The role of puberty on physical and brain development: A longitudinal study in male Rhesus Macaques

This study examined the role of male pubertal maturation on physical growth and development of neurocircuits that regulate stress, emotional and cognitive control using a translational nonhuman primate model. We collected longitudinal data from male macaques between pre- and peri-puberty, including measures of physical growth, pubertal maturation (testicular volume, blood testosterone -T- concentrations) and brain structural and resting-state functional MRI scans to examine developmental changes in amygdala (AMY), hippocampus (HIPPO), prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as functional connectivity (FC) between those regions. Physical growth and pubertal measures increased from pre- to peri-puberty. The indexes of pubertal maturation -testicular size and T- were correlated at peri-puberty, but not at pre-puberty (23 months). Our findings also showed ICV, AMY, HIPPO and total PFC volumetric growth, but with region-specific changes in PFC. Surprisingly, FC in these neural circuits only showed developmental changes from pre- to peri-puberty for HIPPO-orbitofrontal FC. Finally, testicular size was a better predictor of brain structural maturation than T levels -suggesting gonadal hormones-independent mechanisms-, whereas T was a strong predictor of functional connectivity development. We expect that these neural circuits will show more drastic pubertal-dependent maturation, including stronger associations with pubertal measures later, during and after male puberty.

Validation of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) to screen for atypical social behaviors in juvenile macaques

Primates form strong social bonds and depend on social relationships and networks that provide shared resources and protection critical for survival. Social deficits such as those present in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and other psychiatric disorders hinder the individual’s functioning in communities. Given that early diagnosis and intervention can improve outcomes and trajectories of ASD, there is a great need for tools to identify early markers for screening/diagnosis, and for translational animal models to uncover biological mechanisms and develop treatments. One of the most widely used screening tools for ASD in children is the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), a quantitative measure used to identify individuals with atypical social behaviors. The SRS has been adapted for use in adult rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)–a species very close to humans in terms of social behavior, brain anatomy/connectivity and development–but has not yet been validated or adapted for a necessary downward extension to younger ages matching those for ASD diagnosis in children. The goal of the present study was to adapt and validate the adult macaque SRS (mSRS) in juvenile macaques with age equivalent to mid-childhood in humans. Expert primate coders modified the mSRS to adapt it to rate atypical social behaviors in juvenile macaques living in complex social groups at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center. Construct and face validity of this juvenile mSRS (jmSRS) was determined based on well-established and operationalized measures of social and non-social behaviors in this species using traditional behavioral observations. We found that the jmSRS identifies variability in social responsiveness of juvenile rhesus monkeys and shows strong construct/predictive validity, as well as sensitivity to detect atypical social behaviors in young male and female macaques across social status. Thus, the jmSRS provides a promising tool for translational research on macaque models of children social disorders.

Persistent alteration in behavioural reactivity to a mild social stressor in rhesus monkeys repeatedly exposed to sevoflurane in infancy

BACKGROUND

Socio-emotional development is the expression and management of emotions, which in non-human primates can be examined using responses toward increasing levels of threat. Damage to the limbic system alters socio-emotional development in primates. Thus, neuronal and glial cell loss caused by exposure to general anaesthesia early in infancy might also impact socio-emotional development. We recently reported that repeated sevoflurane exposure in the first month of life alters emotional behaviours at 6 months of age and impairs visual recognition memory after the first year of life in rhesus monkeys. The present study evaluated socio-emotional behaviour at 1 and 2 yr of age in those same monkeys to determine the persistence of altered emotional behaviour.

METHODS

Rhesus monkeys of both sexes were exposed to sevoflurane anaesthesia three times for 4 h each time in the first 6 weeks of life. At 1 and 2 yr of age, they were tested on the human intruder task, a well-established mild acute social stressor.

RESULTS

Monkeys exposed to sevoflurane as infants exhibited normal fear and hostile responses, but exaggerated self-directed (displacement) behaviours, a general indicator of stress and anxiety in non-human primates.

