties and reproductive potential that may affect the dynamics and long-term viability of populations. Such understanding is particularly important for ecosystem engineer species, such as the intertidal seaweed Fucus vesiculosus. In this study, F. vesiculosus was sampled on eight artificial structures and eight natural shores along the east coast of Ireland and the west coast of Wales. Algal percentage cover, biomass, density of individuals, and growth rate did not differ between artificial and natural shores. Growth and reproductive cycles were consistent with previous studies for this species. While there was considerable variation from site to site, on average, populations on natural shores produced a higher number of mature receptacles during the peak reproductive period in April, and lower rates of dislodgement than on artificial structures. As F. vesiculosus reach peak reproductive output after 24 months, this suggests that individuals may be removed from populations on artificial structures before reaching their full reproductive potential. In this case, this did not influence density, percentage cover, or biomass, which suggests that F. vesiculosus populations on artificial structures may function similarly to those on natural shores if supported by suitable source populations, but potentially may not persist otherwise.

Abstract P6-08-01: Race and recurrence by PAM50 intrinsic subtype and ROR-PT score: The Carolina breast cancer study

Compared with white women, black women have higher breast cancer mortality. Racial differences have been reported in frequency of PAM50 intrinsic subtypes, and PAM50 intrinsic subtype is associated with prognosis. However, there is a paucity of data from large population-based studies with adequate representation of black women to evaluate its role in racial differences in breast cancer outcomes. We studied breast cancer recurrence in relation to PAM50 intrinsic subtype using data from the Carolina Breast Cancer Study Phase III (CBCS3), a large population-based prospective cohort study oversampled black women.

The current analysis included 472 black and 463 white women with stage I-III tumor and available Nanostring gene expression data for PAM50 subtype and risk of recurrence score (ROR-PT, a score calculated based on subtype, proliferation level, and tumor size; categorized as low, medium, and high). Cox proportional hazard regression was used to estimate the association of recurrence with PAM50 intrinsic subtype and ROR-PT, overall and stratified by race, adjusted for tumor size, grade, and lymph node status.

During a median follow-up of 5.78 years (range=0.39-8.22), 110 recurrent cases were identified (68 blacks and 42 whites). Consistently with previous data, basal-like tumors had the highest risk for recurrence (reference=luminal A, adjusted hazard ratio [HR]=2.85, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.44-5.66), followed by luminal B (adjusted HR=2.35, 95%CI=1.18-4.69) and Her2-enriched (adjusted HR=2.19, 95%CI=1.01-4.74). High-ROR-PT score was also associated with increased risk in both black (adjusted HR=1.55, 95%CI=0.93-2.60) and white (adjusted HR=2.07, 95%CI=1.04-4.11). Recurrence rate for black women with medium/low ROR-PT scores was suggested higher than that for white women with similar scores (adjusted HR=1.54, 95%CI=0.69-3.42).

Our results demonstrate that PAM50 subtype and ROR-PT score are associated with breast cancer recurrence in both black and white women. Given the higher relative frequency of poor prognosis subtypes in black women, these findings help explain prognosis disparities by race.

Citation Format: Sun X, Reeder-Hayes KE, Kirk EL, Olsson L, Tse C-K, Bell MB, Earp HS, Carey LA, Perou CM, Olshan AF, Troester MA. Race and recurrence by PAM50 intrinsic subtype and ROR-PT score: The Carolina breast cancer study [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2017 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2017 Dec 5-9; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2018;78(4 Suppl):Abstract nr P6-08-01.

Abstract P1-05-20: Comparing the frequency and types of genetic aberrations between older and younger women with metastatic breast cancer at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Background: Targeted therapies have the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment in older adults as they are often oral, convenient, may be better tolerated than cytotoxic chemotherapy, and can be tailored to an individual's biomarker profile. We explore the frequency and distribution of potentially actionable genomic alterations among older (≥65) and younger (<65) patients (pts) with metastatic breast cancer (MBC).

Method: Next generation genetic sequencing (UNCseq™) of a dynamic panel of target genes was prospectively offered to pts with MBC treated at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC). DNA libraries were prepared separately from a retrieved archival FFPE tumor sample and a matched normal sample from each pt. Relevant targets were enriched by custom Agilent SureSelect hybrid capture baits using standard protocols. Samples were sequenced on Illumina HiSeq 2000/2500 platforms. Mutational findings were reviewed by a molecular tumor board; variants identified to be potentially actionable underwent confirmatory testing in a CLIA approved laboratory. Confirmed findings were inserted into the pt's EMR accessible by both the pt and the treating oncologist. Two-sided Fisher's exact test was used to compare percentages between age-specific groups.

Results: As of 3/31/16, results were available for 140 pts. 19% were 65 years or older. Breast cancer clinical subtypes were: HR+/HER2- 49%, HER2+ (HR any) 17%, TN 34% and metastatic location was: bone only 5%, visceral only 44%, bone & visceral 51%; no significant differences were observed between older and younger age groups. Older pts were more likely to be Caucasian compared to younger patients (92% v 75%, p=0.06). Overall, older patients had a higher total number of mutations compared to younger patients (see Table) (p=0.04). Mutation types were similar between age groups, although a trend for more PIK3CA mutations among older patients was seen (37% v 20%, p=0.07).

Observed Mutations by Age. ≥ 65 years (%) N=27< 65 years (%) N=113pNumber of Mutations   01127.0414849.0423320.04374.04Type of mutation   PIK3CA3720.07CCND179.99NF-1115.37FGFR144.99PTEN49.69EGFR04.99

Conclusion: Genomic alterations may allow therapeutic tailoring in both older and younger patients with breast cancer. In this cohort with metastatic disease, older patients had significantly more mutations, but no clear difference in mutational types was seen by age. The relative small number of older pts in this cohort limits generalization, but supports the need for more extensive characterization of molecular aberrations among older pts with metastatic breast cancer in the new era of targeted therapy.

Research support by the University Cancer Research Fund, NCI Breast Cancer SPORE grant (CA58223), John A. Hartford Foundation and Susan G. Komen Foundation.

Citation Format: Jolly TA, Grilley-Olson JE, Deal AM, Ivanova A, Hayward MC, Benbow JM, Parker JS, Patel NM, Eberhard DA, Weck KE, Mieczkowski P, Dees EC, Muss HD, Reeder-Hayes KE, Earp HS, Sharpless NE, Carey LA, Hayes DN, Anders CK. Comparing the frequency and types of genetic aberrations between older and younger women with metastatic breast cancer at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2016 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2016 Dec 6-10; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(4 Suppl):Abstract nr P1-05-20.

Abstract PD6-07: Genomic sequencing in metastatic breast cancer patients to inform clinical practice at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Background: An increasing number of molecularly-targeted therapies for metastatic breast cancer (MBC) are clinically-available (approved and investigational). These anti-cancer agents target specific molecular abnormalities such as mutated, amplified, deleted, or rearranged genes. Reporting of unique tumor genetic alterations is not included in routine clinical/diagnostic panels. In MBC, knowledge of mutational status may foster efficient transitions in clinical care and trial enrollment at disease progression. We describe the development and implementation of a clinically-integrated genomic sequencing program and report how information regarding targetable genomic aberrations in MBC patients (pts) is used to improve clinical practice in an academic setting.

Methods: Genomic sequencing of investigative biomarkers was prospectively offered to pts with MBC. DNA libraries were prepared separately from a retrieved archival FFPE tumor sample and a matched normal sample from each pt. Relevant targets were enriched by custom Agilent SureSelect hybrid capture baits using standard protocols. Samples were sequenced on Illumina HiSeq 2000/2500 platforms. Mutational findings were reviewed by a molecular tumor board (MTB); variants identified to be potentially actionable underwent confirmatory testing in a CLIA-approved laboratory. Confirmed findings were inserted into the pt's EMR accessible by both the pt and the treating oncologist.

Results: Of the 725 MBC pts seen at UNC since 1/1/2012, 194 (27%) contributed samples for genomic sequencing. Of those whose tumors were sequenced, average age at MBC diagnosis was 54 (25 - 91); 73% were Caucasian, 16% African American. De novo MBC accounted for 39 (20%) sequenced pts. Of sequenced patients, sites of metastatic disease included bone only (7%), visceral only (46%), and both bone and visceral (47%). Approximately 1/3 of pts were consented for sequencing at time of initial MBC diagnosis, 1/4 after 1st line therapy for MBC, and the remaining at or beyond their 2nd line. In total, 131 (68%) pts have sequencing results available of which 43% of pts had reportable mutations deemed actionable by the MTB. Specific mutations and observed frequency by subtype are shown below. Pts (19%) whose tumors were sequenced were more commonly enrolled in a therapeutic clinical trial for MBC, a higher rate than seen in the non-sequenced group (7%) (p<0.001). To date, 27% of pts' tumors harbored an alteration that is an eligibility requirement for a molecularly-targeted therapeutic trial accruing pts at UNC.

