Absence of SHIP-1 results in constitutive phosphorylation of tank-binding kinase 1 and enhanced TLR3-dependent IFN-beta production

Autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis, result from a loss of tolerance to self-antigens and immune-mediated injury precipitated by the overproduction of type I IFN and inflammatory cytokines. We have identified the inositol 5' phosphatase SHIP-1 as a negative regulator of TLR3-induced type I IFN production. SHIP-1-deficient macrophages display enhanced TLR-induced IFN-beta production, and overexpression of SHIP-1 negatively regulates the ability of TLR3 and its adaptor, Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-beta, to induce IFN-beta promoter activity, indicating that SHIP-1 negatively regulates TLR-induced IFN-beta production. Further dissection of the IFN-beta pathway implicates TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) as the target for SHIP-1. Critically, in the absence of SHIP-1, TBK1 appears to be hyperphosphorylated both in unstimulated cells and following TLR3 stimulation. In addition, TBK1 appears to be constitutively associated with Toll/IL-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing IFN-beta and TNFR-associated factor 3 in SHIP-1 deficient cells, whereas in wild-type cells this association is inducible following TLR3 stimulation. In support of a role for SHIP-1 in regulating complex formation, confocal microscopy demonstrates that TBK1 distribution in the cell is significantly altered in SHIP-1-deficient cells, with more prominent endosomal staining observed, compared with wild-type controls. Taken together, our results point to SHIP-1 as a critical negative regulator of IFN-beta production downstream of TLR3 through the regulation of TBK1 localization and activity.

SHIP negatively regulates IgE + antigen-induced IL-6 production in mast cells by inhibiting NF-kappa B activity

We demonstrate in this study that IgE + Ag-induced proinflammatory cytokine production is substantially higher in Src homology-2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase (SHIP)(-/-) than in SHIP(+/+) bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs). Focusing on IL-6, we found that the repression of IL-6 mRNA and protein production in SHIP(+/+) BMMCs requires the enzymatic activity of SHIP, because SHIP(-/-) BMMCs expressing wild-type, but not phosphatase-deficient (D675G), SHIP revert the IgE + Ag-induced increase in IL-6 mRNA and protein down to levels seen in SHIP(+/+) BMMCs. Comparing the activation of various signaling pathways to determine which ones might be responsible for the elevated IL-6 production in SHIP(-/-) BMMCs, we found the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PKB), extracellular signal-related kinase (Erk), p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and protein kinase C (PKC) pathways are all elevated in IgE + Ag-induced SHIP(-/-) cells. Moreover, inhibitor studies suggested that all these pathways play an essential role in IL-6 production. Looking downstream, we found that IgE + Ag-induced IL-6 production is dependent on the activity of NF-kappa B and that I kappa B phosphorylation/degradation and NF-kappa B translocation, DNA binding and transactivation are much higher in SHIP(-/-) BMMCs. Interestingly, using various pathway inhibitors, it appears that the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/PKB and PKC pathways elevate IL-6 mRNA synthesis, at least in part, by enhancing the phosphorylation of I kappa B and NF-kappa B DNA binding while the Erk and p38 pathways enhance IL-6 mRNA synthesis by increasing the transactivation potential of NF-kappa B. Taken together, our data are consistent with a model in which SHIP negatively regulates NF-kappa B activity and IL-6 synthesis by reducing IgE + Ag-induced phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate levels and thus PKB, PKC, Erk, and p38 activation.

Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)P3 is essential but not sufficient for protein kinase B (PKB) activation; phosphatidylinositol (3,4)P2 is required for PKB phosphorylation at Ser-473: studies using cells from SH2-containing inositol-5-phosphatase knockout mice

Using bone marrow derived mast cells from SH2-containing inositol-5-phosphatase (SHIP) +/+ and minus sign/minus sign mice, we found that the loss of SHIP leads to a dramatic increase in Steel Factor (SF)-stimulated phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI(3,4,5)P(3)), a substantial reduction in PI(3,4)P(2), and no change in PI(4,5)P(2) levels. We also found that SF-induced activation of protein kinase B (PKB) is increased and prolonged in SHIP -/- cells, due in large part to more PKB associating with the plasma membrane in these cells. Pretreatment of SHIP -/- cells with 25 microm LY294002 resulted in complete inhibition of SF-induced PI(3,4)P(2), while still yielding PI(3,4,5)P(3) levels similar to those achieved in SHIP+/+ cells. This offered a unique opportunity to study the regulation of PKB by PI(3,4,5)P(3), in the absence of PI(3,4)P(2). Under these conditions, PKB activity was markedly reduced compared with that in SF-stimulated SHIP+/+ cells, even though more PKB localized to the plasma membrane. Although phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 mediated phosphorylation of PKB at Thr-308 was unaffected by LY294002, phosphorylation at Ser-473 was dramatically reduced. Moreover, intracellular delivery of PI(3,4)P(2) to LY294002-pretreated, SF-stimulated SHIP -/- cells increased phosphorylation of PKB at Ser-473 and increased PKB activity. These results are consistent with a model in which SHIP serves as a regulator of both activity and subcellular localization of PKB.

Monomeric IgE stimulates signaling pathways in mast cells that lead to cytokine production and cell survival

Although IgE binding to mast cells is thought to be a passive presensitization step, we demonstrate herein that monomeric IgE (mIgE) in the absence of antigen (Ag) stimulates multiple phosphorylation events in normal murine bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs). While mIgE does not induce degranulation or leukotriene synthesis, it leads to a more potent production of cytokines than IgE + Ag. Moreover, mIgE prevents the apoptosis of cytokine-deprived BMMCs, likely by maintaining Bcl-X(L) levels and producing autocrine-acting cytokines. The addition of Ag does not increase this IgE-induced survival. Since IgE concentrations as low as 0.1 microg/ml enhance BMMC survival, elevated plasma IgE levels in humans with atopic disorders may contribute to the elevated mast cell numbers seen in these individuals.