CONCLUSIONS

Early repeated sevoflurane exposure in infant non-human primates results in an anxious phenotype that was first detected at 6 months, and persists for at least 2 yr of age. This is the first demonstration of such a prolonged impact of early anaesthesia exposure on emotional reactivity.

BH3 domain-independent apolipoprotein L1 toxicity rescued by BCL2 prosurvival proteins

The potent trypanolytic properties of human apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) can be neutralized by the trypanosome variant surface antigen gene product known as serum resistance-associated protein. However, two common APOL1 haplotypes present uniquely in individuals of West African ancestry each encode APOL1 variants resistant to serum resistance-associated protein, and each confers substantial resistance to human African sleeping sickness. In contrast to the dominantly inherited anti-trypanosomal activity of APOL1, recessive inheritance of these two trypanoprotective APOL1 alleles predisposes to kidney disease. Proposed mechanisms of APOL1 toxicity have included BH3 domain-dependent autophagy and/or ion channel activity. We probed these potential mechanisms by expressing APOL1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes. APOL1 expression in oocytes increased ion permeability and caused profound morphological deterioration (toxicity). Coexpression of BCL2 family members rescued APOL1-associated oocyte toxicity in the order MCL1 ∼ BCLW > BCLXL ∼ BCL2A1 ≫ BCL2. Deletion of nine nominal core BH3 domain residues abolished APOL1-associated toxicity, but missense substitution of the same residues abolished neither oocyte toxicity nor its rescue by coexpressed MCL1. The APOL1 BH3 domain was similarly dispensable for the ability of APOL1 to rescue intact mice from lethal trypanosome challenge. Replacement of most extracellular Na(+) by K(+) also reduced APOL1-associated oocyte toxicity, allowing demonstration of APOL1-associated increases in Ca(2+) and Cl(-) fluxes and oocyte ion currents, which were similarly reduced by MCL1 coexpression. Thus APOL1 toxicity in Xenopus oocytes is BH3-independent, but can nonetheless be rescued by some BCL2 family proteins.

Natural human immunity to trypanosomes

Complement-dependent destruction of invading micro-organisms is a crucial first-line defense against infection, yet both African and American trypanosomes are able to resist attack by complement. African trypanosomes resist non-specific complement attack by virtue of a thick glycoprotein surface coat, and the host range of certain African trypanosomes is believed to be defined by their susceptibility to a subclass of human high density lipoprotein (HDL) and/or a high molecular weight protein complex present in human serum. In the first part of this review, Stephen Tomlinson and Jayne Raper look at the properties and mechanisms of action of these trypanolytic factors on African trypanosomes, and discuss briefly the possible mechanisms whereby these human pathogens resist lysis by human serum. The mechanisms that enable the American trypanosome Trypanosoma cruzi to resist complement attack are reviewed in the second part of this article.

STUDIES ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE SEX HORMONES TO INFECTION : I. THE EFFECT OF THE ESTROGENIC AND GONADOTROPIC HORMONES ON VACCINIA AND THE SPREADING FACTOR

The essential findings of these experiments may be summarized as follows: The estrogenic hormone after being given for 1 week slows up the spread of India ink but allows it to reach and exceed a normal spread after 24 hours. After injections of the estrogenic hormone for 3 weeks the spread of India ink is much less than in the control animals. The resistance of the rabbit to vaccinia is increased if the rabbit has been castrated and then given the estrogenic hormone for a period of 3 weeks before being vaccinated. At the present time nothing can be said about the action of the gonadotropic hormone on India ink, as the experiments did not agree.