Observed Mutation by Clinical Subype Genes Total # (56 pts)HR+/HER2- (25 pts)HER2+ (13 pts)TNBC (18pts)PIK3CA15933TP5315456CCND19531NF-14103FGFR13300PTEN3012KRAS2011MDM22110PIK3R12002ROS12011TSC12011Other*14518TOTAL73281728*Mutations observed only once

Conclusion: Preemptive genomic sequencing can be integrated into the clinical and operational practice of a comprehensive cancer center. Currently this research tool and program provides valuable information that has the potential to foster both clinical trial eligibility and/or enrollment. With longer follow-up, we hope such an approach ultimately will improve patient outcomes.

Citation Format: Grilley-Olsen J, Keith KC, Hayward M, Dees EC, Deal A, Ivanova A, Benbow JM, Parker J, Patel NM, Eberhard D, Mieczkowski P, Weck KE, Hayes DN, Muss H, Jolly T, Reeder-Hayes K, Earp HS, Sharpless N, Carey L, Anders CK. Genomic sequencing in metastatic breast cancer patients to inform clinical practice at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Annual CTRC-AACR San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium: 2015 Dec 8-12; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2016;76(4 Suppl):Abstract nr PD6-07.

Adaptive reprogramming of the breast cancer kinome

Our understanding of cancer has grown considerably with recent advances in high-throughput genome and transcriptome sequencing, but techniques to comprehensively analyze protein activity are still in development. Methods to quantitatively measure the activation of signaling pathways within tumors at baseline and following therapeutic intervention will prove critical to the design of proper treatment regimens. Focusing on breast cancer, we present such a method to understand kinase signaling using multiplexed kinase inhibitor beads coupled with mass spectrometry (MIB/MS).

Aberrant Mer receptor tyrosine kinase expression contributes to leukemogenesis in acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) continues to be extremely difficult to treat successfully, and the unacceptably low overall survival rates mandate that we assess new potential therapies to ameliorate poor clinical response to conventional therapy. Abnormal tyrosine kinase activation in AML has been associated with poor prognosis and provides strategic targets for novel therapy development. We found that Mer receptor tyrosine kinase was over-expressed in a majority of pediatric (29/36, 80%) and adult (10/10, 100%) primary AML patient blasts at the time of diagnosis, and 100% of patient samples at the time of relapse. Mer was also found to be expressed in 12 of 14 AML cell lines (86%). In contrast, normal bone marrow myeloid precursors expressed little to no Mer. Following AML cell line stimulation with Gas6, a Mer ligand, we observed activation of prosurvival and proliferative signaling pathways, including phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38, MSK1, CREB, ATF1, AKT and STAT6. To assess the phenotypic role of Mer in AML, two independent short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) constructs were used to decrease Mer expression in the AML cell lines Nomo-1 and Kasumi-1. Reduction of Mer protein levels significantly increased rates of myeloblast apoptosis two to threefold in response to serum starvation. Furthermore, myeloblasts with knocked-down Mer demonstrated decreased colony formation by 67-87%, relative to control cell lines (P<0.01). NOD-SCID-gamma mice transplanted with Nomo-1 myeloblasts with reduced levels of Mer had a significant prolongation in survival compared with mice transplanted with the parental or control cell lines (median survival 17 days in parental and control cell lines, versus 32-36 days in Mer knockdown cell lines, P<0.0001). These data suggest a role for Mer in acute myeloid leukemogenesis and indicate that targeted inhibition of Mer may be an effective therapeutic strategy in pediatric and adult AML.

Abstract P6-03-01: Molecular Dissection of Breast Luminal Cell Transcription Factor Networks

During mammary development, cellular differentiation and lineage commitment are driven by distinct growth cycles under the control of local epithelial and mesenchymal paracrine signaling mechanisms. Within the mammary gland are multipotent stem cells, which give rise to luminal and myoepithelial lineages. The mechanisms that govern differentiation into these distinct cell populations are not completely understood, yet critically important for a complete understanding of normal development and breast tumorigenesis. Recent studies have shown that retroviral transduction of mouse and human fibroblasts with four transcription factors can initiate the conversion of a somatic cell into an embryonic stem cell-like state, with capabilities of differentiating into cell types of all three germ layers. The generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) illustrates that transformation of a mature cell into a more immature state can erase most epigenetic programming critical for the differentiation of that cell. Our goal is to determine whether mammary specific transcription factors can directly transdifferentiate fibroblasts or human mammary epithelial cells (HMEC) into functionally differentiated ER+/luminal cells.

To address this goal of creating ER+/luminal cells via an iPS type approach, we have developed a model in which an hTERT –immortalized human mammary epithelial cell line are transduced utilizing a multifunctional lentiviral expression vector system, which allows the simultaneous expression and/or silencing of multiple candidate genes. We are investigating the abilities of various combinations of transcription factors (TFs) to convert somatic cells to fully functional differentiated mammary epithelial cells. Nine candidate TFs (including ER, GATA3, FOXA1, XBP1 and CDKN2C) were chosen based upon their differential expression in genomic transcriptional data set of primary human breast tumors, and in fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) of normal breast cell populations. These TFs are highly expressed in ER+/luminal cells, and some are known to be important lineage-specific factors. Ectopic overexpression of these cDNAs in HMECs indicated that these transcription factors have both unique and overlapping contributions towards inducing the expression of genes responsible for luminal differentiation. Examining the expression patterns of individually transduced cells using a classifier of differentiation status (Differentiation Score, Prat et al. 2010) identified several genes, including ESR1 and GATA3, as causing a transition towards the luminal subtype. These individual gene data will guide the selection of combinations, since we anticipate that, as was seen for iPS cells, multiple genes will be required for transdifferentiation into the luminal cell lineage. Since there are presently no cell lines or mouse models of Luminal A/ER+ breast cancers, the artificial creation of such of a cell line would be of great value.

Citation Information: Cancer Res 2012;72(24 Suppl):Abstract nr P6-03-01.

Dasatinib inhibits site-specific tyrosine phosphorylation of androgen receptor by Ack1 and Src kinases

Activation of androgen receptor (AR) may play a role in the development of castration resistant prostate cancer. Two intracellular tyrosine kinases, Ack1 (activated cdc42-associated kinase) and Src, phosphorylate and enhance AR activity and promote prostate xenograft tumor growth in castrated animals. However, the upstream signals that activate these kinases and lead to AR activation are incompletely characterized. In this study, we investigated AR phosphorylation in response to non-androgen ligand stimulation using phospho-specific antibodies. Treatment of LNCaP and LAPC-4 cells with epidermal growth factor (EGF), heregulin, Gas6 (ligand binding to Mer receptor tyrosine kinase and activating Ack1 downstream), interleukin (IL)-6 or bombesin stimulated cell proliferation in the absence of androgen. Treatment of LNCaP and LAPC-4 cells with EGF, heregulin, or Gas6 induced AR phosphorylation at Tyr-267; IL-6 or bombesin treatment did not. AR phosphorylation at Tyr-534 was induced by treatment with EGF, IL-6 or bombesin, but not by heregulin or Gas6. siRNA-mediated knockdown of Ack1 or Src showed that Ack1 mediates heregulin- and Gas6-induced AR Tyr-267 phosphorylation whereas Src mediates Tyr-534 phosphorylation induced by EGF, IL-6, and bombesin. Dasatinib, a Src inhibitor, blocked EGF-induced Tyr-534 phosphorylation. In addition, we show dasatinib also inhibited Ack1 kinase. Dasatinib inhibited heregulin-induced Ack1 kinase activity and AR Tyr-267 phosphorylation. Dasatinib inhibited heregulin-induced AR-dependent reporter activity. Dasatinib also inhibited heregulin-induced expression of endogenous AR target genes. Dasatinib inhibited Ack1-dependent colony formation and prostate xenograft tumor growth in castrated mice. Interestingly, Ack1 or Src knockdown or dasatinib did not inhibit EGF-induced AR Tyr-267 phosphorylation or EGF-stimulated AR activity, suggesting the existence of an additional tyrosine kinase that phosphorylates AR at Tyr-267. These data suggest that specific tyrosine kinases phosphorylate AR at distinct sites and that dasatinib may exert anti-tumor activity in prostate cancer through inhibition of Ack1.

ErbB-2 via PYK2 upregulates the adhesive ability of androgen receptor-positive human prostate cancer cells

Aberrant regulation in the adhesive ability of cancer cells is closely associated with their metastatic activity. In this study, we examine the role of ErbB-2 in regulating the adhesive ability of androgen receptor (AR)-positive human prostate cancer (PCa) cells, the major cell population of PCa. Utilizing different LNCaP and MDA PCa2b cells as model systems, we found that ErbB-2 activity was correlated with PYK2 activity and adhesive ability in those cells. Increased ErbB-2 expression or activity in LNCaP C-33 cells enhanced PYK2 activation and cell adhesion, while the high PYK2 activity and the rapid adhesion of LNCaP C-81 cells were decreased by diminishing ErbB-2 expression or activity. Knockdown studies revealed the predominant role of ErbB-2 in regulating LNCaP C-81 cell adhesion. Coimmunoprecipitation showed that C-81 cells had increased interaction between ErbB-2 and PYK2. Elevated ErbB-2 activity in LNCaP cells correlated with increased ERK/MAPK activity and enhanced adhesive ability, which were abolished by the expression of K457A-PYK2 mutant or the treatment of PD98059, a MEK inhibitor. In summary, our data suggested that ErbB-2, via PYK2-ERK/MAPK, upregulates the adhesive ability of AR-positive human PCa cells.