SHIP's C-terminus is essential for its hydrolysis of PIP3 and inhibition of mast cell degranulation

The SH2-containing inositol-5'-phosphatase, SHIP, restrains bone marrow-derived mast cell (BMMC) degranulation, at least in part, by hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol (PI)-3-kinase generated PI-3,4,5-P(3) (PIP3) to PI-3,4-P(2). To determine which domains within SHIP influence its ability to hydrolyze PIP3, bone marrow from SHIP(-/-) mice was retrovirally infected with various SHIP constructs. Introduction of wild-type SHIP into SHIP(-/-) BMMCs reverted the Steel factor (SF)-induced increases in PIP3, calcium entry, and degranulation to those observed in SHIP(+/+) BMMCs. A 5'-phosphatase dead SHIP, however, could not revert the SHIP(-/-) response, whereas a SHIP mutant in which the 2 NPXY motifs were converted to NPXFs (2NPXF) could partially revert the SHIP(-/-) response. SF stimulation of BMMCs expressing the 2NPXF, which could not bind Shc, led to the same level of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation as that seen in BMMCs expressing the other constructs. Surprisingly, C-terminally truncated forms of SHIP, lacking different amounts of the proline rich C-terminus, could not revert the SHIP(-/-) response at all. These results suggest that the C-terminus plays a critical role in enabling SHIP to hydrolyze PIP(3) and inhibit BMMC degranulation.

A dual role for Src homology 2 domain-containing inositol-5-phosphatase (SHIP) in immunity: aberrant development and enhanced function of b lymphocytes in ship -/- mice

In this report, we demonstrate that the Src homology 2 domain-containing inositol-5-phosphatase (SHIP) plays a critical role in regulating both B cell development and responsiveness to antigen stimulation. SHIP(-/-) mice exhibit a transplantable alteration in B lymphoid development that results in reduced numbers of precursor B (fraction C) and immature B cells in the bone marrow. In vitro, purified SHIP(-/)- B cells exhibit enhanced proliferation in response to B cell receptor stimulation in both the presence and absence of Fcgamma receptor IIB coligation. This enhancement is associated with increased phosphorylation of both mitogen-activated protein kinase and Akt, as well as with increased survival and cell cycling. SHIP(-/)- mice manifest elevated serum immunoglobulin (Ig) levels and an exaggerated IgG response to the T cell-independent type 2 antigen trinitrophenyl Ficoll. However, only altered B cell development was apparent upon transplantation into nonobese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) mice. The in vitro hyperresponsiveness, together with the in vivo findings, suggests that SHIP regulates B lymphoid development and antigen responsiveness by both intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms.

SHIPs ahoy

In 1996 three groups independently cloned a hemopoietic specific, src homology 2-containing inositol 5'-phosphatase which, based on its structure, was called SHIP. More recently, a second more widely expressed SHIP-like protein has been cloned and called SHIP2. Both specifically hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate in vitro. Moreover, SHIP has been shown in vivo to be the primary enzyme responsible for breaking down phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate to phosphatidylinositol-3,4-bisphosphate in normal mast cells and, as a result, limits normal and prevents inappropriate mast cell degranulation. Because of their ability to break down phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate, the SHIPs have the potential to regulate many, if not all, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase induced events including, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, end cell activation, cell movement and adhesion and will thus likely be the subject of intensive research over the next few years.

The role of SHIP in growth factor induced signalling

The recently cloned, hemopoietic-specific, src homology 2 (SH2)-containing inositol phosphatase, SHIP, is rapidly gaining prominence as a potential regulator of all phosphatidylinositol (PI)-3 kinase mediated events since it has been shown both in vitro and in vivo to hydrolyze the 5' phosphate from phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI-3,4,5-P3). Thus SHIP, and its more widely expressed counterpart, SHIP2, could play a central role in determining PI-3,4,5-P3 and PI-3,4-P2 levels in many cell types. To explore the in vivo function of SHIP further we recently generated a SHIP knock out mouse and in this review we discuss experiments carried out with bone marrow derived mast cells (BMMCs) from these animals.

The SH2-containing inositol-5'-phosphatase enhances LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion and defines two signaling pathways for LFA-1 activation

The inside-out signaling involved in the activation of LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion is still poorly understood. Here we examined the role of the SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP), a major negative regulator of intracellular signaling, in this process. Wild-type SHIP and a phosphatase-deficient mutant SHIP were overexpressed in the murine myeloid cell line, DA-ER, and the effects on LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion to ICAM-1 (CD54) were tested. Overexpression of wild-type SHIP significantly enhanced cell adhesion to immobilized ICAM-1, and PMA, IL-3, or erythropoietin further augmented this adhesion. In contrast, phosphatase dead SHIP had no enhancing effects. Furthermore, PMA-induced activation of LFA-1 on DA-ER cells overexpressing wild-type SHIP was dependent on protein kinase C but independent of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, whereas cytokine-induced activation was independent of protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation but required phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase activation. These results suggest that SHIP may regulate two distinct inside-out signaling pathways and that the phosphatase activity of SHIP is essential for both of them.

