Demography, trade and state power: a tripartite model of medieval farming/language dispersals in the Ryukyu Islands

Hunter-gatherer occupations of small islands are rare in world prehistory and it is widely accepted that island settlement is facilitated by agriculture. The Ryukyu Islands contradict that understanding on two counts: not only did they have a long history of hunter-gatherer settlement, but they also have a very late date for the onset of agriculture, which only reached the archipelago between the eighth and thirteenth centuries AD. Here, we combine archaeology and linguistics to propose a tripartite model for the spread of agriculture and Ryukyuan languages to the Ryukyu Islands. Employing demographic growth, trade/piracy and the political influence of neighbouring states, this model provides a synthetic yet flexible understanding of farming/language dispersals in the Ryukyus within the complex historical background of medieval East Asia.

Triangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages

The origin and early dispersal of speakers of Transeurasian languages-that is, Japanese, Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic-is among the most disputed issues of Eurasian population history1-3. A key problem is the relationship between linguistic dispersals, agricultural expansions and population movements4,5. Here we address this question by 'triangulating' genetics, archaeology and linguistics in a unified perspective. We report wide-ranging datasets from these disciplines, including a comprehensive Transeurasian agropastoral and basic vocabulary; an archaeological database of 255 Neolithic-Bronze Age sites from Northeast Asia; and a collection of ancient genomes from Korea, the Ryukyu islands and early cereal farmers in Japan, complementing previously published genomes from East Asia. Challenging the traditional 'pastoralist hypothesis'6-8, we show that the common ancestry and primary dispersals of Transeurasian languages can be traced back to the first farmers moving across Northeast Asia from the Early Neolithic onwards, but that this shared heritage has been masked by extensive cultural interaction since the Bronze Age. As well as marking considerable progress in the three individual disciplines, by combining their converging evidence we show that the early spread of Transeurasian speakers was driven by agriculture.

Linker chain effect of ferrocenyl naphthalene diimide on a double stranded DNA preference

Naphthalene diimide derivative 1 carrying two 3-(ferrocenyl-methylamino)-propyl substituents was synthesized as a new hybrid indicator for electrochemical gene sensing. Ligand 1 showed a preference for double stranded DNA four-times larger than 2 previously described. The peak potential of 1 shifted 30 mV toward the negative side from that of 2, thereby shortening the time required for gene detection.

Prehistoric introduction of domestic pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: ancient mitochondrial DNA evidence

Ancient DNAs of Sus scrofa specimens excavated from archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands were examined to clarify the genetic relationships among prehistoric Sus scrofa, modern wild boars and domestic pigs inhabiting the Ryukyu archipelago, the Japanese islands, and the Asian continent. We extracted remain DNA from 161 bone specimens excavated from 12 archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands and successfully amplified mitochondrial DNA control region fragments from 33 of 161 specimens. Pairwise difference between prehistoric and modern S. scrofa nucleotide sequences showed that haplotypes of the East Asian domestic pig lineage were found from archaeological specimens together with Ryukyu wild boars native to the Ryukyu archipelago. Phylogenetic analysis of 14 ancient sequences (11 haplotypes; 574 bp) indicated that S. scrofa specimens from two Yayoi-Heian sites (Kitahara and Ara shellmiddens) and two Recent Times sites (Wakuta Kiln and Kiyuna sites) are grouped with modern East Asian domestic pigs. Sus scrofa specimens from Shimizu shellmidden (Yayoi-Heian Period) were very closely related to modern Sus scrofa riukiuanus but had a unique nucleotide insertion, indicating that the population is genetically distinct from the lineage of modern Ryukyu wild boars. This genetic evidence suggests that domestic pigs from the Asian continent were introduced to the Okinawa islands in the early Yayoi-Heian period (1700-2000 BP), or earlier.

(1)H double-quantum filtered MR imaging of joints tissues: bound water specific imaging of tendons, ligaments and cartilage

The (1)H double-quantum filtered (DQF) NMR and DQF MRI is applied to the joint tissues of rabbits for selective visualization of tendons, menisci and articular cartilage. The (1)H DQF NMR selectively filters double-quantum coherence arising from the (1)H dipolar interaction of the "bound" water in these tissues. The double-quantum creation time dependency of the DQF signal intensity is determined by the molecular environment of the "bound" water. Therefore, each tissue has a unique creation time at which the DQF signal reaches its maximum intensity, tau(max) (Achilles tendon: 0.46 +/- 0.02 ms, patella: 0.55 +/- 0.8 ms, anterior cruciate ligament: 0.60 +/- 0.05 ms, meniscus: 0.78 +/- 0.02 ms, skin: 0.81 +/- 0.07 ms). We have presented the creation-time-contrasted DQF images of the meniscus, patella, foot, and knee joint. Compared with conventional T(2)*-weighted gradient-echo (GRE) MR images, tendons, ligaments, menisci, and articular cartilage were more clearly seen in the DQF MR images. All these tissues were distinctly discriminated from each other by their creation times. DQF MR images of foot and knee joints can selectively demonstrated tendons, ligaments, and cartilage, which make it easier to understand the complicated anatomic structure of joints. Because the DQF NMR signal intensity and tau(max) are sensitive to the order structure of the "bound" water, it might be possible to introduce the creation-time dependent-contrast of (1)H DQF MR images as a new tool for analyzing the changes in the ordered structure of the tissue.