On techniques for the measurement of the mass fractal dimension of aggregates

A review is presented of a number of techniques available for the characterisation of the structure of aggregates formed from suspensions of sub-micron particles. Amongst the experimental techniques that have been commonly used are scattering (light, X-ray or neutron), settling and imaging and these are the focus of this work. The theoretical basis for the application of fractal geometry to characterisation of flocs and aggregates is followed by a discussion of the strengths and limitations of the above techniques. Of the scattering techniques available, light scattering provides the greatest potential for use as a tool for structure characterisation even though interpretation of the scattered intensity pattern is complicated by the strong interaction of light and matter. Restructuring further complicates the analysis. Although settling has long been used to characterise particle behaviour, the absence of an accurate permeability model limits the technique as a means of determining the porosity of fractal aggregates. However, it can be argued that the determination of fractal dimension is relatively unaffected. The strength of image analysis lies in its ability to provide a great deal of information about particle morphology and the weaknesses lie in the difficulties with image processing and sample size as this is a particle counting technique. There are very few papers which compare the fractal dimension measured by more than one technique. Light scattering potentially provides a useful tool for checking settling results. However, further work is required to develop proper models for aggregate permeability and flow-through effects.

Trypanosome lytic factors: novel mediators of human innate immunity

A novel trypanosome lytic factor (TLF) has been characterized that protects humans from infection by Trypanosoma brucei brucei. The mechanism of trypanolysis is unknown; contrary to one hypothesis, TLF does not kill trypanosomes by generating oxygen radicals. However, these trypanosomes become human-infective when they express a serum-resistance-associated gene.

An investigation into the mechanism of trypanosome lysis by human serum factors

African trypanosomes are the causative agents of sleeping sickness in humans and of Nagana in cattle. The infectivity of African trypanosome species for humans appears to be defined by their susceptibility to two lytic factors in human serum; trypanosome lytic factor (TLF)1, a subclass of human high density lipoprotein (HDL) and TLF2, a high molecular weight protein complex. Available evidence indicates that following receptor mediated uptake, TLF is targeted to the lysosome where the low pH triggers a TLF-dependant peroxidase activity resulting in the formation of reactive oxygen radicals with consequent lipid peroxidation and destruction of the lysosomal membrane. Nearly all previous work on the mechanism of parasite lysis has been performed using TLF1. In this study, we directly test the hypothesis that TLF1 and TLF2 kill Trypanosoma brucei by a mechanism involving oxidative stress. We found no evidence for lipid peroxidation in trypanosomes exposed to high concentrations of trypanolytic HDL (impure TLF1), although lipid peroxidation was detected in parasites exposed to low concentrations of low molecular weight peroxides. Neither HDL, TLF1 nor TLF2 generated detectable levels of intracellular reactive oxygen intermediates. Various antioxidants also had no effect on TLF1 or TLF2-mediated lysis, although the antioxidants catalase and superoxide dismutase were effective at inhibiting peroxide generation and parasite lysis in control systems. Various metal chelating agents and protease inhibitors were also tested without effect. These data provide strong evidence against a peroxidative mechanism being involved in TLF-mediated lysis.

A high-resolution radiation hybrid map of the proximal portion of mouse chromosome 5

Radiation hybrid (RH) mapping of the mouse genome provides a useful tool in the integration of existing genetic and physical maps, as well as in the ongoing effort to generate a dense map of expressed sequence tags. To facilitate functional analysis of mouse Chromosome 5, we have constructed a high-resolution RH map spanning 75 cM of the chromosome. During the course of these studies, we have developed RHBase, an RH data management program that provides data storage and an interface to several RH mapping programs and databases. We have typed 95 markers on the T31 RH panel and generated an integrated map, pooling data from several sources. The integrated RH map ranges from the most proximal marker, D5Mit331 (Chromosome Committee offset, 3 cM), to D5Mit326, 74.5 cM distal on our genetic map (Chromosome Committee offset, 80 cM), and consists of 138 markers, including 89 simple sequence length polymorphic markers, 11 sequence-tagged sites generated from BAC end sequence, and 38 gene loci, and represents average coverage of approximately one locus per 0.5 cM with some regions more densely mapped. In addition to the RH mapping of markers and genes previously localized on mouse Chromosome 5, this RH map places the alpha-4 GABA(A) receptor subunit gene (Gabra4) in the central portion of the chromosome, in the vicinity of the cluster of three other GABA(A) receptor subunit genes (Gabrg1-Gabra2-Gabrb1). Our mapping effort has also defined a new cluster of four genes in the semaphorin gene family (Sema3a, Sema3c, Sema3d, and Sema3e) and the Wolfram syndrome gene (Wfs1) in this region of the chromosome.