The SH2-Containing Inositol-5′-Phosphatase Enhances LFA-1-Mediated Cell Adhesion and Defines Two Signaling Pathways for LFA-1 Activation

The inside-out signaling involved in the activation of LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion is still poorly understood. Here we examined the role of the SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP), a major negative regulator of intracellular signaling, in this process. Wild-type SHIP and a phosphatase-deficient mutant SHIP were overexpressed in the murine myeloid cell line, DA-ER, and the effects on LFA-1-mediated cell adhesion to ICAM-1 (CD54) were tested. Overexpression of wild-type SHIP significantly enhanced cell adhesion to immobilized ICAM-1, and PMA, IL-3, or erythropoietin further augmented this adhesion. In contrast, phosphatase dead SHIP had no enhancing effects. Furthermore, PMA-induced activation of LFA-1 on DA-ER cells overexpressing wild-type SHIP was dependent on protein kinase C but independent of mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, whereas cytokine-induced activation was independent of protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation but required phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase activation. These results suggest that SHIP may regulate two distinct inside-out signaling pathways and that the phosphatase activity of SHIP is essential for both of them.

The src homology 2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP) is the gatekeeper of mast cell degranulation

To clarify the role that the src homology 2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP) plays in mast cell degranulation, the gene for SHIP was disrupted by homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells. Bone-marrow-derived mast cells from SHIP+/+, +/-, and -/- F2 littermates were compared. SHIP-/- mast cells were found to be far more prone to degranulation, after the crosslinking of IgE preloaded cells, than SHIP+/- or +/+ cells. Intriguingly, IgE alone also stimulated massive degranulation in SHIP-/- but not in +/+ mast cells. This degranulation with IgE alone, which may be due to low levels of IgE aggregates, correlated with a higher and more sustained intracellular calcium level than that observed with SHIP+/+ cells and was dependent upon the entry of extracellular calcium. Immunoprecipitation studies revealed that the addition of IgE alone to normal mast cells stimulates multiple cascades, which are prevented from progressing to degranulation by SHIP. PI 3-kinase inhibitor studies suggested that IgE-induced activation of PI 3-kinase is upstream of the entry of extracellular calcium and that SHIP restricts this entry by hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol 3,4, 5-trisphosphate. These results show the critical role that SHIP plays in setting the threshold for degranulation and that SHIP directly modulates a "positive-acting" receptor.

Multiple forms of the SH2-containing inositol phosphatase, SHIP, are generated by C-terminal truncation

The SH2-containing inositol phosphatase, SHIP, often appears as multiple bands in anti-SHIP immunoblots. To characterize these bands, antisera were generated against the N-terminal (anti-N), mid-region (anti-M), and C-terminal (anti-C) portions of SHIP. Immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting studies showed that 145-, 135-, 125-, and 110-kD bands were detected in lysates from the murine hematopoietic cell line, DA-ER, with either anti-N or anti-M antisera, whereas only the 145- and 135-kD bands were recognized by the anti-C antiserum. This finding suggested that the smaller proteins might be C-terminal truncations of the full-length SHIP. To confirm this and determine if these proteins arose through alternate splicing or posttranslational cleavage, a 5'-hemagglutin (HA)-tagged full-length SHIP cDNA was expressed in these cells. We observed, via Western analysis with anti-HA antibodies, the same 4 bands with either anti-N or anti-M and only the 145- and 135-kD bands with anti-C immunoprecipitation. After interleukin-3 stimulation of HA-SHIP-expressing DA-ER cells, only the 145-kD form coprecipitated with Shc, raising the possibility that different forms of SHIP may have distinct intracellular sites. This was confirmed by subcellular fractionation, which showed that only the 110-kD form is present in the cytoskeleton of DA-ER cells. This 110-kD form possesses the same PIP3 5-ptase activity as the 145-kD form and can be generated from the latter in vitro by digestion with calpain. It is therefore possible that the different forms of SHIP are generated in vivo by calpain-mediated C-terminal truncations and perform distinct functions within hematopoietic cells.

The hyperresponsiveness of cells expressing truncated erythropoietin receptors is contingent on insulin-like growth factor-1 in fetal calf serum

We demonstrate herein that the well documented hyperresponsiveness to erythropoietin (Epo) of Ba/F3 cells expressing C-terminal truncated erythropoietin receptors (EpoRs) is contingent on these cells being in fetal calf serum (FCS). In the absence of FCS, their Epo-induced proliferation is far poorer than Ba/F3 cells expressing wild-type (WT) EpoRs. This hyporesponsiveness in the absence of serum is also seen in DA-3 cells expressing these truncated EpoRs. In fact, long-term proliferation studies performed in the absence of serum show that even at saturating concentrations of Epo, Ba/F3 cells expressing these truncated receptors die via apoptosis, while cells bearing WT EpoRs do not, and this programmed cell death correlates with an inability of Epo-stimulated Ba/F3 cells expressing truncated EpoRs to induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of MAPK and the activation of p70(S6K). Using neutralizing antibodies to insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, we show that a major non-Epo factor in FCS that contributes to the hyperresponsive phenotype of Ba/F3 cells expressing truncated EpoRs is IGF-1. Our results suggest that the Epo-hypersensitivity of truncated EpoR expressing Ba/F3 cells is due to the combined effects of these EpoRs not possessing a binding site for the negative regulator, SHP-1, and the triggering of proliferation-inducing/apoptosis-inhibiting cascades, lost through EpoR truncation, by IGF-1.

Targeted disruption of SHIP leads to hemopoietic perturbations, lung pathology, and a shortened life span

SHIP is a 145-kD SH2-containing inositol-5-phosphatase widely expressed in hemopoietic cells. It was first identified as a tyrosine phosphoprotein associated with Shc in response to numerous cytokines. SHIP has been implicated in FcgammaRIIB receptor-mediated negative signaling in B cells and mast cells and is postulated to down-regulate cytokine signal transduction in myeloid cells. To define further its role in the proliferation and differentiation of hemopoietic progenitors, as well as its function in mature cells, we have generated embryonic stem cells and mice bearing a targeted disruption of both SHIP alleles. Here we show that although SHIP null mice are viable and fertile, they fail to thrive and survival is only 40% by 14 weeks of age. Mortality is associated with extensive consolidation of the lungs resulting from infiltration by myeloid cells. Increased numbers of granulocyte-macrophage progenitors are observed in both the bone marrow and spleen of SHIP-/- mice, perhaps as a consequence of hyper-responsiveness to stimulation by macrophage-colony stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor, interleukin-3, or Steel factor as observed in vitro. In contrast, numbers of bone marrow lymphoid and late erythroid progenitors (CFU-E) are reduced. Thus, homozygous disruption of SHIP establishes the crucial role of this molecule in modulating cytokine signaling within the hemopoietic system and provides a powerful model for further delineating its function.