Vanadate stimulates tyrosine phosphorylation of two proteins in Raji human lymphoblastoid cell membranes

A membrane fraction from Raji human lymphoblastoid cells exhibited tyrosine-specific kinase activity. Vanadate increased tyrosine phosphorylation up to 5-fold; serine and threonine phosphorylation were unchanged. The stimulation was detectable within 15 s at 0 degrees C and at concentrations of vanadate (0.3 and 1.0 microM) present in normal tissues and blood. The tyrosine phosphorylation of two substrates, M1 61 000 and 55 000, was dependent upon vanadate and incorporation into these substrates represented the majority of the vanadate-sensitive tyrosine phosphorylation.

Her4 mediates ligand-dependent antiproliferative and differentiation responses in human breast cancer cells

The function of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family member HER4 remains unclear because its activating ligand, heregulin, results in either proliferation or differentiation. This variable response may stem from the range of signals generated by HER4 homodimers versus heterodimeric complexes with other EGFR family members. The ratio of homo- and heterodimeric complexes may be influenced both by a cell's EGFR family member expression profile and by the ligand or even ligand isoform used. To define the role of HER4 in mediating antiproliferative and differentiation responses, human breast cancer cell lines were screened for responses to heregulin. Only cells that expressed HER4 exhibited heregulin-dependent antiproliferative responses. In-depth studies of one line, SUM44, demonstrated that the antiproliferative and differentiation responses correlated with HER4 activation and were abolished by stable expression of a kinase-inactive HER4. HB-EGF, a HER4-specific ligand in this EGFR-negative cell line, also induced an antiproliferative response. Moreover, introduction and stable expression of HER4 in HER4-negative SUM102 cells resulted in the acquisition of a heregulin-dependent antiproliferative response, associated with increases in markers of differentiation. The role of HER2 in these heregulin-dependent responses was examined through elimination of cell surface HER2 signaling by stable expression of a single-chain anti-HER2 antibody that sequestered HER2 in the endoplasmic reticulum. In the cell lines with either endogenously (SUM44) or exogenously (SUM102) expressed HER4, elimination of HER2 did not alter HER4-dependent decreases in cell growth. These results suggest that HER4 is both necessary and sufficient to trigger an antiproliferative response in human breast cancer cells.

Phagocytosis and clearance of apoptotic cells is mediated by MER

Apoptosis is fundamental to the development and maintenance of animal tissues and the immune system. Rapid clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages is important to inhibit inflammation and autoimmune responses against intracellular antigens. Here we report a new function for Mer, a member of the Axl/Mer/Tyro3 receptor tyrosine kinase family. mer(kd) mice with a cytoplasmic truncation of Mer had macrophages deficient in the clearance of apoptotic thymocytes. This was corrected in chimaeric mice reconstituted with bone marrow from wild-type animals. Primary macrophages isolated from mer(kd) mice showed that the phagocytic deficiency was restricted to apoptotic cells and was independent of Fc receptor-mediated phagocytosis or ingestion of other particles. The inability to clear apoptotic cells adequately may be linked to an increased number of nuclear autoantibodies in mer(kd) mice. Thus, the Mer receptor tyrosine kinase seems to be critical for the engulfment and efficient clearance of apoptotic cells. This has implications for inflammation and autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Inhibition of the calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK) blocks monocyte spreading and motility

Freshly isolated peripheral blood monocytes lack focal adhesion kinase (p125(FAK)) but activate a second member of this kinase family, calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK; also known as Pyk2/CAKbeta/RAFTK/FAK2), upon adhesion or stimulation with chemokines. To study the role of CADTK in monocyte adherence and motility, we performed immunocytochemical localization that showed CADTK at the leading edge and ruffling lamellipodial structures in freshly isolated, adhered human monocytes. We next introduced CADTK/CAKbeta-related non-kinase (CRNK), the C-terminal noncatalytic domain of CADTK, into monocytes by electroporation and showed that it inhibited CADTK autophosphorylation. Introduction of the fusion protein glutathione S-transferase (GST)-CRNK also reduced (i) cell spreading, as reflected in a reduced cell area 30 min after adhesion, (ii) adhesion-induced phosphotyrosine increases and redistribution into lamellipodia, and (iii) adhesion-induced extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) activation. In control experiments, introduction of GST or GST-C3 transferase (an inhibitor of RhoA GTPase activity) by electroporation did not affect these parameters. Monocytes adhered in the presence of autologous serum were highly motile even after introduction of GST (83% motile cells). However, only 26% of monocytes with introduced GST-CRNK were motile. In contrast, GST-CRNK-treated monocytes were fully capable of phagocytosis and adhesion-induced cytokine gene induction, suggesting that CADTK is not involved in these cellular activities and that GST-CRNK introduction does not inhibit global monocyte functions. These results suggest that CADTK is crucial for the in vitro monocyte cytoskeletal reorganization necessary for cell motility and is likely to be required in vivo for recruitment to sites of inflammation.

Regulation of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase by MAP kinase

The de novo synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides is required for mammalian cells to proliferate. The rate-limiting step in this pathway is catalysed by carbamoyl phosphate synthetase (CPS II), part of the multifunctional enzyme CAD. Here we describe the regulation of CAD by the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade. When phosphorylated by MAP kinase in vitro or activated by epidermal growth factor in vivo, CAD lost its feedback inhibition (which is dependent on uridine triphosphate) and became more sensitive to activation (which depends upon phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate). Both these allosteric regulatory changes favour biosynthesis of pyrimidines for growth. They were accompanied by increased epidermal growth factor-dependent phosphorylation of CAD in vivo and were prevented by inhibition of MAP kinase. Mutation of a consensus MAP kinase phosphorylation site abolished the changes in CAD allosteric regulation that were stimulated by growth factors. Finally, consistent with an effect of MAP kinase signalling on CPS II activity, epidermal growth factor increased cellular uridine triphosphate and this increase was reversed by inhibition of MAP kinase. Hence these studies may indicate a direct link between activation of the MAP kinase cascade and de novo biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides.

Tyro-3 family receptors are essential regulators of mammalian spermatogenesis

We have generated and analysed null mutations in the mouse genes encoding three structurally related receptors with tyrosine kinase activity: Tyro 3, Axl, and Mer. Mice lacking any single receptor, or any combination of two receptors, are viable and fertile, but male animals that lack all three receptors produce no mature sperm, owing to the progressive death of differentiating germ cells. This degenerative phenotype appears to result from a failure of the tropic support that is normally provided by Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules, whose function depends on testosterone and additional factors produced by Leydig cells. Tyro 3, Axl and Mer are all normally expressed by Sertoli cells during postnatal development, whereas their ligands, Gas6 and protein S, are produced by Leydig cells before sexual maturity, and by both Leydig and Sertoli cells thereafter. Here we show that the concerted activation of Tyro 3, Axl and Mer in Sertoli cells is critical to the role that these cells play as nurturers of developing germ cells. Additional observations indicate that these receptors may also be essential for the tropic maintenance of diverse cell types in the mature nervous, immune and reproductive systems.

Interactions between two cytoskeleton-associated tyrosine kinases: calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase and focal adhesion tyrosine kinase

The calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK), also known as Pyk2/RAFTK/CAKbeta/FAK2, is a cytoskeleton-associated tyrosine kinase. We compared CADTK regulation with that of the highly homologous focal adhesion tyrosine kinase (FAK). First, we generated site-specific CADTK mutants. Mutation of Tyr402 eliminated autophosphorylation and significantly decreased kinase activity. Mutation of Tyr881, a putative Src kinase phosphorylation site predicted to bind Grb2, had little effect on CADTK regulation. Src family tyrosine kinases resulted in CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation even when co-expressed with the Tyr402/Tyr881 double mutant, suggesting that Src/Fyn etc. phosphorylate additional tyrosine residues. Interestingly, CADTK tyrosine-phosphorylated FAK when both were transiently expressed, but FAK did not phosphorylate CADTK. Biochemical experiments confirmed direct CADTK phosphorylation of FAK. This phosphorylation utilized tyrosine residues other than Tyr397, Tyr925, or Tyr576/Tyr577, suggesting that new SH2-binding sites might be created by CADTK-dependent FAK phosphorylation. Last, expression of the CADTK carboxyl terminus (CRNK) abolished CADTK but not FAK autophosphorylation. In contrast, FAK carboxyl terminus overexpression inhibited both FAK and CADTK autophosphorylation, suggesting that a FAK-dependent cytoskeletal function may be necessary for CADTK activation. Thus, CADTK and FAK, which both bind to some, but not necessarily the same, cytoskeletal elements, may be involved in coordinate regulation of cytoskeletal structure and signaling.