Patient satisfaction with emergency department triage nursing care: a multicenter study

This descriptive, correlational study examines relationships between (1) individual patient and nurse characteristics and (2) patient satisfaction with triage nursing care, patient satisfaction with the triage nurse, and patient's intention to return to a specific Emergency Department. The convenience sample consisted of Urgent/Delayed patients (N = 378) triaged in an urban academic medical center, a public hospital in a small city, and a Catholic hospital in a small city. Analysis of variance revealed significantly higher levels of patient satisfaction at the academic medical center, whereas higher levels of intent to return were reported by subjects from the Catholic-affiliated hospital. Educational preparation of the triage nurse was identified as a significant predictor of both patient satisfaction with triage nursing care and loyalty to a specific.

Characterization of a novel trypanosome lytic factor from human serum

Natural resistance of humans to the cattle pathogen Trypanosoma brucei brucei has been attributed to the presence in human serum of nonimmune factors that lyse the parasite. Normal human serum contains two trypanosome lytic factors (TLFs). TLF1 is a 500-kDa lipoprotein, which is reported to contain apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I), haptoglobin-related protein (Hpr), hemoglobin, paraoxonase, and apoA-II, whereas TLF2 is a larger, poorly characterized particle. We report here a new immunoaffinity-based purification procedure for TLF2 and TLF1, as well as further characterization of the components of each purified TLF. Immunoaffinity-purified TLF1 has a specific activity 10-fold higher than that of TLF1 purified by previously described methods. Moreover, we find that TLF1 is a lipoprotein particle that contains mainly apoA-I and Hpr, trace amounts of paraoxonase, apoA-II, and haptoglobin, but no detectable hemoglobin. Characterization of TLF2 reveals that it is a 1,000-kDa protein complex containing mainly immunoglobulin M, apoA-I, and Hpr but less than 1% detectable lipid.

Identification of complete precursors for the glycosylphosphatidylinositol protein anchors of Trypanosoma cruzi

The survival of Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas' disease, depends vitally on proteins and glycoconjugates that mediate the parasite/host interaction. Since most of these molecules are attached to the membrane by glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI), alternative means of chemotherapeutic intervention might emerge from GPI biosynthesis studies. The structure of the major 1G7 antigen GPI has been fully characterized by us (Güther, M. L. S., Cardoso de Almeida, M. L., Yoshida, N., and Ferguson, M. A. J.(1992) J. Biol. Chem. 267, 6820-6828; Heise, N., Cardoso de Almeida, M. L., and Ferguson, M. A. J.(1995) Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 70, 71-84), and based on its properties we now report the complete precursor glycolipids predicted to be transferred to the nascent protein. Migrating closely to Trypanosoma brucei glycolipid A on TLC, such species, named glycolipids A-like 1 and A-like 2, were labeled with tritiated palmitic acid, myo-inositol, glucosamine, and mannose, but surprisingly only the less polar glycolipid A-like 1 incorporated ethanolamine. The predicted products following nitrous acid deamination and digestion with phospholipases A2, C, and D confirmed their GPI nature. Evidence that they may represent the anchor transferred to the 1G7 antigen came from the following analyses: (i) alpha-mannosidase treatments indicated that only one mannose was amenable to removal; (ii) their lipid moiety was identified as sn-1-alkyl-2-acylglycerol due to their sensitivity to phospholipase A2 (PLA2), mild base and by direct high performance TLC analysis of the corresponding benzoylated diradylglycerol components; and (iii) both glycolipids incorporated 3H-fatty acid only in the sn-2- and not in the sn-1-alkyl position as previously found in the GPI of the mature 1G7 antigen. Based on the differential [3H]ethanolamine incorporation pattern and the recent report that an aminoethylphosphonic acid (AEP) replaces ethanolamine phosphate (EtNH2-PO4) in the GPI in epimastigote sialoglycoproteins (Previato, J. O., Jones, C., Xavier, M. T., Wait, R., Travassos, L. R., Parodi, A. J., and Mendonça-Previato, L.(1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 7241-7250) it is proposed that glycolipid A-like 2 contains AEP and A-like 1 EtNH2-PO4. In the in vitro cell-free system both glycolipids were synthesized simultaneously and do not seem to bear a precursor/product relationship. Among the various components synthesized in vitro a glycolipid C-like corresponding to a form of glycolipid A-like 1 acylated on the inositol was also characterized. Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, an inhibitor known to block the addition of ethanolamine phosphate in T. brucei but not in mammalian cells, also inhibits the synthesis of glycolipids A-like and C-like in T. cruzi, indicating that the putative trypanosome EtNH2-PO4/AEP transferase(s) might represent a potential target for chemotherapy.