Differential association of phosphatases with hematopoietic co-receptors bearing immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs

A novel family of inhibitory co-receptors has been recently defined according to the presence in their intracytoplasmic domain of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motifs (ITIM). In particular, this family includes a low-affinity receptor for IgG, Fc gammaRIIB, which is widely expressed on hematopoietic cells, as well as killer cell inhibitory receptors (KIR) for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I proteins, expressed on both T and natural killer (NK) lymphocytes. Fc gammaRIIB and KIR inhibitory function depends upon the tyrosine phosphorylation of their respective ITIM. Phosphorylated Fc gammaRIIB and KIR ITIM bind the tandem SH2 tyrosine phosphatases, SHP-1 and SHP-2. Recently, Fc gammaRIIB has been shown to associate with a polyphosphate inositol 5-phosphatase, SHIP, which appears to be involved in its inhibitory function. Using cell lysate adsorption to phosphorylated ITIM peptides and surface plasmon resonance, we demonstrate here that, in contrast to Fc gammaRIIB, KIR (CD158b: p58.2) do not bind to SHIP, and only recruit SHP-1 and SHP-2. In addition, we show that point mutation of the amino acid residue in position tyrosine-2 of Fc gammaRIIB and KIR ITIM abolihes their binding to SHP-1 and SHP-2, but leaves intact the association of SHIP with Fc gammaRIIB ITIM. These data contribute to the structural definition of ITIM and document a differential recruitment of phosphatases by distinct ITIM. These findings also reveal that diverse strategies of inhibition are used by distinct members of the ITIM-bearing co-receptor family.

A possible involvement of Stat5 in erythropoietin-induced hemoglobin synthesis

Erythropoietin (EPO) and its cell surface receptor (EPOR) play central roles in the proliferation and differentiation of mammalian erythroid progenitor cells. Recently both the tyrosine residues in the EPOR responsible for the activation of Stat5 and the role of Stat5 for EPO-dependent cell proliferation have been shown. Here, we describe the roles of Stat5 and of these tyrosine residues in the EPOR in the erythroid differentiation of murine hematopoietic cell line SKT6 which produces hemoglobin in response to EPO. Chimeric receptors carrying the extracellular domain of the EGF receptor and the intracellular domain of the EPOR were introduced into SKT6 cells. Like EPO, EGF equally activated Stat5 and induced hemoglobin. Activation of Stat5 and hemoglobin expression by EGF were markedly impaired in cells expressing the tyrosine mutated chimeric receptors. In addition, ectopic expression of the prolactin receptor, another cytokine receptor that activates Stat5, led to hemoglobin synthesis. Finally, hemoglobin synthesis was severely inhibited by overexpressing a dominant negative form of Stat5. These results collectively suggest that Stat5 plays a role in EPO-mediated hemoglobin synthesis in SKT6 cells.

Interleukin-3 induces the association of the inositol 5-phosphatase SHIP with SHP2

We recently purified and cloned a 145-kDa protein that becomes tyrosine phosphorylated and associated with Shc in response to multiple cytokines. Based on its predicated amino acid sequence and its enzymatic activity, we have called this protein SHIP, for Src homology 2-containing inositol phosphatase. To gain further insight into the intracellular pathways that this putative signal transduction intermediate might regulate we have investigated whether SHIP binds to intracellular proteins other than Shc. The results presented herein demonstrate that following interleukin-3 stimulation, SHIP binds to the tyrosine phosphatase, SHP2 (also called Syp, PTP1D, SHPTP2, and PTP2C) and that Shc is not present in these SHIP-SHP2 complexes. Time course studies reveal that SHIP's association with SHP2 is transient and is maximal at 10 min of stimulation with interleukin-3. We further show that the association of SHIP with SHP2 occurs through the direct interaction of the SH2 domain of SHIP with a pYXN(I/V) sequence within SHP2.

Shc interaction with Src homology 2 domain containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP) in vivo requires the Shc-phosphotyrosine binding domain and two specific phosphotyrosines on SHIP

The adapter protein Shc has been implicated in mitogenic signaling via growth factor receptors, cytokine receptors, and antigen receptors on lymphocytes. Besides the well characterized interaction of Shc with molecules involved in Ras activation, Shc also associates with a 145-kDa tyrosine-phosphorylated protein upon triggering via antigen receptors and many cytokine receptors. This 145-kDa protein has been recently identified as an SH2 domain containing 5'-inositol phosphatase (SHIP) and has been implicated in the regulation of growth and differentiation in hematopoietic cells. In this report, we have addressed the molecular details of the interaction between Shc and SHIP in vivo. During T cell receptor signaling, tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP and its association with Shc occurred only upon activation. We demonstrate that the phosphotyrosine binding domain of Shc is necessary and sufficient for its association with tyrosine-phosphorylated SHIP. Through site-directed mutagenesis, we have identified two tyrosines on SHIP, Tyr-917, and Tyr-1020, as the principal contact sites for the Shc-phosphotyrosine binding domain. Our data also suggest a role for the tyrosine kinase Lck in phosphorylation of SHIP. We also show that the SH2 domain of SHIP is dispensable for the Shc-SHIP interaction in vivo. These data have implications for the localization of the Shc.SHIP complex and regulation of SHIP function during T cell receptor signaling.

The Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP) is essential for tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP, its association with Shc, and its induction of apoptosis

In this study we have investigated the role that the Src homology 2 domain (SH2) of the 145-kDa 5-phosphatase, SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (SHIP), plays in three of the properties that have been associated with this protein following cytokine stimulation: its association with Shc, its tyrosine phosphorylation, and its inhibition of hemopoietic cell growth. In vitro studies using this SH2 domain revealed that it was capable of binding directly to the Tyr(P)317 motif of Shc with a KD of approximately 290 nM, in keeping with other specific SH2/Tyr(P) interactions. In vivo analysis revealed the SH2 and NPXpY motifs of SHIP acted together, with the Tyr(P)317 and phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domains of Shc, respectively, to ensure a high affinity SHIP.Shc complex. Expression of cDNAs encoding hemagglutinin-tagged wild type and SH2-inactivated forms of SHIP in the murine hemopoietic cell line DA-ER revealed that wild type SHIP becomes both tyrosine-phosphorylated and associated with Shc following interleukin-3 stimulation, as expected, but the SH2-inactivated SHIPs do neither. Moreover, while the growth rates of parental DA-ER cells and cells expressing these various SHIP constructs are identical, the wild type SHIP-expressing cells die, via programmed cell death, far more rapidly than parental cells. Cells expressing SH2-inactivated SHIPs, on the other hand, show either a reduced or no effect on apoptosis. These results suggest that the SH2 domain of SHIP is required not only for the tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP and Shc association following cytokine stimulation but also for its induction of apoptosis.

The role of erythropoietin receptor tyrosine phosphorylation in erythropoietin-induced proliferation

Although studies with truncated erythropoietin receptors (EpoRs) have suggested the tyrosine phosphorylation (Yphos) of the EpoR may not play a significant role in Epo-induced proliferation, we found, using a full length EpoR mutant designed Null, in which all 8 of the intracellular tyrosines (Ys) were substituted with phenylalanines (Fs), that Null cells required 5-10 fold more Epo than wild type (WT) EpoR containing cells in order to proliferate as well. Moreover, a comparison of Epo-induced proliferation with Epo-induced Yphos patterns, using DA-3 cells expressing WT, Null and various Y to F EpoR point mutants revealed that Stat5 Yphos and activation correlated directly with proliferation and was mediated primarily throuhg the most membrane proximal Y, i.e., Y343, although other tyrosines (most likely Y401 and Y431) within the EpoR could activate Stat5 in its absence. We also found that EpoR Yphos was essential for the Yphos of Shc and for the Yphos and association of a 145 kDa protein with Shc. We purified and cloned this Shc-associated 145 kDa protein and found that it was a unique SH2 containing inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase. This novel enzyme, which we have called SHIP for SH2-containing inositol-phosphatase, may modulate both Ras and inositol signaling pathways.

SHIP, a new player in cytokine-induced signalling

We recently purified and cloned the cDNAs for the murine and human forms of a novel 145 kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (5-ptase) that becomes tyrosine phosphorylated and associated with Shc following stimulation of hemopoietic cells with multiple cytokines. Unlike most 5-ptases which hydrolyze phosphatidylinositol-4,5-P2-bisphosphate (PI-4,5-P2) and/or inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (I-1,4,5-P3), this enzyme selectively hydrolyzes the 5'-phosphate from inositol-1,3,4,5-tetraphosphate (I-1,3,4,5-P4) and phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI-3,4,5-P3), two inositol polyphosphates recently implicated in growth factor-mediated signalling. This 5-ptase is also unique among 5-ptases in that it is the only one to date to possess an SH2 domain. In this review we discuss the cloning, the Shc binding and the potential role of this protein, which we call SHIP, for SH2-containing inositol 5-phosphatase, in cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis.

Interleukin-3 (IL-3) inhibits erythropoietin-induced differentiation in Ba/F3 cells via the IL-3 receptor alpha subunit

Introduction of erythropoietin receptors (EpoRs) into the interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent murine hemopoietic cell line, Ba/F3, enables these cells to not only proliferate, after an initial lag in G1, but also to increase beta-globin mRNA levels in response to erythropoietin (Epo). With IL-3 and Epo costimulation, IL-3-induced signaling appears to be dominant since no increase in beta-globin mRNA occurs. Differentiation and proliferation signals may be uncoupled since EpoRs lacking all eight intracellular tyrosines were compromised in proliferative signaling but retained erythroid differentiation ability. Intriguingly, a chimeric receptor of the extracellular domain of the EpoR and the transmembrane and intracellular domains of IL-3RbetaIL-3 chain (EpoR/IL-3RbetaIL-3) was capable of Epo-induced proliferative and differentiating signaling, suggesting either the existence of a second EpoR subunit responsible for differentiation or that the alpha subunit of the IL-3 receptor (IL-3R) prevents it. Arguing against the former, a truncated EpoR lacking an intracellular domain was incapable of promoting proliferation or differentiation. An EpoR/IL-3Ralpha chimera, in contrast, was capable of transmitting a weak Epo-induced proliferative signal but failed to stimulate accumulation of beta-globin mRNA. Most significantly, coexpression of the EpoR/IL-3Ralpha chimera with either EpoR/IL-3Rbeta or wild-type EpoRs suppressed Epo-induced beta-globin mRNA accumulation. Taken together, these results suggest an active role for the IL-3Ralpha subunit in inhibiting EpoR-specific differentiating signals.

Early events in erythropoietin-induced signaling

The cloning of the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR) in 1989 has allowed very rapid progress in our understanding of the early intracellular events that may be triggered by erythropoietin (Epo) in erythroid progenitor cells. From studies carried out primarily with cell lines expressing exogenous wild-type and mutant EpoRs, it appears that the activated EpoR is capable of triggering many of the same cascades that are utilized by receptors possessing endogenous tyrosine kinase domains. The major challenge over the next decade lies in seeing if these same signaling pathways are also utilized by normal Epo-responsive erythroid progenitors, discriminating between proliferation and differentiation inducing events in these cells, and determining whether various hematologic disorders can be attributed to aberrations in these signaling pathways.