Characteristics of proton NMR T(2) relaxation of water in the normal and regenerating tendon

The molecular behavior of water in normal and regenerating tendons was analyzed using the transverse relaxation time (T(2)) measured by spin-echo proton nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H-NMR) spectroscopy at 2.34 T (25 degrees C). A section of the Achilles tendon was dissected from an anesthetized Japanese white rabbit, and its longitudinal axis was oriented at 0, 35, 54.7, 75, and 90 degrees to the static magnetic field. In the normal tendon, the T(2) relaxation of water presented biexponential relaxation and anisotropy in both the long T(2) (5.41 to 6.21 ms) and short T(2) (0.41 to 1.43 ms) components, in which the greatest values were obtained at 54.7 degrees. However, the range of the anisotropy was much narrower than we expected from the (1)H dipolar interaction of water bound to the collagen fibers in the tendon. The apparent fractions of water proton density also varied with orientation: the fraction of the longer T(2) components was at its maximum at 54.7 degrees. These results suggest that a simple two-compartment model could not be applicable to orientational dependency of the T(2) value of the tendon, and the well ordered water in the short T(2) relaxation component may show an elongated T(2) relaxation time that falls in the range of the long T(2) relaxation component at 54.7 degrees. This hypothesis can explain both the narrower range of the T(2) relaxation time and the orientational dependency on the apparent fraction of (1)H density. Regenerating processes of the Achilles tendon were followed for 18 weeks by analyzing the T(2) relaxation time. There is only a long T(2) relaxation time component (21.8 to 28.0 ms) up to 3 weeks after transection. Biexponential relaxation is revealed at 6 weeks and thereafter, whereby (i) the T(2) relaxation times become shorter, (ii) there is anisotropy in the short and long T(2) values, and (iii) the orientational dependency of the apparent fraction of water proton density becomes evident with maturation of the regenerating tendon. From these results, the (1)H T(2) relaxation time of water might be used to monitor the healing process of collagen structures of the tendon non-invasively.

1H double-quantum-filtered MR imaging as a new tool for assessment of healing of the ruptured Achilles tendon

1H double-quantum-filtered magnetic resonance imaging (DQF MRI) was applied to monitor the healing process of the Achilles tendons in rabbits after tenotomy. DQF MRI provides a new contrast, which is based on the non-zero average of the dipolar interaction caused by anisotropic motion of water molecules, determined mainly by their interaction with the ordered collagen fibers. Tissues are characterized by the dependence of their DQF signal on the DQ creation time, tau. With the use of DQF MRI, higher tissue contrast is obtained between tendon, bone, skin, and muscle. The tendons, which give weak signals in standard MRI techniques, are highlighted in the (1)H DQF image. The image changed dramatically during the healing process of the injured Achilles tendon. These changes matched the phases of the healing process. By using a tau-weighted contrast, the DQF images indicate the part of tendon that has not completely healed, even after the conventional MRI appeared normal. Magn Reson Med 42:884-889, 1999.

Effect of an exercise-heat acclimation program on body fluid regulatory responses to dehydration in older men