The lysis of Trypanosoma brucei brucei by human serum

The natural immunity of humans to the cattle pathogen Trypanosoma brucei brucei, but not to the morphologically indistinguishable human pathogens T. brucei gambiense and T. brucei rhodesiense, is due to the selective killing of the parasite by normal human serum. The factor in human serum that mediates lysis of T. brucei brucei has long been attributed to a minor subclass of high density lipoprotein (HDL). Evidence indicates that the trypanolytic activity of isolated human HDL is due to peroxidase activity of an associated haptoglobin-related protein-hemoglobin complex. However, recent data suggest that the trypanolytic activity of HDL may be completely inhibited in whole human serum, and that trypanolytic activity of norman human serum is due to a second, less well-defined factor of high molecular weight. Current research aimed at understanding the mechanisms of cytotoxicity and the affected metabolic pathways may open new approaches for the development of specific drugs and vaccines against trypanosomiasis.

The main lytic factor of Trypanosoma brucei brucei in normal human serum is not high density lipoprotein

Natural immunity of humans to the cattle pathogen Trypanosoma brucei brucei has been attributed to the presence in normal human serum (NHS) of lytic factors for the parasites. We and others have shown that NHS contains two trypanolytic factors (herein termed TLF1 and TLF2) that can be separated by gel filtration. TLF1 copurifies with a subclass of high density lipoprotein (HDL), whereas TLF2 has a much higher molecular weight and does not appear to be a lipoprotein. We find that the trypanolytic activity of purified TLF1 is totally inhibited by exogenous haptoglobin (Hp) at concentrations (0.1 mg/ml) lower than those present in NHS (0.2-2 mg/ml). In contrast, exogenous Hp (up to 2.5 mg/ml) has no effect on the lytic activity of either NHS or isolated TLF2. Hp-depleted sera from patients with intravascular hemolysis is severalfold more trypanolytic than NHS. These sera contain only TLF1, and their lytic activity is totally abolished upon the addition of Hp (0.1 mg/ml). When NHS containing different Hp allotypes is fractionated by gel filtration, TLF1 activity is either revealed or remains masked, depending on whether it coelutes with Hp. Masked TLF1 activity in the column fractions is revealed if Hp is removed by density gradient ultracentrifugation. We conclude that endogenous Hp inhibits TLF1 activity, and that TLF2 is the main trypanolytic factor in NHS.

An M(r) 145,000 low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-binding protein is conserved throughout the Kinetoplastida order