Cloning and characterization of human SHIP, the 145-kD inositol 5-phosphatase that associates with SHC after cytokine stimulation

We recently cloned and sequenced a cDNA encoding a 145-kD protein from the murine hematopoietic cell line B6SUtA, that becomes tyrosine phosphorylated and associated with Shc after cytokine stimulation. Based on its domains and enzymatic activity, we named this protein SHIP for SH2-containing inositol phosphatase (Damen et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:1689, 1996). We describe here the cloning of the human homologue of murine SHIP (mSHIP) from a human megakaryocytic cell line (MO7e) lambda gt11 cDNA library using two nonoverlapping mSHIP cDNA fragments as probes. Northern blot analysis suggests that human SHIP (hSHIP) is expressed as a 5.3-kb mRNA in human bone marrow and a wide variety of other tissues. Sequence analysis of this cDNA predicts a protein of 1188 amino acids exhibiting 87.2% overall sequence identity with mSHIP. Contained within the defined open reading frame is an N-terminal, group l src homology 2 (SH2) domain; three NXXY motifs that, if phosphorylated, could be bound by phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) domains; a C-terminal proline-rich region; and two centrally located inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase motifs. Fluorescence in situ hybridization, using the full-length hSHIP cDNA as a probe, mapped hSHIP to the long arm of chromosome 2 at the border between 2q36 and 2q37.

Negative signaling in B lymphocytes induces tyrosine phosphorylation of the 145-kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase, SHIP

Stimulation of the B cell Ag receptor (BCR) has been reported to induce tyrosine phosphorylation of a 145-kDa protein and its association with the adapter protein Shc. We have identified this protein as the novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (SHIP). Further analysis revealed that both maximal phosphorylation of SHIP and its association with Shc require co-clustering with the Fc receptor for IgG (Fc gamma RII) rather than stimulation of the BCR alone. Since co-clustering of the BCR and Fc gamma RII also down-regulates proliferation induced by Ag receptor stimulation, we hypothesize that tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP and its association with Shc contribute to negative signaling through effects on inositol and phosphatidylinositol metabolism.

Negative signaling in B lymphocytes induces tyrosine phosphorylation of the 145-kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase, SHIP

Stimulation of the B cell Ag receptor (BCR) has been reported to induce tyrosine phosphorylation of a 145-kDa protein and its association with the adapter protein Shc. We have identified this protein as the novel inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (SHIP). Further analysis revealed that both maximal phosphorylation of SHIP and its association with Shc require co-clustering with the Fc receptor for IgG (Fc gamma RII) rather than stimulation of the BCR alone. Since co-clustering of the BCR and Fc gamma RII also down-regulates proliferation induced by Ag receptor stimulation, we hypothesize that tyrosine phosphorylation of SHIP and its association with Shc contribute to negative signaling through effects on inositol and phosphatidylinositol metabolism.

Tyrosine 425 within the activated erythropoietin receptor binds Syp, reduces the erythropoietin required for Syp tyrosine phosphorylation, and promotes mitogenesis

Erythropoietin (Epo), the primary in vivo stimulator of erythroid proliferation and differentiation, acts, in part, by altering the tyrosine phosphorylation levels of various intracellular signaling molecules. These phosphorylation levels are tightly regulated by both tyrosine kinases and tyrosine phosphatases. We have recently shown that the SH2 containing tyrosine phosphatase, Syp, binds directly to both the tyrosine phosphorylated form of the Epo receptor (EpoR) and to Grb2 after Epo stimulation of M07e cells engineered to express high levels of human EpoRs (T. Tauchi, et al: J Biol Chem 270:5631, 1995). To determine which tyrosine within the EpoR is responsible for binding Syp, we examined DA-3 cell lines expressing full-length mutant EpoRs bearing tyrosine to phenylalanine substitutions for each of the eight tyrosines within the intracellular domain of the EpoR. We found that: (1) all Epo-stimulated mutant EpoRs, except for the Y425F EpoR, coimmunoprecipitated with Syp; (2) all Epo-stimulated mutant EpoRs, except for the Y425F EpoR, bound to a GST-fusion protein containing both SH2 domains of Syp; (3) Jak2 could phosphorylate GST-Syp in vitro after Epo stimulation of wild-type (wt) EpoR expressing DA-3 cells; (4) Epo-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of Syp in vivo was markedly reduced in Y425F EpoR expressing DA-3 calls; and (5) DA-3 cells expressing the Y425F EpoR grow less well in response to Epo than wt EpoR expressing cells. These results suggest that Syp binds via its SH2 domains to phosphorylated Y425 within the EpoR and is then phosphorylated on tyrosine residues by Jak2. Moreover, Y425 in the EpoR reduces the Epo requirement for Syp tyrosine phosphorylation and promotes proliferation.