We examined if an exercise-heat acclimation program improves body fluid regulatory function in older subjects, as has been reported in younger subjects. Nine older (Old; 70 +/- 3 yr) and six younger (Young; 25 +/- 3 yr) male subjects participated in the study. Body fluid regulatory responses to an acute thermal dehydration challenge were examined before and after the 6-day acclimation session. Acute dehydration was produced by intermittent light exercise [4 bouts of 20-min exercise at 40% peak rate of oxygen consumption (VO(2 peak)) separated by 10 min rest] in the heat (36 degrees C; 40% relative humidity) followed by 30 min of recovery without fluid intake at 25 degrees C. During the 2-h rehydration period the subjects drank a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution ad libitum. In the preacclimation test, the Old lost approximately 0.8 kg during dehydration and recovered 31 +/- 4% of that loss during rehydration, whereas the Young lost approximately 1.2 kg and recovered 56 +/- 8% (P < 0.05, Young vs. Old). During the 6-day heat acclimation period all subjects performed the same exercise-heat exposure as in the dehydration period. Exercise-heat acclimation increased plasma volume by approximately 5% (P < 0.05) in Young subjects but not in Old. The body fluid loss during dehydration in the postacclimation test was similar to that in the preacclimation in Young and Old. The fractional recovery of lost fluid volume during rehydration increased in Young (by 80 +/- 9%; P < 0.05) but not in Old (by only 34 +/- 5%; NS). The improved recovery from dehydration in Young was mainly due to increased fluid intake with a small increase in the fluid retention fraction. The greater involuntary dehydration (greater fluid deficit) in Old was accompanied by reduced plasma vasopressin and aldosterone concentrations, renin activity, and subjective thirst rating (P < 0.05, Young vs. Old). Thus older people have reduced ability to facilitate body fluid regulatory function by exercise-heat acclimation, which might be involved in attenuation of the acclimation-induced increase in body fluid volume.

A case of late onset primary hyperoxaluria type I (PH-I) presented with black liver

A 63-year-old woman who had received hemodialysis therapy since she fell acute on chronic renal failure 4 years ago presented with multiple joint pain. Nephrocalcinosis was not detected by abdominal X-ray when hemodialysis therapy was initiated. Laboratory testing showed azotemia, anemia, hypoproteinemia and mild liver dysfunction but no liver cirrhosis. Biopsied bone tissue demonstrated numerous calcium oxalate crystal depositions. Laparoscopy revealed black liver in macroscopic view. Histological studies showed numerous lipofuscin-like dark brown granules were deposited in hepatocytes. The activity of alanine : glyoxylate aminotransferase (AGT) was less than 0.1 U/g in biopsied patient's liver tissue. Generally, clinical symptoms demonstrated by Japanese primary hyperoxaluria type I (PH-I) patients are milder than those of European patients. Some PH-I patients may successfully avoid urinary tract calcification unless they fall into oliguria by some other causes. The lipofuscin granules are most likely the source of the dark color. Massive deposition of the lipofuscin granules indicated that the duration of the liver metabolic abnormality had lasted for long time. Thus, black liver may be related to a mild form of PH-I.

[The significance of p21 expression in gastric cancer]

We examined the expression of p53, p21, cyclin D1, E, and PCNA in 75 cases of gastric cancer by immunohistochemical study and the expression of p21 RNA in cases by in situ hybridization. The rate of stage III, IV cases of p53(+) p21(-) group was significantly higher than that of any other groups. The apportinately 3-year survival rate of p53(+) p21(-) group was significantly lower than either that of p21(+) p53(-) or p53(-) p21(-) group. The 3-year survival rates of positive cases were significantly lower than those of negative cases on both cyclin D1 and E. The positive rate of cyclin E of the p53(-) p21(+) group was significantly lower than that of the p53(+) p21(-) group. The average PCNA Labeling. Index (LI) of the p53(+) p21(-) group was significantly higher than that of the p53(-) p21(+) group. The 3-year survival rate of cases with expression of p21 RNA was higher than that of cases without p21 RNA. Average PCNA L1 of cases with expression of mutant-type p53 was high and the number of poor prognostic cases in cases with expression of mutant-type p53 was large. In contrast, the average PCNA LI of cases with expression of p21 was low and the number of good prognostic cases with expression of p21 was large. These results suggest that p21 suppresses synthesis of DNA via cyclin E and PCNA.

Gastrectomy with combined resection of other organs for carcinoma of the stomach with invasion to adjacent organs: clinical efficacy in a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Carcinoma of the stomach invading one or more adjacent organs raises serious concerns over en bloc dissection because en bloc resection has an associated high risk and such advanced carcinoma is frequently associated with incurable factors. Thus, it is important to understand the efficacy of gastrectomy combined with other organ resection and to refine the indications for en bloc dissection.

STUDY DESIGN

Seventy-seven patients with carcinoma of the stomach directly invading adjacent organs or structures were analyzed retrospectively to investigate the efficacy of en bloc resection. Forty-one patients underwent gastrectomy combined with resection of one or more invaded organs (combined resection group), while the other 36 patients underwent gastrectomy with palliative abrasion between the primary tumor and the invasion site (noncombined resection group).

RESULTS

The five-year survival rate was 23 percent in the combined resection group and 0 percent in the noncombined resection group (p < .05). The 23 curative cases and 18 noncurative cases in the combined resection group had a survival rate of 41 percent and 0 percent, respectively (p < .05). The survival rate after a single organ resection was 29 percent, and after a multiple organ resection, 0 percent (p < .05). Cases of carcinoma invading either the pancreas or mesocolon had a slightly but not significantly better prognosis. In Borrmann type IV carcinoma there was no difference in survival between the curative and noncurative operation. Cases with P1 dissemination had a better prognosis than those of P2 and P3 dissemination.