A novel receptor tyrosine kinase, Mer, inhibits TNF-alpha production and lipopolysaccharide-induced endotoxic shock

The regulation of monocyte function and the inhibition of TNF-alpha production during bacterial sepsis are critical in attenuating adverse host responses to endotoxemia. To study the function of a novel receptor tyrosine kinase, mer, that is expressed in monocytes, we generated mice (merkd) that lack the signaling tyrosine kinase domain. Upon LPS challenge, merkd animals died of endotoxic shock (15/17, 88.2%), whereas control wild-type mice survived (1/15, 6.7% died). Susceptible merkd mice exhibited edema, leukocyte infiltration, and signs of endotoxic shock that correlated with higher levels of TNF-alpha found in the serum of merkd mice as compared with wild-type control animals. Death due to LPS-induced endotoxic shock in merkd mice was blocked by administration of anti-TNF-alpha Ab, suggesting that overproduction of this cytokine was principally responsible for the heightened suseptibility. The increase in TNF-alpha production appeared to be the result of a substantial increase in the LPS-dependent activation of NF-kappa B nuclear translocation resulting in greater TNF-alpha production by macrophages from merkd mice. Thus, Mer receptor tyrosine kinase signaling participates in a novel inhibitory pathway in macrophages important for regulating TNF-alpha secretion and attenuating endotoxic shock.

Angiotensin II stimulates ERK via two pathways in epithelial cells: protein kinase C suppresses a G-protein coupled receptor-EGF receptor transactivation pathway

In GN4 rat liver epithelial cells, angiotensin II (Ang II) produces intracellular calcium and protein kinase C (PKC) signals and stimulates ERK and JNK activity. JNK activation appears to be mediated by a calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK). To define the ERK pathway, we established GN4 cells expressing an inhibitory Ras(N17). Induction of Ras(N17) blocked EGF- but not Ang II- or phorbol ester (TPA)-dependent ERK activation. In control cells, Ang II and TPA produced minimal increases in Ras-GTP level and Raf kinase activity. PKC depletion by chronic TPA exposure abolished TPA-dependent ERK activation but failed to diminish the effect of Ang II. In PKC-depleted cells, Ang II increased Ras-GTP level and activated Raf and ERK in a Ras-dependent manner. In PKC depleted cells, Ang II stimulated Shc and Cbl tyrosine phosphorylation, suggesting that without PKC, Ang II activates another tyrosine kinase. PKC-depletion did not alter Ang II-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation or activity of p125(FAK), CADTK, Fyn or Src, but PKC depletion or incubation with GF109203X resulted in Ang II-dependent EGF receptor tyrosine phosphorylation. In PKC-depleted cells, EGF receptor-specific tyrosine kinase inhibitors blocked Ang II-dependent EGF receptor and Cbl tyrosine phosphorylation, and ERK activation. In summary, Ang II can activate ERK via two pathways; the latent EGF receptor, Ras-dependent pathway is equipotent to the Ras-independent pathway, but is masked by PKC action. The prominence of this G-protein coupled receptor to EGF receptor pathway may vary between cell types depending upon modifiers such as PKC.

A calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase splice variant in human monocytes. Activation by a two-stage process involving adherence and a subsequent intracellular signal

Freshly isolated human monocytes do not express p125(FAK) but upon adherence to substrata activate the highly related calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK), also known as Pyk2, CAKbeta, RAFTK, and FAK2. The monocyte CADTK was 5 kDa smaller than protein from epithelial cells; isolation and sequencing of the monocyte CADTK cDNA revealed a predicted 42-amino acid deletion between the two proline-rich domains of the enzyme. The nucleic acid sequence suggests that the deletion is caused by alternative RNA splicing. This species was also found in T and B lymphocytes and appears to be the predominant form of cytoskeletal associated tyrosine kinase in non-neoplastic, circulating, hematopoietic cells. CADTK was not activated when monocytes maintained in suspension were treated with agents that produce an intracellular calcium (thapsigargin) or protein kinase C (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) signal including a chemokine, RANTES, that binds to the HIV co-receptor, CCK5. In contrast, monocyte adherence to tissue culture plastic-stimulated CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation, a process that was enhanced by thapsigargin, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, and RANTES but that was completely blocked by preincubation with cytochalasin D. When compared with plastic, adherence to fibronectin- or collagen-coated surfaces produced only minimal CADTK activation but permitted significant stimulation by added thapsigargin. These data suggest that in a cell type that lacks p125(FAK), CADTK plays an early role in post-adherence signaling. Its activation involves two stages, cytoskeletal engagement, which is permissive, and co-stimulatory signals (calcium or protein kinase C) generated by extensive cell surface engagement, agonists, or inflammatory chemokines.

Regulation of a calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase in vascular smooth muscle cells by angiotensin II and platelet-derived growth factor. Dependence on calcium and the actin cytoskeleton

A novel, p125FAK homologue, CADTK, has been detected in neural, epithelial, or hematopoietic cells but not in fibroblasts. We now demonstrate CADTK expression in a mesenchymal cell, rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RSMC). Angiotensin II (Ang II) or platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB and PDGF-AA) markedly stimulated CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation in RSMC but did not affect p125FAK phosphorylation. The PDGF-depedent CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation was slower and more prolonged than that of Ang II, correlating well with the differential effects of these agonists on cytosolic calcium ([Ca2+]i) signaling. An intracellular calcium chelator inhibited both the rapid and sustained activation of CADTK by Ang II and PDGF. Extracellular calcium chelation inhibited the PDGF-stimulated increase in CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation as well as the sustained (but not the early) activation by Ang II. In contrast, p125FAK tyrosine phosphorylation was maximal in quiescent, adherent RSMC and was not affected by incubation with EGTA. Depletion of protein kinase C activity partially inhibited both the Ang II- and PDGF-induced CADTK tyrosine phosphorylation. Additional results confirm a relation between CADTK and the cytoskeleton. First, the tyrosine phosphorylation of paxilin correlated with activation of CADTK; this increase was inhibited by EGTA. Second, cytochalasin D blocked the PDGF- or Ang II-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of CADTK, suggesting a role for the cytoskeleton in agonist-dependent CADTK activation. Third, immunofluorescence analysis of CADTK localization demonstrated actin-like cytoskeleton staining extending into focal contacts. These results suggest that in mesenchymal cells, CADTK is localized to and activated by an actin cytoskeleton-dependent mechanism; a mechanism that is regulated in a calcium and protein kinase C-dependent manner independently of p125FAK.

Osmotic shock stimulates GLUT4 translocation in 3T3L1 adipocytes by a novel tyrosine kinase pathway

Similar to insulin, osmotic shock of 3T3L1 adipocytes stimulated an increase in glucose transport activity and translocation of GLUT4 protein from intracellularly localized vesicles to the plasma membrane. The docking/fusion of GLUT4 vesicles with the plasma membrane appeared to utilize a similar mechanism, since expression of a dominant interfering mutant of syntaxin-4 prevented both insulin- and osmotic shock-induced GLUT4 translocation. However, although the insulin stimulation of GLUT4 translocation and glucose transport activity was completely inhibited by wortmannin, activation by osmotic shock was wortmannin-insensitive. Furthermore, insulin stimulated the phosphorylation and activation of the Akt kinase, whereas osmotic shock was completely without effect. Surprisingly, treatment of cells with the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein, or microinjection of phosphotyrosine antibody prevented both the insulin- and osmotic shock-stimulated translocation of GLUT4. In addition, osmotic shock induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of several discrete proteins including Cbl, p130(cas), and the recently identified soluble tyrosine kinase, calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK). In contrast, insulin had no effect on CADTK but stimulated the tyrosine phosphorylation of Cbl and the tyrosine dephosphorylation of pp125(FAK) and p130(cas). These data demonstrate that the osmotic shock stimulation of GLUT4 translocation in adipocytes occurs through a novel tyrosine kinase pathway that is independent of both the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and the Akt kinase.

Protein kinase C and protein kinase A inhibit calcium-dependent but not stress-dependent c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation in rat liver epithelial cells

In rat liver epithelial cells (GN4), angiotensin II (Ang II) and thapsigargin stimulate a novel calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK) also known as PYK2, CAKbeta, or RAFTK. Activation of CADTK by a thapsigargin-dependent increase in intracellular calcium failed to stimulate the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase pathway but was well correlated with a 30-50-fold activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). In contrast, Ang II, which increased both protein kinase C (PKC) activity and intracellular calcium, stimulated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase but produced a smaller, less sustained, JNK activation than thapsigargin. 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA), which slowly activated CADTK, did not stimulate JNK. These findings suggest either that CADTK is not involved in JNK activation or PKC activation inhibits the CADTK to JNK pathway. A 1-min TPA pretreatment of GN4 cells inhibited thapsigargin-dependent JNK activation by 80-90%. In contrast, TPA did not inhibit the >50-fold JNK activation effected by anisomycin or UV. The consequence of PKC-dependent JNK inhibition was reflected in c-Jun and c-Fos mRNA induction following treatment with thapsigargin and Ang II. Thapsigargin, which only minimally induced c-Fos, produced a much greater and more prolonged c-Jun response than Ang II. Elevation of another intracellular second messenger, cAMP, for 5-15 min also inhibited calcium-dependent JNK activation by approximately 80-90% but likewise had no effect on the stress-dependent JNK pathway. In summary, two pathways stimulate JNK in cells expressing CADTK, a calcium-dependent pathway modifiable by PKC and cAMP-dependent protein kinase and a stress-activated pathway independent of CADTK, PKC, and cAMP-dependent protein kinase; the inhibition by PKC can ultimately alter gene expression initiated by a calcium signal.