In view of the importance of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-receptor in Trypanosoma brucei, we have examined whether other bloodstream trypanosomes of medical and veterinary importance (T.b. rhodesiense, T. equiperdum, T. vivax, T. congolense), but also related parasites developing in mammalian (Leishmania donovani) and non-mammalian hosts (Crithidia luciliae and Phytomonas sp. isolated from Euphorbia), would possess an LDL-receptor of their own. (1) All these parasites specifically accumulate human 125I-LDL with a relatively 2.5-fold higher rate for bloodstream trypanosomes. (2) A mixture of monoclonal antibodies raised against T.b. brucei LDL-receptor inhibit binding of LDL to all species but with different efficiency. (3) A single glycoprotein of similar M(r) (gp145) is isolated by LDL-affinity chromatography from all the above species, as well as from both human serum-resistant and sensitive strain of T.b. rhodesiense, and from the bodonid member of the Kinetoplastida Trypanoplasma borelli. (4) Several control experiments including 35S-metabolic labeling of procyclic T.b. brucei and of C. luciliae followed by LDL-affinity chromatography or immunoprecipitation demonstrate that gp145 is indeed synthesised by the parasites and is not a contaminant of the experimental system. (5) In immunoblots and ELISA, these gp145 cross-react with the polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies raised against the LDL-receptor of T.b. brucei, the highest degree of cross-reactivity being found among the members of the Trypanozoon subgroup. (6) Finally, immunisation of mice with the purified LDL-receptor from one strain of T.b. brucei is not sufficient to confer durable protection against another strain of this parasite.

Myristate exchange. A second glycosyl phosphatidylinositol myristoylation reaction in African trypanosomes

The variant surface glycoprotein of African trypanosomes has a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor that is unusual in that its fatty acids are exclusively myristate. We showed previously that the myristate is added to a free GPI in a fatty acid remodeling reaction involving deacylation and reacylation, forming glycolipid A, the anchor precursor. We now demonstrate that trypanosomes have a second pathway for GPI anchor myristoylation distinct from the fatty acid remodeling pathway, which we call "myristate exchange." This reaction involves exchange of myristate into both the sn-1 and sn-2 positions of glycolipid A, which already contain myristate. Myristoyl-CoA, the probable myristate donor in the exchange reaction, has an apparent Km of about 6 nM. We have now identified a lyso-GPI, named theta', which has myristate as its sole fatty acid; the kinetics of formation and utilization of theta' are consistent with it being an intermediate in exchange. Myristate exchange and fatty acid remodeling appear to occur in different subcellular compartments, and the two reactions have different sensitivities to inhibitors. The myristate exchange reaction may be a proofreading system to ensure that the fatty acids on variant surface glycoproteins are exclusively myristate.

Possible localisation of dolichol-dependent mannosyltransferase of Trypanosoma brucei to the rough endoplasmic reticulum

The glycosylphosphatidylinositol membrane anchor of variant surface glycoprotein of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei contains several mannosyl residues for which dolichol phosphoryl mannose is supposed to be the precursor; this itself is probably synthesised by a dolichol-dependent mannosyltransferase. We have characterised and localised a mannosyltransferase activity of T. brucei which transfers mannose from GDP-[14C]mannose to exogenously added dolichyl phosphate. The enzyme was saturable for both its substrates and had a Km of 7.8 microM and 3.3 microM, respectively, for dolichyl phosphate and GDP-mannose. Mannosyltransferase was labile at 37 degrees C in the presence of Triton X-100, but its activity remained constant for at least 60 min at temperatures between 10-15 degrees C. The enzyme was inhibited by amphomycin and this inhibition was potentiated by the presence of 10 mM CaCl2. After subcellular fractionation of cell homogenates by differential centrifugation, mannosyltransferase was recovered mainly in the microsomal fraction and its distribution was very similar to that of RNA, a marker for the rough endoplasmic reticulum. After isopycnic centrifugation in a linear sucrose gradient the distribution of mannosyltransferase also resembled that of RNA. Both constituents exhibited a shift towards lower densities after pre-treatment of microsomal membranes with inorganic pyrophosphate, while other membrane markers such as acid phosphatase and nucleoside diphosphatase did not. It is concluded that the formation of dolichol phosphoryl mannose from GDP-mannose and dolichyl phosphate in T. brucei occurs mainly in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Characterization of a phospholipase C-resistant inositol containing glycolipid from Trypanosoma cruzi