CONCLUSIONS

The best indication for an en bloc combined organ resection was an invasion limited to only one other organ, not more than N2, no incurable factor, and any type except Borrmann type IV. Additionally, an en bloc combined resection would be worth trying for any type of gastric carcinoma with not more than P1 dissemination and with no other incurable factor.

[Immunohistochemical analysis of c-erB-2 and nm23 expression in early gastric carcinoma]

The expression of c-erB-2 and nm23 genes product were investigated immunohistochemically in 108 resected cases of early gastric cancer. The expression rate of c-erB-2 was significantly higher in the cases of submucosal cancer or in the cases with lymph node metastasis. The expression rate of c-erB-2 was higher in the metastatic tumor than in the primary tumor. There was no significant correlation between the expression of nm23 and depth of invasion. The expression rate of nm23 was lower in the cases with lymph node metastasis than in the cases without lymph node metastasis. The expression could not be found in the metastatic tumor. These results suggest that there would be correlation between the expression of c-erB-2 and depth of invasion and lymph node metastasis, and the nm23 may suppress metastatic potential in early gastric cancer.

Remnant-stump early gastric cancer following partial gastrectomy

Eight rare cases of remnant-stump early gastric cancer (RS-EGC) were investigated, retrospectively. The incidence of RS-EGC was 0.9% (8/845) of all resected early gastric cancers. The macroscopic cancer type was elevated in 75% and mucosal in 88%. All were the differentiated type with no lymph node metastasis. The initial reconstruction involved a Billroth II in 75% of the patients. The RS-EGC was usually found during a periodic endoscopic follow-up. All patients are still alive with no postoperative complications and no cancer recurrence.

A clinicopathological study of distal advanced gastric carcinoma with duodenal invasion

We studied retrospectively the clinicopathological features of gastric cancer with duodenal invasion and compared these with those with non-invasion, to investigate the prognostic significance of duodenal invasion. The patients were grouped into two groups of Group A (65 patients) with duodenal invasion and Group B (197 patients) without invasion who underwent gastrectomy for advanced distal gastric carcinoma according to histological findings. In Group A, many were at high age and with symptoms of pyloric stenosis. Group A (91%) had a significantly higher incidence of serosal invasion and infiltration into the pancreas head than did Group B (76%) (p < 0.01). In N3 metastasis, there was a significant difference between Group A (60%) and Group B (36%) (p < 0.01). The five-year-survival rate in Group A was 14.0% and in Group B was 43.3% (p < 0.001). In cases of duodenal invasion, patients with symptoms of pyloric stenosis demonstrated a poorer prognosis than those without. Those with longer than 20 mm invasion had a significantly higher incidence of N3 metastasis than those with less than 10 mm (p < 0.05). Lymphangitic type had longer invasive length to duodenum, and N3 metastasis of the lymphangitic type was frequent comparing to localized type (42%) and invasive type (47%) (p < 0.001) (95%) (p < 0.01). These results showed that duodenal invasion was a significant prognostic factor in cases of distal gastric carcinoma. In the therapeutic strategy for advanced gastric carcinoma with duodenal invasion, it is necessary to perform gastrectomy with regional lymph nodes dissection and with combined resection of adjacent organs.

[Molecular differential diagnosis of herpes virus using common primer pairs: detection of HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV and CMV by the PCR]

Differential diagnosis of herpes virus species is often required in various clinical courses, such as transplantation and immunocompromised patients. Pairs of common primers which enabled sufficient amplifying and differential diagnosis of herpes virus species were designed and nested PCR using the common primer pairs was conducted to evaluate for its clinical application. The PCR was shown to provide amplification and differential diagnosis of HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV and CMV. The results of the PCR were consistent with those from fluorescent antibody of herpes virus culture and isolation. From clinical vesicular specimens, the PCR enabled the direct detection of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV. The PCR using the common primer pairs offers speed in the differential diagnosing of herpes virus.

Sudden deafness accompanied by asymptomatic mumps

In this study we investigated asymptomatic mumps as a possible cause of sudden deafness. We studied 131 sudden deafness patients by measuring their serum mumps antibody values. Positive IgM antibody results, which strongly suggest recent mumps infection, were revealed in 9 of the 130 patients tested (6.9%). Asymptomatic mumps infections are apparently closely related to sudden deafness. Further studies will provide more definite diagnoses of mumps deafness and might be applicable to the treatment of such hearing loss.