Paxillin is tyrosine-phosphorylated by and preferentially associates with the calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase in rat liver epithelial cells

We and others have recently cloned a non-receptor, calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK; also known as PYK2, CAKbeta, and RAFTK) that shares both overall domain structure and 45% amino acid identity with p125(FAK). We have studied the signaling, activation, and potential function of these related enzymes in GN4 rat liver epithelial cells that express CADTK and p125(FAK) at roughly similar levels. p125(FAK) is nearly fully tyrosine-phosphorylated in resting GN4 cells. In contrast, while CADTK is not tyrosine-autophosphorylated in untreated cells, angiotensin II increases CADTK Tyr(P) by 5-10-fold. With regard to signaling, CADTK activation is correlated with stimulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase and p70(S6K) pathways but not with the stimulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase or p90(RSK). In this report we assessed the contribution of CADTK and p125(FAK) to tyrosine phosphorylation of focal contact proteins. In adherent GN4 cells, the constitutive activity of p125(FAK) was correlated with basal paxillin, tensin, and p130(CAS) tyrosine phosphorylation. A rapid increase in the tyrosine phosphorylation of each protein was detected after treatment with angiotensin II or other agonists that stimulate CADTK; the prolonged 3-4-fold increase in paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation was the most substantial change. In the WB cell line that expresses 3-fold less CADTK than GN4 cell line agonist-dependent paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation is similarly reduced. Immunoprecipitation of CADTK from GN4 cells revealed CADTK. paxillin complexes that persisted in 500 mM NaCl but not in 0.1% SDS cell lysis buffer. The complexes were largely independent of the tyrosine phosphorylation state of either protein. Surprisingly, we did not detect p125(FAK).paxillin complexes in immunoprecipitates using either of two p125(FAK) antibodies. When CADTK and p125(FAK) were transiently overexpressed in 293(T) cells, both enzymes associated with paxillin, but the avidity of CADTK appeared to be greater. In addition, in transfected 293(T) cells, complexes between CADTK and another potential substrate, p130(CAS), were detected. In summary, in GN4 rat liver epithelial cells stimulation of CADTK was highly correlated with paxillin tyrosine phosphorylation; in addition, CADTK but not p125(FAK) was complexed to paxillin at detectable levels. This suggests that agonist-dependent cytoskeletal changes in epithelial cells might proceed, in part, by CADTK-dependent mechanisms.

An intracellular calcium signal activates p70 but not p90 ribosomal S6 kinase in liver epithelial cells

In the rat liver epithelial cell lines GN4 and WB, angiotensin II (Ang II) activates the Gq class of regulatory G-proteins, increasing intracellular calcium, protein kinase C activity, and protein tyrosine phosphorylation. We compared the ability of Ang II and other compounds that increase intracellular calcium (i.e. the calcium ionophore A23187 and thapsigargin) or protein kinase C activity (the phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate) to activate p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (p70(S6K)) and p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (p90(RSK)). In GN4 cells, increasing intracellular calcium stimulated p70(S6K) activity in a rapamycin- and wortmannin- sensitive manner, but did not affect p90(RSK) activity. In contrast, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate strongly activated p90(RSK) but only weakly stimulated p70(S6K). The ability of calcium to activate p70(S6K) was confirmed by blocking the A23187-dependent activation through chelation of extracellular calcium with EGTA; the effect of thapsigargin was inhibited by the cell permeant chelator bis-(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid tetraacetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA-AM). Similarly, BAPTA-AM prevented the activation of p70(S6K) by Ang II, suggesting that this signal was largely calcium-dependent. In contrast, the Ang II-dependent activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and p90(RSK) was not inhibited but was enhanced by BAPTA-AM. These results show that in GN4 cells, Ang II selectively activates p70(S6K) through effects on calcium, p90(RSK) through effects on protein kinase C. The activation of p70(S6K) by calcium stimuli or Ang II was independent of calmodulin but correlated well with the activation of the recently identified, nonreceptor calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK)/PYK-2. Both calcium- and Ang II-dependent activation of p70(S6K) were attenuated by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, and activation of p70(S6K) was higher in GN4 than WB cells, correlating with the increased expression and activation of CADTK/PYK-2 in GN4 cells. In summary, these results demonstrate that intracellular calcium selectively activates p70(S6K) in GN4 cells, consistent with increased CADTK/PYK-2 signaling in these cells.

Activation of a novel calcium-dependent protein-tyrosine kinase. Correlation with c-Jun N-terminal kinase but not mitogen-activated protein kinase activation

Many G protein-coupled receptors (e.g. that of angiotensin II) activate phospholipase Cbeta, initially increasing intracellular calcium and activating protein kinase C. In the WB and GN4 rat liver epithelial cell lines, agonist-induced calcium signals also stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation and subsequently increase the activity of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). We have now purified the major calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase (CADTK), and by peptide and nucleic acid sequencing identified it as a rat homologue of human PYK2. CADTK/PYK2 is most closely related to p125(FAK) and both enzymes are expressed in WB and GN4 cells. Angiotensin II, which only slightly increases p125(FAK) tyrosine phosphorylation in GN4 cells, substantially increased CADTK tyrosine autophosphorylation and kinase activity. Agonists for other G protein-coupled receptors (e.g. LPA), or those increasing intracellular calcium (thapsigargin), also stimulated CADTK. In comparing the two rat liver cell lines, GN4 cells exhibited approximately 5-fold greater angiotensin II- and thapsigargin-dependent CADTK activation than WB cells. Although maximal JNK activation by stress-dependent pathways (e.g. UV and anisomycin) was equivalent in the two cell lines, calcium-dependent JNK activation was 5-fold greater in GN4, correlating with CADTK activation. In contrast to JNK, the thapsigargin-dependent calcium signal did not activate mitogen-activated protein kinase and Ang II-dependent mitogen-activated protein kinase activation was not correlated with CADTK activation. Finally, while some stress-dependent activators of the JNK pathway (NaCl and sorbitol) stimulated CADTK, others (anisomycin, UV, and TNFalpha) did not. In summary, cells expressing CADTK/PYK2 appear to have two alternative JNK activation pathways: one stress-activated and the other calcium-dependent.

Angiotensin II activates at least two tyrosine kinases in rat liver epithelial cells. Separation of the major calcium-regulated tyrosine kinase from p125FAK

In rat liver epithelial cell lines (WB or GN4), angiotensin II (Ang II) stimulates cytosolic tyrosine kinase activity, in part, through a calcium-dependent mechanism. In other cell types, selected hormones that activate Gi- or Gq-coupled receptors stimulate the soluble tyrosine kinase, p125FAK. Immunoprecipitation of p125FAK from Ang II-activated GN4 cells demonstrated a doubling of p125FAK kinase activity. However, an additional Ang II-activated tyrosine kinase (or kinases) representing the majority of the total activity was detected when the remaining cell lysate, immunodepleted of p125FAK, was reimmunoprecipitated with an anti-phosphotyrosine antibody. Cytochalasin D pretreatment blocks G-protein receptor-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation in Swiss 3T3 cells. While cytochalasin D decreased the Tyr(P) content of 65-75-kDa substrates in Ang II-treated GN4 cells, it did not diminish tyrosine phosphorylation of 115-130-kDa substrates, again suggesting activation of at least two tyrosine kinase pathways in GN4 cells. To search for additional Ang II-activated enzymes, we used molecular techniques to identify 20 tyrosine kinase sequences in these cell lines. None was the major cytosolic enzyme activated by Ang II. Specifically, JAK2, which had been shown by others to be stimulated by Ang II in smooth muscle cells, was not activated by Ang II in GN4 cells. Finally, we purified Tyr(P)-containing tyrosine kinases from Ang II-treated cells, using anti-Tyr(P) and ATP affinity resins; 80% of the tyrosine kinase activity migrated as a single 115-120-kDa tyrosine-phosphorylated protein immunologically distinct from p125FAK. In summary, Ang II activates at least two separate tyrosine kinases in rat liver epithelial cells; p125FAK and a presumably novel, cytosolic 115-120-kDa protein referred to as the calcium-dependent tyrosine kinase.