Since glycosylphosphatidylinositol is the most common form of attachment of proteins to membranes in T. cruzi, and that this parasite depends on surface-mediated interactions for survival within the vector and mammalian host, it is probable that a drug which interfers with the metabolism of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) could be successfully employed in chemotherapy. Over the last few years several groups have been characterizing this mode of attachment in T. cruzi and more recently we have been concentrating our efforts on the identification of candidate precursors for protein anchors in metacyclic trypomastigotes. Previously detected GPI heterogeneity regarding solubilization of a major stage-specific antigen (1G7-Ag) by phospholipase C led us to investigate whether biosynthetic precursors with similar properties could also be identified. Two glycolipid species whose migration properties resemble glycolipids A and C of T. brucei were amenable to biosynthetic radiolabelling with palmitic acid, inositol, ethanolamine, glucosamine and mannose. Following purification, these species were submitted to classical GPI diagnostic treatments. In both cases digestion with GPI-specific phospholipase D (GPIPLD) produced phospatidic acid and treatment with either mild base or phospholipase A2 (PLA2) produced free fatty acid, indicating an acylation at least at position 2 of the glycerol. The glycolipid A-like species proved to be susceptible to solubilization by PIPLC of B. thuringiensis and by GPIPLC of T. brucei and the glycolipid C-like material proved to be fully resistant to both lipases.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Hepatitis B prevalence in local authority employees

Prevalence of hepatitis B infection was determined in 420 employees from three local authorities by testing for hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBc). Five (1.2 per cent) were positive: this included a hepatitis BsAg carrier, three with antibody to hepatitis BsAg (anti-HBs) and one who had only anti-HBc. The prevalence of hepatitis B was not significantly different (P > 0.05) from a control group of blood donors. However, four out of five anti-HBc positive individuals worked with mentally or physically handicapped individuals or those discharged into the community after long-term institutionalized care.

NVQs: where are they leading

Proposed changes in training and development means that it is time to stand up and be counted, writes SOHN chair, JEAN RAPER. She examines the work, to date, on National Vocational Qualifications and asks what affect they might have on the future of occupational health nursing.

An analog of myristic acid with selective toxicity for African trypanosomes

Trypanosoma brucei, the protozoan parasite responsible for African sleeping sickness, evades the host immune response through the process of antigenic variation. The variant antigen, known as the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), is anchored to the cell surface by a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) structure that contains myristate (n-tetradecanoate) as its only fatty acid component. The utilization of heteroatom-containing analogs of myristate was studied both in a cell-free system and in vivo. Results indicated that the specificity of fatty acid incorporation depends on chain length rather than on hydrophobicity. One analog, 10-(propoxy)decanoic acid, was highly toxic to trypanosomes in culture although it is nontoxic to mammalian cells.

Evolution of sexual preferences in quantitative characters

An analysis of equilibria and dynamics of the means, variances, and covariances of female mating preference for a quantitative male secondary sexual character following a Gaussian model is presented. For many combinations of viability and sexual selection parameters the evolving Gaussian distribution of phenotypes can diverge. The results on the cases of convergence and their limiting forms suggest some reinterpretations of Fisher's "runaway" process of sexual selection. One possibility is to interpret Fisher's postulated "initial advantage not due to female preference" as a shift in viability selection where runaway evolution occurs if the mean preferred trait evolves beyond its new viability optimum (due to sexual selection). This definition is contrasted with situations in which the new viability optimum is undershot. The quantitative and qualitative conclusions differ from models that approximate genetic covariance evolution involving a constant covariance.

Fatty acid remodeling: a novel reaction sequence in the biosynthesis of trypanosome glycosyl phosphatidylinositol membrane anchors

The trypanosome variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) is anchored to the plasma membrane via a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI). The GPI is synthesized as a precursor, glycolipid A, that is subsequently linked to the VSG polypeptide. The VSG anchor is unusual, compared with anchors in other cell types, in that its fatty acid moieties are exclusively myristic acid. To investigate the mechanism for myristate specificity we used a cell-free system for GPI biosynthesis. One product of this system, glycolipid A', is indistinguishable from glycolipid A except that its fatty acids are more hydrophobic than myristate. Glycolipid A' is converted to glycolipid A through highly specific fatty acid remodeling reactions involving deacylation and subsequent reacylation with myristate. Therefore, myristoylation occurs in the final phase of trypanosome GPI biosynthesis.