A case of early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (EIEE) with anatomical cerebral asymmetry and myoclonus

The authors report a case of early encephalopathy with myoclonus, tonic spasms and a suppression-burst pattern on electroencephalography (EEG) associated with unilateral cerebral hypertrophy following hemiatrophy. This patient showed frequent myoclonus in relation to a suppression-burst pattern resembling that in early myoclonic encephalopathy (EME). Moreover, the case also showed tonic spasms, from the age of 13 days, in series, as seen in Ohtahara syndrome. On the other hand, there was a previously undescribed peculiar CT scan finding, which showed hypertrophy of the right cerebral hemisphere at birth, following hemiatrophy. Neuropathological examination revealed cerebral atrophy associated with heterotopia and an ependymal hyperplasia in the right hemisphere, suggesting hemimegalencephaly. This case should be classified as Ohtahara syndrome accompanied by myoclonus, because of the spasms in series interrupting the suppression-burst pattern, and the etiological factor of brain malformation. The nosological aspects of this epileptic encephalopathy are discussed.

Morphology of the kidney of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus: Monotremata)

The platypus kidney shows morphological similarities to those of other mammals. Macroscopically, the cortex is easily distinguishable from the fairly wide medulla. Within the medulla, no clear border is observed between the inner and outer zones. Light and transmission electron microscopically, the glomeruli show quite similar architecture to those of other mammals; however, the glomerular lobulation is very clear. The glomerular tufts are rather simple, but capillary lumen varies widely in size, which is one of the unique features of the platypus kidney. The urinary tubule is generally similar to that of human and other mammals in shape and segmentation; however, the staining specificities of histochemical reactions and the shape of epithelial cells of the Henle's loop differ from those of other mammals. The most conspicuous features are: 1) although no protein casts are found in the tubular lumina, epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) have numerous electron-dense vesicles as in human nephrotic kidneys; and 2) the platypus Henle's loop consists of the thick epithelial cells similar to the mammalian type nephron of birds. As compared to those of other mammals such as humans and rats, our observations suggest that the platypus kidney is less developed, in terms of evolution.

[Detection of cytomegalovirus in urine specimens from renal transplant recipients using polymerase chain reaction]

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) in this study, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed to detect human cytomegalovirus (CMV) from urine specimens taken from renal transplant patients and one congenital CMV infection. Twenty eight urine specimens of 20 renal transplant patients were analyzed by the PCR. CMV infection was detected in 11 specimens (8 recipients). The incidence (40.0%) of PCR positive in the renal transplant patients was highest among the other conventional methods including fluorescent antibody study, anti-IgM EIA and complement fixation test. In two cases, CMV infection could be identified by PCR before antibody development. The PCR procedure is more sensitive and rapid than conventional methods for the diagnosis of CMV. Rapid diagnosis of CMV infection using PCR may be useful in clinical diagnosis and have therapeutic value.

[Study on fluctuation of several parameters in varicella]

Specific immunological responses (varicella-specific IgG and IgM) and various parameters (interferon, C3, C4, platelet count, erythrocyte count, erythrocyte CR1) in varicella infection were determined over the course of the disease (days) and their relationships to severity and immunological significance evaluated. Defining the day varicella appeared as disease day 0, IgG appeared on the disease day 4 and IgG on day 5. The preceding disease days were dominated by non-specific immunological mechanisms. Interferon appearance preceded that of these antibodies but did not correlate with severity. In serious cases, C3 and C4 increased in the acute stage while platelet count declined. Erythrocyte count decreased in severe cases after disease day 5. Three patients with lower erythrocyte CR1 activity values remained critical. These findings suggested that determining platelet count is expedient in determining severity in the early stage and that the complement pathway is a major component of early immunological response.

Production of circulation interferon in children with varicella

Interferon (IFN) alpha was detected in the serum of children with varicella. The serum IFN was demonstrated in the acute phase of varicella and became negative 7 days after the onset of rash. Serum IFN was detected during the incubation period in two patients tested before the onset of rash. Some correlation was shown between the positive rate of circulating IFN and the severity of illness.

Establishment and characterization of an epithelial cell line, SGE1, from isolated rat renal glomeruli

An epithelial cell line, designated as SGE1, has been established from isolated rat renal glomeruli. SGE1 cells are able to grow continuously in a serum-free medium at similar growth rates to those in the medium containing serum. Quantitative studies of the cells in the serum-free condition demonstrated that SGE1 cells required a collagen type I or IV, fibronectin, or laminin-coated substratum for adhesion and growth, and among them, collagen type I and IV were most effective. Essential medium supplements for the adhesion and growth were epidermal growth factor and transferrin, respectively, and both effects were noticeably enhanced with linoleic acid. Morphological observation found that in a monolayer culture, SGE1 cells formed domes, and in a collagen embedding culture, they formed cystic spheres having features of a simple cuboidal epithelium, polarized formation of microvilli and tight junctions as well as a lateral cell membrane with cytoplasmic projections. In addition, SGE1 cells expressed Fx1A antigens, which are nephritogenic antigens on their microvilli.