Angiotensin II stimulates calcium-dependent activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase

In GN4 rat liver epithelial cells, angiotensin II (Ang II) and other agonists which activate phospholipase C stimulate tyrosine kinase activity in a calcium-dependent, protein kinase C (PKC)-independent manner. Since Ang II also produces a proliferative response in these cells, we investigated downstream signaling elements traditionally linked to growth control by tyrosine kinases. First, Ang II, like epidermal growth factor (EGF), stimulated AP-1 binding activity in a PKC-independent manner. Because increases in AP-1 can reflect induction of c-Jun and c-Fos, we examined the activity of the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase family members Erk-1 and -2 and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which are known to influence c-Jun and c-Fos transcription. Ang II stimulated MAP kinase (MAPK) activity but only approximately 50% as effectively as EGF; again, these effects were independent of PKC. Ang II also produced a 50- to 200-fold activation of JNK in a PKC-independent manner. Unlike its smaller effect on MAPK, Ang II was approximately four- to sixfold more potent in activating JNK than EGF was. Although others had reported a lack of calcium ionophore-stimulated JNK activity in lymphocytes and several other cell lines, we examined the role of calcium in GN4 cells. The following results suggest that JNK activation in rat liver epithelial cells is at least partially Ca(2+) dependent: (i) norepinephrine and vasopressin hormones that increase inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate stimulated JNK; (ii) both thapsigargin, a compound that produces an intracellular Ca(2+) signal, and Ca(2+) ionophores stimulated a dramatic increase in JNK activity (up to 200-fold); (iii) extracellular Ca(2+) chelation with ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA) inhibited JNK activation by ionophore and intracellular chelation with 1,2-bis-(o-aminophenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid tetraacetoxymethyl-ester (BAPTA-AM) partially inhibited JNK activation by Ang II or thapsigargin; and (iv) JNK activation by Ang II was inhibited by pretreatment of cells with thapsigargin and EGTA, a procedure which depletes intracellular Ca(2+) stores. JNK activation following Ang II stimulation did not involve calmodulin; either W-7 nor calmidizolium, in concentrations sufficient to inhibit Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent kinase II, blocked JNK activation by Ang II. In contrast, genistein, in concentrations sufficient to inhibit Ca(2+)-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation, prevented Ang II and thapsigargin-induced JNK activation. In summary, in GN4 rat liver epithelial cells, Ang II stimulates JNK via a novel Ca(2+)-dependent pathway. The inhibition by genistein suggest that Ca(2+)-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation may modulate the JNK pathway in a cell type-specific manner, particularly in cells with a readily detectable Ca(2+)-regulated tyrosine kinase.

The Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 induces expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded LMP1 protein is an important component of the process of transformation by EBV. LMP1 is essential for transformation of B lymphocytes, most likely because of its profound effects on cellular gene expression. Although LMP1 is expressed in the majority of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) tumors, the effect of LMP1 on cellular gene expression and its contribution to the development of malignancy in epithelial cells is largely unknown. In this study the effects of LMP1 on the expression and tyrosine kinase activity of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) were investigated in C33A human epithelial cells. Stable or transient expression of LMP1 in C33A cells increased expression of the EGFR at both the protein and mRNA levels. In contrast, expression of the EGFR was not induced by LMP1 in EBV-infected B lymphocytes. Stimulation of LMP1-expressing C33A cells with epidermal growth factor (EGF) caused rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of the EGFR (pp170) as well as several other proteins, including pp120, pp85, pp75, and pp55, indicating that the EGFR induced by LMP1 is functional. LMP1 also induced expression of the A20 gene in C33A epithelial cells. In C33A cells, LMP1 expression increased the proliferative response to EGF, as LMP1-expressing C33A cells continued to increase in number when plated in serum-free media supplemented with EGF, while the neo control cells exhibited very low levels of viability and did not proliferate. Immunoblot analysis of protein extracts from nude mouse-passaged NPC tumors also demonstrated that the EGFR is overexpressed in primary NPC tumors as well as those passaged in nude mice. This study suggests that the alteration in the growth patterns of C33A cells expressing LMP1 is a result of increased proliferative signals due to enhanced EGFR expression, as well as protection from cell death due to LMP1-induced A20 expression. The induction of EGFR and A20 by LMP1 may be an important component of EBV infection in epithelial cells and could contribute to the development of epithelial malignancies such as NPC.

Heterodimerization and functional interaction between EGF receptor family members: a new signaling paradigm with implications for breast cancer research

The EGF receptor (EGFR) and HER2 are members of a growth factor receptor family. Overexpression of either protein in advanced breast cancer correlates with poor prognosis. EGF stimulates growth by binding to EGFR, activating the receptor's intracellular tyrosine kinase. The initial consequence is phosphorylation of specific tyrosine-containing sequences in the receptor's carboxyl terminus. These phosphotyrosines serves as high affinity recognition sites for proteins that, in turn, transmit the growth signal inside the cell. Mechanistic studies suggest that EGF binds to a single EGFR, triggering dimerization with another like receptor molecule. This dimerization is thought to initiate the tyrosine kinase activation. The EGF receptor family was recently expanded with the sequencing of HER3 and HER4. Each of the four family members was postulated to regulate a unique growth or differentiation signaling repertoire when activated by a receptor-specific ligand. However, new data from numerous laboratories suggest that EGFR family members may play a complex and ultimately more flexible role in signaling by forming heterodimers between family members, e.g. EGFR:HER2 or HER4:HER2. These heterodimers may form even when only one member of the pair binds its ligand. This review summarizes current work on heterodimerization and attempts to predict the consequences for downstream signaling. In brief, when compared to ligand-dependent receptor homodimers comprised of two proteins with the same internalization sequence and phosphorylated tyrosine residues, heterodimers are likely to: i) expand substrate selection and downstream signaling pathway activation; ii) promote interaction between sets of substrates in the mixed receptor complexes that would not ordinarily be physically juxtaposed; iii) alter the duration of receptor signaling by changing rates of receptor internalization, ligand loss, kinase inactivation, recycling, etc.; and iv) alter rates of receptor and substrate dephosphorylation. In addition to understanding interactions of heterodimers with the internalization machinery, identification of receptor-specific substrates and binding proteins for each EGFR family member will be necessary to explicate the role of heterodimers in growth and differentiation.

Cloning and developmental expression analysis of the murine c-mer tyrosine kinase

We have cloned the putative mouse homologue of the human c-mer receptor tyrosine kinase proto-oncogene. Comparison of the mouse and human c-mer amino acid sequences reveals an overall identity of 88%. Similar to the human, the extracellular region of the murine c-mer protein possesses two amino terminal immunoglobulin-like domains and two membrane proximal fibronectin type III domains, which places it in the Axl family of tyrosine kinases. Our analysis of the Axl family identifies eight different regions of amino acid consensus that have residues characteristic of this and no other tyrosine kinase family; six of the eight are within tyrosine kinase subdomains. The homology within the Axl family is highest between c-mer and c-eyk, the chicken proto-oncogene of the tumor virus gene product v-eyk. Northern analysis of adult tissues suggests that the mouse c-mer, although expressed in many tissues, has an expression pattern unique among Axl family members. In normal adult hematopoietic cells c-mer seems to be expressed predominantly if not exclusively in the monocytic lineage. Mouse c-mer is expressed during most, if not all, stages of embryological development beginning in the morula and blastocyst and progressing through the yolk sac and fetal liver stages. This early and consistent expression of c-mer was confirmed during in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem cells. The embryonic expression profile of c-mer suggests that this tyrosine kinase may play an important function in the developing mouse.

Differential dependence of the tumorigenicity of chemically transformed rat liver epithelial cells on autocrine production of transforming growth factor alpha

The tumorigenic phenotype in rat liver epithelial cells overexpressing c-myc may depend on a transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha/epidermal growth factor receptor autocrine loop (L. W. Lee et al., Cancer Res., 51: 5238-5244, 1991). In the present study, we have used constitutive sense and antisense TGF-alpha expression vectors to modify TGF-alpha production in carcinogen-transformed clonal derivatives of a rat liver epithelial cell line, WB-F344, that variably express c-myc, endogenous TGF-alpha, and tumorigenicity. Transgene-mediated TGF-alpha protein production was elevated 2- to 9-fold in derivatives of a low c-myc-expressing transformed cell line, GN4, and 35-fold in a derivative of a high c-myc-expressing cell line, GN6. Although the GN4- and GN6-derived cell lines expressed functional EGF receptor and steady-state c-myc mRNA levels that were comparable to their respective parental cell lines, increased TGF-alpha expression did not increase the tumorigenicity of the derivatives relative to the parental cell lines. Similarly, in vitro growth characteristics of the GN4- and GN6-derived cell lines were not markedly altered by increased autocrine TGF-alpha production. Additionally, GN4, GN6, and their derivatives were, for the most part, unresponsive to exogenously applied TGF-alpha in vitro. In contrast, antisense TGF-alpha RNA expression significantly suppressed endogenous TGF-alpha production in a high c-myc-expressing, high TGF-alpha-expressing, highly tumorigenic clonal line, GP9; this suppression resulted in lowered steady-state c-myc levels and attenuated in vitro growth. Antisense-mediated suppression of all of these in vitro phenotypes in GP9 was reversed by exogenous TGF-alpha. The latency of tumor formation by the antisense derivative of cell line GP9 was significantly lengthened (> 3-fold) relative to the time required for tumor formation by its parental cell line. These results demonstrate that a TGF-alpha/epidermal growth factor receptor autocrine loop may be necessary for exaggerated in vitro and in vivo growth of some transformed rat liver epithelial cells (e.g., GP9); however, the autocrine loop is not generally sufficient to support tumorigenicity, even in transformed clonal lines expressing elevated levels of c-myc.