Purification and characterisation of membrane-form variant surface glycoproteins of Trypanosoma brucei

Membrane-form variant surface glycoprotein of Trypanosoma brucei can be prepared in the presence of para-chloromercuriphenylsulphonic acid. The membrane-bound enzyme that usually cleaves a lipid from this glycoprotein, thus producing the soluble variant surface glycoprotein, is inhibited by a range of sulphydryl reagents. The effect of such inhibitors, both on cell lysates and on semi-purified enzyme, reveals that the enzyme may have a sulphydryl at or near its active site. Fatty acid analysis and isoelectric point measurements of membrane form and soluble form are presented.

Solution properties of the variant surface glycoprotein of Trypanosoma brucei

The solution properties of the membrane form and soluble form of variant surface glycoproteins from Trypanosoma brucei have been compared. Solution cross-linking studies established that both forms are dimers, although dissociation of membrane-form variant surface glycoprotein can be promoted by certain ionic and zwitterionic detergents. Sedimentation coefficients were measured under a range of conditions, and the results were comparable with the results of solution cross-linking. Stokes radii were measured by gel filtration, allowing a value for the frictional coefficient to be calculated. The two forms show no differences other than those consistent with binding of detergent micelles to the hydrophobic moiety present on membrane form surface glycoprotein. This validates the use of soluble variant surface glycoprotein in X-ray crystallography experiments.

Preferential mating in symmetric multilocus systems: limits for multiallelism and for many Loci

Models in which general forms of preferential mating have been superimposed on the framework of the symmetric heterozygosity selection regime have been examined previously with respect to the existence and local stability of a central polymorphic equilibrium. The results are now extended to produce the limiting form of the stability conditions in two cases: First, where the number of alleles per locus is assumed to be very large; second, where the number of loci affecting the character is very large. It is argued that some type of frequency dependence in the mating pattern must be included, and a particular case is examined in detail. It is shown that multiallelism is ambiguous in its effect on stability, while an increasing number of loci, at least under zero linkage, leads to a simple stability condition which is analogous to the one-locus heterosis principle. Assortative mating appears to be more likely to produce a stable central polymorphism under high levels of allelism than is sexual selection, but is relatively very much weaker than sexual or viability selection if the number of loci involved is large.

PREFERENTIAL MATING IN SYMMETRIC MULTILOCUS SYSTEMS: STABILITY CONDITIONS OF THE CENTRAL EQUILIBRIUM

Several multilocus models that incorporate both preferential mating and viability selection are studied. Specifically, a class of symmetric heterozygosity models are considered that assign individuals to phenotypic classes according to which loci are in heterozygous state regardless of the actual allelic content. Otherwise, an arbitrary number of loci, number of alleles per locus, and arbitrary recombination scheme, viability parameters and preferential mating pattern based on phenotypes are allowed. The conditions for the stability of a central polymorphism are indicated and interpreted. The effects of viability and preference selection may be summarized in a single quantity for each phenotypic class, a generalized fitness. Preferential assortative mating alone can produce stability for a central polymorphism as in the case of viability selection when sexual attractiveness or general fitness increases with higher levels of heterozygosity. The situation is more complex with sexual selection.

Preferential mating in symmetric multilocus systems

A class of multilocus models that incorporate both preferential mating and viability selection is studied. Symmetry in alleles is supposed, resulting in the phenotypes being dependent only on the location of heterozygous loci. Otherwise, an arbitrary number of loci, number of alleles per locus, and arbitrary recombination schemes, viability parameters, and preferential mating pattern are allowed. The conditions for stability of a central polymorphism, c(*), are indicated and interpreted. Mating and viability parameters enter as one combined quantity for each phenotypic class, which represents a generalized fitness. The effect on stability of c(*) of increasing the number of alleles per locus and the number of loci requires the formulation to be set in terms of frequency-dependent preference parameters.