Studies on the mesangial handling of protein antigens: influence of size, charge and biologic activity

The influence of certain physicochemical and biologic properties of protein antigens on their handling by the glomerular mesangium was studied in rats. The following ferritin-based probes were employed: (a) naturally occurring ferritin isomers to examine the role of molecular size; (b) chemically cationized ferritins (pI 7.1 and 8.8) to test charge effects; (c) glutaraldehyde (GA-)coupled ferritin as an analogue of a toxic molecule. Molecular size was found to be a major determinant of the extent and rapidity of antigen uptake, but had only a minor influence on persistence. The rapidity of uptake and antigen persistence was charge dependent, but to a limited extent. Biologic activity of macromolecules appears to be a very important determinant of mesangial handling since GA-treated ferritin was taken up much more rapidly and to a greater extent than native ferritin, and could persist for very prolonged periods.

Experimental autoimmune glomerulonephritis with pulmonary hemorrhage in rats. The dose-effect relationship of the nephritogenic antigen from bovine glomerular basement membrane

Experimental autoimmune glomerulonephritis with pulmonary hemorrhage was induced in rats by a single injection of soluble antigen obtained from bovine glomerular basement membrane. Groups of rats were injected with various amounts of the nephritogenic antigen with Freund's complete adjuvant and killed 10 weeks later. Glomerulonephritis with linear deposition of IgG along the glomerular basement membrane developed in 7 of 10 rats injected with 10 micrograms of the antigen and all 20 rats of other 2 groups with 100 or 1,000 micrograms of the antigen. Pulmonary hemorrhage was observed in 21 of 27 rats with nephritis, and it was particularly severe in those injected with 1,000 micrograms. Glomerulonephritis with pulmonary hemorrhage and the linear deposition of IgG along with the glomerular basement membrane suggests that this model resembles human anti-glomerular basement membrane antibody-induced glomerulonephritis including Goodpasture's syndrome. The nephritic rats showed symptoms of nephrotic syndrome such as hypoalbuminemia, hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceremia, and the severities of these symptoms clearly depended on the degree of proteinuria.

Isolation and characterization of nephritogenic antigen from bovine glomerular basement membrane

A method for isolation of a potent nephritogenic antigen from bovine glomerular basement membrane has been established; the glomerular basement membrane was solubilized by trypsin digestion and fractionated successively by gel filtration on Ultrogel AcA-34, concanavalin A affinity chromatography and affinity chromatography on immobilized antibodies. The antigen thus prepared was found to be highly nephritogenic; it causes glomerulonephritis in rats by a single injection of 0.1 mg per individual. Amino acid and carbohydrate analyses revealed that the antigen is a glycoprotein which contains amino acids and sugars characteristic of collagen, namely, hydroxyproline, hydroxylysine, glycine, glucose and galactose, although the relative amounts of these amino acids and sugars are less than those found in Type IV collagen of glomerular basement membrane.

Cationic macromolecule-induced nephrotic syndrome in rabbits. Lack of immune complex involvement

Rabbits given a single intravenous injection of highly cationised horse spleen ferritin (isoelectric point greater than 9.5), 2 to 100 mg/kg of body weight, frequently developed glomerulonephritis, and a substantial proportion became nephrotic. The disease usually remitted spontaneously. Renal tissue obtained before onset of proteinuria (by biopsy), during the acute phase and in the phase of remission, was examined for the presence of cationized ferritin, rabbit IgG, and C3 by immunofluorescence. Electron microscopy was performed on material prepared conventionally and after treatment with polyethyleneimine (to visualize fixed anionic sites in the glomeruli). Cationic ferritin molecules initially bound to the fixed anionic sites in the glomerular basement membrane but disappeared before the onset of proteinuria (6 +/- 3 days). Glomerular deposition of rabbit immunoglobulin or complement was not seen, and electron microscopy did not reveal deposits in the glomerular capillary walls. This makes it unlikely that immune complexes play a role in the pathogenesis of the induced disease. The striking features were extensive loss of epithelial foot processes and pronounced loss of negative charge from the glomerular basement membrane and from the epithelial cell surface coat. These changes preceded onset of proteinuria and, by reference to those animals not developing proteinuria, were seen to be closely linked to the subsequent development of proteinuria. It appears that the transient interaction of a cationic, macromolecular protein antigen with the fixed anionic sites in the glomerular basement membrane can set a chain of events in motion that leads to loss of negative charge and epithelial cell withdrawal, ultimately resulting in proteinuria.