Cloning and mRNA expression analysis of a novel human protooncogene, c-mer

A human B-lymphoblastoid lambda gt11 expression library was screened using anti-phosphotyrosine antibodies yielding complementary DNAs encoding active tyrosine kinases. The resulting clones were used to obtain the sequence of a novel 984 amino acid transmembrane tyrosine kinase. Analysis of the complementary DNA revealed extracellular immunoglobulin and fibronectin type III domains and the unusual kinase signature sequence KWIAIES; all are characteristic of the axl family of tyrosine kinases. The novel tyrosine kinase was not expressed in normal B- and T-lymphocytes but, unlike axl, was expressed in numerous neoplastic B- and T-cell lines. Transcripts for the novel receptor-like tyrosine kinase were detected in normal peripheral blood monocytes and bone marrow. One alternatively spliced transcript was detected which contained an insert in the membrane proximal region that could encode for a truncated, soluble receptor. Sequence comparison shows that the kinase may be the human protooncogene for the recently isolated chicken retroviral oncogene v-ryk (recently renamed v-eyk), a truncated tyrosine kinase whose expression by retroviral infection produced sarcomas in chickens. The intracellular domain of the human kinase shows 83% similarity and 71% identity to v-ryk. Since the ryk designation has been used to name another tyrosine kinase and an analysis of RNA expression demonstrated that this novel human kinase is expressed in monocytes and tissues of epithelial and reproductive origin, we have designated our novel protooncogene c-mer.

Synergistic activation of tyrosine phosphorylation by o-vanadate plus calcium ionophore A23187 or aromatic 1,2-diols

We have shown previously that treatment of WB rat liver epithelial cells with the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 provokes a rapid increase in protein-tyrosine phosphorylation that faithfully reproduces the Ca(2+)-dependent response seen with angiotensin II. In the presence of the tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor o-vanadate (2.0-200 microM), the tyrosine phosphorylation response to A23187 was increased > 10-fold in magnitude. This synergistic effect of A23187 and vanadate is clearly distinct from the combined effect of angiotensin II and vanadate, which was merely additive. Chelation of either extracellular or intracellular Ca2+ abolished the synergistic response to ionophore and vanadate, indicating its Ca2+ dependence. That divergent pathways were involved in the angiotensin II and the A23187/vanadate responses was shown definitely by studies of GN4 cells, a transformed line derived from WB cells by carcinogen treatment. GN4 cells are 2-3-fold more responsive than WB cells to angiotensin II-dependent tyrosine kinase activation, yet they completely lacked the synergistic tyrosine phosphorylation response to A23187/vanadate. To test the role of arachidonic acid metabolites in the A23187/vanadate response, cells were pretreated with either indomethacin or nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA). Neither compound was inhibitory, but surprisingly, NDGA plus vanadate closely mimicked the A23187/vanadate response in WB cells and, like A23187/vanadate, was ineffective in GN4 cells. NDGA contains catechol nuclei (i.e., aromatic 1,2-diols) and therein resembles the flavonoid anti-oxidant quercetin, another compound found to increase tyrosine phosphorylation synergistically with vanadate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The mouse waved-2 phenotype results from a point mutation in the EGF receptor tyrosine kinase

Mice harboring the waved-1 (wa-1) and waved-2 (wa-2) mutations exhibit skin and eye abnormalities that are strikingly similar to those of TGF-alpha-deficient mice, and wa-1 and TGF-alpha were recently shown to be allelic. Because the wa-2 mutation was mapped previously to the vicinity of the EGF/TGF-alpha receptor (EGFR) gene on mouse chromosome 11, we hypothesized that the wa-2 phenotype might result from a defect in either the expression or activity of EGFR, or both. In the present report, we show that EGFR mRNA and protein of normal size are expressed in wa-2 liver and skin at levels that are comparable to those in the corresponding normal tissues, and that the ability of wa-2 EGFR to bind ligand is unaltered. However, ligand-dependent autophosphorylation of wa-2 EGFR is diminished 5- to 10-fold in vitro, and the ability of wa-2 EGFR to phosphorylate an exogenous substrate is reduced by > 90% compared with that of the control receptor. EGF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation, including that of EGFR itself, is also diminished in skin, particularly at lower dose of exogenous EGF. To establish the nature of the wa-2 mutation, we determined the nucleotide sequence of the coding region of normal and wa-2 murine EGFR cDNAs. A comparison of these sequences revealed a single-nucleotide transversion resulting in the substitution of a glycine for a conserved valine residue near the amino terminus of the tyrosine kinase domain. The importance of this mutation was confirmed by showing that its introduction into an otherwise normal EGFR markedly reduced the receptor's tyrosine kinase activity in transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells. Finally, in situ hybridization analysis demonstrated expression of EGFR predominantly in the outer root sheath of active hair follicles in neonatal mice. As we previously localized TGF-alpha mRNA to the inner root sheath, this pattern of EGFR expression is consistent with the effect of the wa-2 mutation on hair structure, and together with our previous characterization of TGF-alpha-deficient mice, reveals a critical role for signaling by this ligand/receptor system in skin.

Regulation of cell proliferation and growth by angiotensin II

The peptide hormone angiotensin II (AngII) has clearly defined physiologic roles as a regulator of vasomotor tone and fluid homeostasis. In addition AngII has trophic or mitogenic effects on a variety of target tissues, including vascular smooth muscle and adrenal cells. More recent data indicate that AngII exhibits many characteristics of the 'classical' peptide growth factors such as EGF/TGF alpha, PDGF and IGF-1. These include the capacity for local generation ('autocrine or paracrine' action) and the ability to stimulate tyrosine phosphorylation, to activate MAP kinases and to increase expression of nuclear proto-oncogenes. The type 1 AngII receptor, which is responsible for all known physiologic actions of AngII, has been cloned. Activation of this receptor leads to elevated phosphoinositide hydrolysis, mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ and diacylglycerol, and activation of Ca2+/calmodulin and Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent Ser/Thr kinases, as well as Ca2+ regulated tyrosine kinases. The existence of other AngII receptor subtypes has been postulated, but the function(s) of these sites remains unclear. In vascular smooth muscle, AngII can promote cellular hypertrophy and/or hyperplasia, depending in part on the patterns of induction of secondary factors that are known to stimulate (PDGF, IGF-1, basic FGF) or inhibit (TGF-beta) mitosis. Together, these findings have suggested that AngII plays important roles in both the normal development and pathophysiology of vascular, cardiac, renal and central nervous system tissues.

Cell adhesion or integrin clustering increases phosphorylation of a focal adhesion-associated tyrosine kinase

We have recently shown that changes in tyrosine phosphorylation of a 130-kDa protein(s) (pp130) may be involved in integrin signaling (Kornberg, L., Earp, H.S., Turner, C., Prokop, and Juliano, R. L. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88, 8392-8396). One component of the pp130 protein complex reacts with an antibody generated against p125fak, which is a focal contact-associated tyrosine kinase (Schaller, M.D., Borgman, C. A., Cobb, B. S., Vines, R. R., Reynolds, A. B., and Parsons, J. T. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89, 5192-5196). Both antibody-mediated integrin clustering and adhesion of KB cells to fibronectin leads to increased tyrosine phosphorylation of p125fak. The phosphorylation of p125fak is coincident with adhesion of cells to fibronectin and is maximal prior to cell spreading. Tyrosine phosphorylation of p125fak is induced when KB cells are allowed to adhere to fibronectin, collagen type IV, or laminin, but is not induced on polylysine. When KB cells are subjected to indirect immunofluorescence microscopy, p125fak colocalizes with talin in focal contacts. These data provide additional evidence that tyrosine kinases are involved in integrin signaling.

Calcium-dependent increase in tyrosine kinase activity stimulated by angiotensin II

The cellular effects of numerous hormones and neurotransmitters, including the vasoactive agents angiotensin II (AngII) and [Arg8]vasopressin, are mediated in part by protein-serine threonine kinases activated by increase of cytosolic Ca2+ concentration. In this study, we have tested the ability of Ca(2+)-mobilizing agents to activate cellular tyrosine kinases. Treatment of intact GN4 liver epithelial cells with AngII rapidly (less than or equal to 15 sec) increased tyrosine kinase activity measured either in unfractionated cell lysates or in anti-phosphotyrosine immune complexes from detergent-solubilized cells. Increased phosphorylation of the exogenous substrate poly(Glu80Tyr20) (3- to 4-fold over control) by immunoprecipitated kinases closely paralleled the time- and dose-dependence of the appearance of tyrosine phosphoproteins in intact cells. This effect of AngII was mimicked by thapsigargin, a Ca(2+)-elevating tumor promoter. The ability of AngII, but not epidermal growth factor, to increase tyrosine kinase activity was blocked in cells loaded with the Ca2+ chelator bis-(O-aminophenoxy)-ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid. Dephosphorylation of immunoprecipitated proteins by tyrosine phosphatase treatment was accompanied by a 60-70% loss in in vitro kinase activity, suggesting that the AngII-sensitive kinase(s) are activated by phosphorylation in intact cells. These findings demonstrate a link between two widely occurring signaling pathways, the tyrosine kinases and the Ca2+ second-messenger system, and suggest the possible involvement of Ca(2+)-activated tyrosine kinases in the endocrine actions of AngII and [Arg8]vasopressin.