Cardiac hypertrophy in the Dahl rat is associated with increased tyrosine phosphorylation of several cytosolic proteins, including a 120 kDa protein

Because of the well established role that tyrosine phosphorylation (tyr phos) plays in growth factor signalling and regulating cell growth, we hypothesized that cardiac hypertrophy might be associated with altered tyr phos of certain cellular proteins in the heart. Furthermore, we hypothesized that angiotensin II (ang II), a putative growth factor for cardiac cells, might be useful as a probe to highlight any differences in intracellular signalling between normal and hypertrophied hearts. The heart and, for comparison, skeletal muscle, from Dahl S rats, which are predisposed to cardiac hypertrophy, and Dahl R rats, which are not, were examined. Antiphosphotyrosine immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting of heart cell extracts revealed the presence of a constitutively tyr phos 120 kDa cytosolic protein. Hearts from Dahl R rats on a high salt diet displayed a smaller amount of constitutive tyr phos of this protein. In the hearts of both Dahl R and S rats maintained on low salt diets there was little evidence of constitutive tyr phos of this protein. Ang II induced tyr phos of this protein in Dahl S rats on a low salt diet and Dahl R rats on a high salt diet, both of which show mild cardiac hypertrophy. In contrast, the markedly hypertrophied ventricle showed a minimal response to Ang II. Thus the severity of cardiac hypertrophy correlated directly with the tyr phos level of this protein. In an attempt to identify this protein, immunoblotting was carried out with antibodies to the signal transducing proteins rasGAP, JAK2 iNOS, p125FAK, and the Src substrate, pp120, but all proved negative. Ang II also stimulated an increase in tyr phos of proteins with apparent molecular masses of 42, 55, and 69 to 85 kDa in hearts from Dahl S rats on high salt diet. By comparison, there was no 120 kDa tyr phos protein in skeletal muscle even in response to Ang II. Silver stained sodium dodecyl sulfate gels demonstrated that this 120 kDa tyr phos protein is present in substantial amounts in the ventricles of rats fed high salt diets. Thus cardiac hypertrophy is characterized by an abundant 120 kDa cytosolic tyr phos protein, which is apparent with Ang II stimulation in milder degrees of cardiac hypertrophy, and is most likely an as yet uncharacterized protein.

The 145-kDa protein induced to associate with Shc by multiple cytokines is an inositol tetraphosphate and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate 5-phosphatase

A 145-kDa tyrosine-phosphorylated protein that becomes associated with Shc in response to multiple cytokines has been purified from the murine hemopoietic cell line B6SUtA1. Amino acid sequence data were used to clone the cDNA encoding this protein from a B6SUtA1 library. The predicted amino acid sequence encodes a unique protein containing an N-terminal src homology 2 domain, two consensus sequences that are targets for phosphotyrosine binding domains, a proline-rich region, and two motifs highly conserved among inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases. Cell lysates immunoprecipitated with antiserum to this protein exhibited both phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate polyphosphate 5-phosphatase activity. This novel signal transduction intermediate may serve to modulate both Ras and inositol signaling pathways. Based on its properties, we suggest the 145-kDa protein be called SHIP for SH2-containing inositol phosphatase.

Tyrosine 343 in the erythropoietin receptor positively regulates erythropoietin-induced cell proliferation and Stat5 activation

While previous studies with truncated erythropoietin receptors (EpRs) have suggested that the tyrosine phosphorylation of the EpR does not play a role in Ep-induced proliferation, we have found, using a more subtle, full length EpR mutant, designated Null, in which all eight of the intracellular tyrosines have been substituted with phenylalanine residues, that Null cells require substantially more Ep than wild-type cells in order to proliferate as efficiently. A comparison of Ep-induced proliferation with Ep-induced tyrosine phosphorylation patterns, using wild-type and Null EpR-expressing cells, revealed that Stat5 tyrosine phosphorylation and activation correlated directly with proliferation. Moreover, studies with a Y343F EpR point mutant and various EpR deletion mutants revealed that both Ep-induced proliferation and Stat5 activation were mediated primarily through Y343, but that other tyrosines within the EpR could activate Stat5 in its absence.

Phosphorylation of tyrosine 503 in the erythropoietin receptor (EpR) is essential for binding the P85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase and for EpR-associated PI 3-kinase activity

We recently reported that phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase becomes associated with the activated erythropoietin receptor (EpR), most likely through the Src homology 2 (SH2) domains within the p85 subunit of PI-3 kinase and one or more phosphorylated tyrosines within the EpR. We have now investigated this interaction in more detail and have found, based on both blotting studies with glutathione S-transferase-p85-SH2 fusion proteins and binding of these fusion proteins to SDS-denatured EpRs, that this binding is direct. Moreover, both in vitro competition studies, involving phosphorylated peptides corresponding to the amino acid sequences flanking the eight tyrosines within the intracellular domain of the EpR, and in vivo studies with mutant EpRs bearing tyrosine to phenylalanine substitutions, indicate that phosphorylation of Tyr503 within the EpR is essential for the binding of PI 3-kinase. The presence of PI 3-kinase activity in EpR immunoprecipitates from DA-3 cells infected with wild-type but not Y503F EpRs confirms this finding. Our results demonstrate that the SH2 domains of p85 can bind, in addition to their well established Tyr-Met/Val-X-Met consensus binding sequence, a Tyr-Val-Ala-Cys motif that is present in the EpR. A comparison of erythropoietin-induced tyrosine phosphorylations and proliferation of wild-type and Y503F EpR-infected DA-3 cells revealed no differences. However, the PI-3 kinase inhibitor, wortmannin, markedly inhibited the erythropoietin-induced proliferation of both cell types, suggesting that PI 3-kinase is activated in Y503F EpR expressing cells. This was confirmed by carrying out PI 3-kinase assays with anti-phosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates from erythropoietin-stimulated Y503F EpR-infected DA-3 cells and suggested that PI 3-kinase has a role in regulating erythropoietin-induced proliferation, but at a site distinct from the EpR.