Interaction of cationized antigen with rat glomerular basement membrane: in situ immune complex formation

The influence of charge and size on antigen binding to the rat glomerular basement membrane (GBM) was investigated. Chemically cationized ovalbumin, human serum albumin (HSA), human immunoglobulin G (Hu IgG), horse spleen ferritin and human immunoglobulin M (Hu IgM) were injected into rats intravenously. By immunofluorescence significant glomerular binding occurred when the pI exceeded a threshold value of 8.5 to 9.5. At a given pI antigen binding increased with molecular size. Cationized Hu IgM bound only weakly to the glomerular capillary wall, presumably excluded due to size. Subepithelial immune deposits were formed only when antibody was injected subsequently. Detailed electron microscopic studies on in situ formation of immune complexes were performed using cationized horse spleen ferritin. Early on subendothelial deposits were very marked, giving way to subepithelial deposits with time. Under the conditions employed, it appears that deposits can be formed directly at the subepithelial locus but that complexes are also formed subendothelially, dissociating into free molecules or small complexes and then migrating through the lamina densa and reforming.

Quantitative studies of in situ immune complex glomerulonephritis in the rat induced by planted, cationized antigen

Cationized human IgG can bind to the rat glomerular basement membrane (GBM), act as planted antigen, and induce in situ immune complex formation accompanied by severe glomerulonephritis. Perfusion of highly cationized human IgG (isoelectric point {more than} 9.5) via the left renal artery resulted in preferential localization within the perfused kidney (up to 56 percent of dose injected); after intravenous administration, only 4 percent was bound to the kidneys. The planted antigen was localized along the glomerular capillary walls and was accessible for antibody administered intravenously 1 h after perfusion, when virtually no antigen remained in the circulation. Persistence of cationized human IgG in the perfused kidney was markedly prolonged when complexed with antibody; one-half the cationized human IgG was still present after 12 d. There was a difference in the disappearance rates of antigen and antibody, as cationized human IgG was removed faster from the kidney than the antibody, the binding of which remained almost unchanged during the first week. Renal perfusion of a minimum of 20 mug of cationized human IgG, followed by intravenous injection of antibody, regularly induced severe glomerulonephritis with a proteinuria of at least 100 mg/24 h. The degree and the persistence of proteinuria induced depended on the dose of cationized human IgG perfused. Experiments using radiolabeled antigen and antibody showed that after renal perfusion of 20 mug cationized human IgG, 11.1 mug was kidney bound at the time of antibody injection. At the onset of proteinuria, 4.0 mug of antigen and 31.9 mug of anti-human IgG antibody were present in the perfused kidney. Immunofluorescence revealed immune deposits consisting of cationized human IgG and rabbit IgG (anti-human IgG) along the GBM. The staining pattern was linear (confluent) during the first 2 d and became granular during the course of the disease. Electronmicroscopically, a prominent finding was the accumulation of dense deposits, mainly in the subepithelial space and beneath the slit pores.

An approach to postembedding staining of protein (immunoglobulin) antigen embedded in plastic: prerequisites and limitations

A method is described for performing postembedding staining of protein (immunoglobulin) antigen embedded in styrene-methacrylate resin. Fixation of specimens in a combination of 4% paraformaldehyde and 0.2% picric acid and washing in buffer containing 7% sucrose, followed by abrupt dehydration with absolute acetone in the cold preserved the antigenicity, although in a masked form. The masked antigenicity could be reexposed by treatment with nonspecific protease. Staining with fluorescent-, peroxidase-, or ferritin-labeled antibodies on semi- and ultrathin sections resulted in specific localization of the antigen. We applied this technique to the localization of rabbit immunoglobulin in specimens of renal tissue obtained from rats with anti-glomerular basement membrane nephritis; we also localized human IgG in a renal biopsy specimen. The prerequisites for recovery of antigenicity are such that preservation of tissue structure at the light microscopic level is good, but relatively poor at the electron microscopic level.

Anionic binding sites in the glomerular basement membrane: possible role in the pathogenesis of immune complex glomerulonephritis

This paper details the ways in which the anionic sites of the GBM could be involved in immune complex deposition. Experiments were performed with chemically cationised proteins to test the hypotheses proposed. The most detailed investigations were concerned with the role of basic (cationic) antigen as a planted antigen, leading to in situ immune complex formation. A model was developed where it was possible to induce marked proteinuria following a single injection of small quantities of cationised human IgG or ferritin.

The isolation of an optimal small size immunoferritin conjugate fraction

A procedure is described for preparing immunoferritin conjugates consisting of one antibody molecule attached to one ferritin molecule. Results obtained with such a reagent faithfully reflect the true distribution of antigenic determinants, and allow more accurate quantification.