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) alpha receptor activation modulates the calcium mobilizing activity of the PDGF beta receptor in Balb/c3T3 fibroblasts

In order to determine whether distinct platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors (alpha and beta) can modulate the activity of one another, PDGF isoform (AA, BB, and AB)-stimulated changes in Ca2+i were monitored by digitized video microscopy in single cells upon sequential addition of PDGF isoforms. In Balb/c 3T3 fibroblasts, all PDGF isoforms were capable of stimulating increases in Ca2+i of 200-600% above basal levels, although with different potencies: BB greater than or equal to AB greater than AA. All cells were BB-PDGF-responsive, but only 74% of cells examined responded to AA-PDGF. The Ca2+i response elicited by BB-PDGF was inhibited by 60-75% in cells stimulated 10 min earlier with the AA isoform. The half-life of this inhibition was 22 min. In cells in which the alpha receptor was down-regulated by prolonged incubation with AA-PDGF, BB-induced Ca2+i responses were not inhibited. Pretreatment of cells with phorbol ester did not inhibit BB-PDGF-induced increases in Ca2+i, yet down-regulation of PKC activity prevented the AA-PDGF inhibition of BB-PDGF-induced Ca2+i responses. An increase in Ca2+i induced by AlF(4-)-stimulated IP3 generation did not inhibit a subsequent BB-PDGF Ca2+i response; however, attenuation of AA-PDGF-induced extracellular Ca2+ influx with EGTA prevented the inhibition of BB-PDGF-induced Ca2+i increases. Readdition of Ca2+ to the medium after removal of EGTA restored the inhibition of the BB-PDGF Ca2+i response. The inhibition of the BB-PDGF Ca2+i response by AA-PDGF was not caused by inhibition of PDGF receptor tyrosine autophosphorylation, which was unchanged after pretreatment with AA-PDGF. These results demonstrate: (a) that only a subpopulation of cells possess a functional alpha receptor-mediated response as assessed by AA-PDGF-induced increases in Ca2+i, whereas all cells possess the beta receptor-mediated responses; and (b) AA-PDGF and its associated alpha receptor can modulate the activity of the beta receptor through a mechanism that is dependent upon Ca(2+)-influx which may be controlled in part by PKC activation.

Biochemical characterization of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator in normal and cystic fibrosis epithelial cells

Affinity-purified polyclonal antibodies, raised against two synthetic peptides corresponding to the R domain and the C terminus of the human cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), were used to characterize and localize the protein in human epithelial cells. Employing an immunoblotting technique that ensures efficient detection of large hydrophobic proteins, both antibodies recognized and approximately 180-kDa protein in cell lysates and isolated membranes of airway epithelial cells from normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) patients and of T84 colon carcinoma cells. Reactivity with the anti-C terminus antibody, but not with the anti-R domain antibody, was eliminated by limited carboxypeptidase Y digestion. When normal CFTR cDNA was overexpressed via a retroviral vector in CF or normal airway epithelial cells or in mouse fibroblasts, the protein produced had an apparent molecular mass of about 180 kDa. The CFTR expressed in insect (Sf9) cells by a baculovirus vector had a molecular mass of about 140 kDa, probably representing a nonglycosylated form. The CFTR in epithelial cells appears to exist in several forms. N-glycosidase treatment of T84 cell membranes reduces the apparent molecular mass of the major CFTR band from 180 kDa to 140 kDa, but a fraction of the T84 cell CFTR could not be deglycosylated, and the CFTR in airway epithelial cell membranes could not be deglycosylated either. Moreover, wheat germ agglutinin absorbs the majority of the CFTR from detergent-solubilized T84 cell membranes but not from airway cell membranes. The CFTR in all epithelial cell types was found to be an integral membrane protein not solubilized by high salt or lithium diiodosalicylate treatment. Sucrose density gradient fractionation of crude membranes prepared from the airway epithelial cells, previously surface-labeled by enzymatic galactosidation, showed a plasma membrane localization for both the normal CFTR and the CFTR carrying the Phe508 deletion (delta F 508). The CFTR in all cases co-localized with the Na+, K(+)-ATPase and the plasma membrane calcium ATPase, while the endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase and mitochondrial membrane markers were enriched at higher sucrose densities. Thus, the CFTR appears to be localized in the plasma membrane both in normal and delta F 508 CF epithelial cells.

Signal transduction by integrins: increased protein tyrosine phosphorylation caused by clustering of beta 1 integrins

The integrin family of cell adhesion receptors mediates many of the interactions between cells and the extracellular matrix. Because the extracellular matrix has profound influences on cell behavior, it seems likely that integrins transduce biochemical signals across the cell membrane. The nature of these putative signals has, thus far, remained elusive. Antibody-mediated clustering of integrin receptors was used to mimic the integrin clustering process that occurs during formation of adhesive contacts. Human epidermal carcinoma (KB) cells were incubated with an anti-beta 1 integrin monoclonal antibody for 30 min on ice followed by incubation at 37 degrees C with anti-rat IgG. This treatment, which induced integrin clustering, stimulated the phosphorylation on tyrosine residues of a 115- to 130-kDa complex of proteins termed pp130. When integrins were clustered in the presence of the phosphatase inhibitor sodium orthovanadate, pp130 showed a substantial increase in phosphorylation compared to the case in which integrins were clustered in the absence of vanadate. Maximal pp130 phosphorylation was observed 10-20 min after initiation of integrin clustering in the absence of vanadate or after 5-10 min in its presence. These time courses roughly parallel the formation of integrin clusters on the cell surface as observed by fluorescence microscopy. pp130 phosphorylation depended on the amount of anti-integrin antibody present. Additionally, the tyrosine phosphorylation of pp130 showed specificity since it was stimulated by antibodies to the integrin alpha 3 and beta 1 subunits but not by antibodies to other integrin alpha subunits or to nonintegrin cell surface proteins. Immunoprecipitation experiments clearly demonstrated that pp130 is not itself a beta 1 integrin. It is postulated, therefore, that the integrin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of pp130 may reflect part of an important signal transduction process between the extracellular matrix and the cell interior.

axl, a transforming gene isolated from primary human myeloid leukemia cells, encodes a novel receptor tyrosine kinase

Using a sensitive transfection-tumorigenicity assay, we have isolated a novel transforming gene from the DNA of two patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia. Sequence analysis indicates that the product of this gene, axl, is a receptor tyrosine kinase. Overexpression of axl cDNA in NIH 3T3 cells induces neoplastic transformation with the concomitant appearance of a 140-kDa axl tyrosine-phosphorylated protein. Expression of axl cDNA in the baculovirus system results in the expression of the appropriate recombinant protein that is recognized by antiphosphotyrosine antibodies, confirming that the axl protein is a tyrosine kinase. The juxtaposition of fibronectin type III and immunoglobulinlike repeats in the extracellular domain, as well as distinct amino acid sequences in the kinase domain, indicate that the axl protein represents a novel subclass of receptor tyrosine kinases.

Clonal cosegregation of tumorigenicity with overexpression of c-myc and transforming growth factor alpha genes in chemically transformed rat liver epithelial cells

Tumorigenicity was correlated with levels of expression of the genes for transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-alpha), epidermal growth factor receptor, c-myc, c-H-ras, and c-K-ras in a series of 16 clonally derived transformed liver epithelial cell lines. The clonal lines, which varied in tumorigenicity from 0 to 97%, were established from a phenotypically heterogeneous population produced by repeated exposure of diploid WB-F344 (WB) cells to N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine. Segregation of gene expression with tumorigenicity among clonal lines was determined by correlating rank orders of gene expression by clones relative to expression by wild-type WB cells. Only the expression of the c-myc gene correlated with tumorigenicity among all transformed clones. TGF-alpha gene expression was not correlated with tumorigenicity among all clones, but it was highly correlated with tumorigenicity among clones that expressed the c-myc gene above the median level for all clones (greater than 5-fold the level of expression by WB cells). Even high levels of expression of the TGF-alpha gene (up to 60-fold the level of expression by WB cells) were not correlated with tumorigenicity among the clones expressing the c-myc gene at levels less than 5-fold the level of expression by WB cells. Clones which simultaneously overexpressed both c-myc and TGF-alpha genes at levels above the median levels for all clones were significantly more tumorigenic than were clones which expressed either or both genes at lower than median levels. These results suggest that overexpressed c-myc and TGF-alpha genes cooperate in their association with tumorigenicity. Most of the highly tumorigenic clones that overexpressed c-myc and TGF-alpha also overexpressed the c-H-ras and/or the c-K-ras genes; clones that overexpressed neither of the c-ras genes nor the genes for c-myc and TGF-alpha were not very tumorigenic, while clones that expressed one or both c-ras genes (but not both c-myc and TGF-alpha) were variably tumorigenic over an intermediate range.