Immunohistological staining of antigens on semithin sections of specimens embedded in plastic (GMA-Quetol 523)

Glycol methacrylate-Quetol 523, introduced by Kushida (1977) for combined light and electronmicroscopy studies at low magnification, also permits application of immunofluorescence methods to semithin sections. To recover the antigenicity of proteins fixed with formaldehyde, abrupt dehydration before embedding and subsequent treatment of the semithin sections with protease were essential. Post-staining with suitable histological stains allows exact correlation of antigen localization with tissue structure.

Immuno-electron microscopic localization of lipopolysaccharide antigens on ultrathin sections of Salmonella typhimurium

Lipopolysaccharide antigens were demonstrated on ultrathin sections of styrene-embedded Salmonella typhimurium by direct postembedding staining with ferritin-labeled antibodies. The antigenicity, partially masked in the embedding process, could be satisfactorily recovered by treatment of ultrathin sections with nonspecific protease. As judged from the reaction site of the ferritin-labeled antibodies, the lipopolysaccharides were localized in two zones. The broader zone of densely distributed ferritin molecules was superimposed over the whole outer cellwall, and a smaller zone revealing antigenicity was found over the cell membrane, which strongly supports the concept that the latter is the site of synthesis of lipopolysaccharides. The well-defined labeled areas between these two antigenic zones may be the routes whereby the synthesized polysaccharide molecules reach the cell wall.

Autoantibody specific for the glomerular mesangium and Bowman's capsule in man

Investigation of serum from a nominally healthy subject revealed an unusual autoantibody with specificity for the glomerular mesangium and Bowman's capsule. Immunofluorescence studies on rodent kidney sections revealed typical mesangial fluorescence and intense linear staining of Bowman's capsule. The antibody was organ, but not species, specific and did not correspond to any previously described antibody with anti-mesangial activity (e.g. anti-actomyosin or anti-fibronectin). Intravenous injection in mice resulted in heavy mesangial deposition of antibody within one hour, the antibody disappeared within 2--4 weeks, and no urinary abnormalities were seen. Retrospective analysis of clinical data revealed a history of chronic hepatitis and possible drug abuse, but no evidence for impaired renal function at any timepoint. To our knowledge this is the first report of specific anti-mesangial antibody in man, the pathogenetic relevance remains unclear.

Comparison of the handling of ferritin and ferritin-protein conjugates by the glomerular mesangium: kinetic studies in the rat

Kinetic studies on the uptake and elimination of ferritin and ferritin-protein conjugates in the rat glomerular mesangium are reported. Ferritin was prepared from horse spleens and conjugates were prepared using either human IgG or albumin. The degree of mesangial uptake was dose dependent and a competitive effect with the reticuloendothelial system was observed. Maximal mesangial fluorescence occurred at a lower dosage with conjugate than with native ferritin. In addition, conjugate persisted for months within the mesangium as compared to a matter of days in the case of ferritin alone. The disappearance of native ferritin from the mesangium paralleled that seen in the circulation. Conjugate, however, disappeared far more rapidly from the circulation than from the mesangium. At a point in time when the mesangium still contained conjugate but the blood was negative, rabbit antiserum to ferritin was injected and was observed to deposit in the mesangium. This demonstrated the accessibility of mesangially sequestered antigen to circulating antibody. This system provides a model for long term studies on the effect of immune reactions occurring in the mesangium.

Effect of antibody avidity on the induction of renal injury in anti-glomerular basement membrane nephritis

Antibodies to glomerular basement membrane (GBM) of the rat could be fractionated according to their avidity by elution from trypsin-digested GBM (bound to Sepharose) with increasing concentrations of KSCN. The percentage of kidney-fixing antibody in each fraction and the degree of proteinuria induced as determined 24 h after injection increased with the avidity of the antibody fraction when equal doses were administered.

Masking of protein antigen by modification of amino groups with carbobenzoxychloride (benzyl chloroformate) and demasking by treatment with nonspecific protease

Cryostat sections of various substrates were treated with carbobenzoxychloride in acetone to modify antigens. By applying specific fluorescent antibodies, it could be shown that the antigenic determinants of rabbit gamma-globulin and bovine insulin were totally masked. The antigenicity of ACTH was markedly reduced, whereas the polysaccharide antigens of Salmonella typhimurium were only partially masked. After masking, antigenicity could be restored by treatment with nonspecific protease. The reversible protection of amino groups by carbobenzoxychloride may be a way to preserve protein antigens during embedding in plastics, as such materials also bind to amino groups, blocking the antigenicity of proteins.