Erythropoietin and interleukin-3 induce distinct events in erythropoietin receptor-expressing BA/F3 cells

To compare the signal transduction pathways used by erythropoietin (Ep) and interleukin-3 (IL-3), the cDNA for the murine erythropoietin receptor (EpR) was introduced into the IL-3-responsive cell lines Ba/F3 and DA-3 using retrovirally mediated gene transfer. After selection in G418 and IL-3, clones expressing comparable levels of cell surface EpR were identified using biotinylated Ep and flow cytometry. A comparison of the effects of Ep and IL-3 on these cells showed that most EpR+ Ba/F3 clones, when first exposed to Ep, dramatically increased their levels of beta-globin mRNA. The kinetics of appearance of this message after exposure to Ep varied considerably from clone to clone, with some clones showing a marked increase in beta-globin mRNA within 1 hour, while others required several days before an increase was observed. Interestingly, not only was this increase not seen with IL-3, but IL-3 prevented the Ep-induced appearance of beta-globin message. On the other hand, none of the EpR+ DA-3 cell clones tested increased their levels of beta-globin mRNA in response to Ep. While the EpR+ DA-3 clones showed identical proliferative responses to IL-3 and Ep, most EpR+ Ba/F3 clones displayed a marked, albeit transient, proliferative lag when first exposed to Ep. This was manifested as both an increased doubling time in liquid culture and a decreased colony size in methylcellulose. Plating efficiencies of EpR+ Ba/F3 cells in methylcellulose, however, were identical in response to IL-3 and Ep, suggesting that the Ep-induced lag in proliferation reflected a growth delay of the entire population of cells to Ep rather than a selection of an Ep-responsive subpopulation. Flow cytometric analysis established that this growth delay was due to a lengthening of the first G1 period after exposure to Ep. Interestingly, this Ep-induced delay in entry into the S phase was not detected in cells stimulated with both Ep and IL-3 nor in EpR+ Ba/F3 cell clones that did not show an increase in beta-globin mRNA in response to Ep. Thymidine-induced growth arrest, however, showed that delaying entry into S phase alone was not sufficient to stimulate beta-globin mRNA in the absence of Ep. Further studies established that the Ep-induced increase in beta-globin mRNA could be inhibited by the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein and the protein kinase C inhibitor Compound 3.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Multiple cytokines stimulate the binding of a common 145-kilodalton protein to Shc at the Grb2 recognition site of Shc

We recently reported that interleukin-3, Steel factor, and erythropoietin all induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and its association with Grb2 in hemopoietic cell lines. We have now further characterized the proteins that become associated with Shc following stimulation with these cytokines and found that, in response to all three, the tyrosine-phosphorylated form of Shc binds to common 145- and 52-kDa proteins which also become tyrosine phosphorylated in response to these growth factors. The 145-kDa protein, which appears, from antiphosphotyrosine blots of two-dimensional O'Farrell gels, to exist in four different phosphorylation states following cytokine stimulation (with isoelectric points ranging from 7.2 to 7.8), does not appear to be immunologically related to the beta subunit of the interleukin-3 receptor, c-Kit, BCR, ABL, JAK1, JAK2, Sos1, eps15, or insulin receptor substrate 1 protein. Silver-stained sodium dodecyl sulfate gels indicate that the association of the 145-kDa protein with Shc occurs only after cytokine stimulation and that it can bind to the tyrosine-phosphorylated form of Shc in its non-tyrosine-phosphorylated state. The latter finding, in conjunction with the observations that p145 does not bind, in vitro, to the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain of Shc, that it is not present in anti-Grb2 immunoprecipitates, and that a phosphopeptide which blocks the binding of Shc to the SH2 domain of Grb2 also blocks the binding of Shc to p145, suggests that p145 contains an SH2 domain and competes with Grb2 for the same tyrosine-phosphorylated site on Shc. This implicates p145 as a potential regulator of Ras activity and, perhaps, of other as yet unidentified functions of Shc.

Erythropoietin stimulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and its association with Grb2 and a 145-Kd tyrosine phosphorylated protein

Although the erythropoietin receptor (EpR) lacks a tyrosine kinase consensus sequence within its proline-rich intracellular domain, addition of its ligand to Ep-responsive cells stimulates the rapid and transient tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of cellular proteins. The characterization of these phosphorylatable substrates, which include 5 major phosphoproteins with molecular masses of approximately 145, 130, 97, 72, and 56 Kd is an essential step in understanding the signal transduction pathways used by Ep. Recently, we and others have shown that the major 72-Kd tyrosine phosphorylated protein is the EpR itself. We now report, using both murine DA-3 and human MO7E cell lines engineered to express high levels of biologically responsive EpRs (and designated DA-ER and MO7-ER, respectively), that the major 56-Kd tyrosine phosphorylated protein is the recently identified SH2-containing protein, p52shc. Interestingly, in Ep-stimulated cells, anti-Shc antibodies coprecipitate the major 145-Kd tyrosine phosphorylated protein in both DA-ER and MO7-ER cells. Tyrosine phosphorylation of both proteins is detectable within 30 seconds of incubation with Ep at 37 degrees C, reaches a maximum between 2 and 5 minutes, and declines by 30 minutes. In addition, tyrosine phosphorylated Shc appears capable of associating with the activated EpR, but this could only be shown in MO7-ER cells. Lastly, as has been shown previously with the tyrosine kinase containing receptors for epidermal growth factor, platelet derived growth factor, and insulin, activation of the EpR leads to the association of p52shc with the 25-Kd polypeptide, Grb2. Taken together, our data suggest that the previously reported increases in rasGTP observed with Ep result, in part, from the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and its association with Grb2 and/or a tyrosine phosphorylated 145-Kd protein.

Multiple cytokines induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of Shc and its association with Grb2 in hemopoietic cells

The identification and characterization of proteins that become tyrosine-phosphorylated in response to growth factor stimulation is critical to furthering our understanding of the signal transduction pathways involved in regulating cell proliferation and differentiation. In this report we demonstrate that interleukin-3, erythropoietin, and steel factor all induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of the SH2 containing protein, p52shc. These studies were carried out with various human and murine cell lines to document that this is a common event in hemopoietic cells. We also show that upon tyrosine phosphorylation, p52shc becomes associated with the adaptor protein, Grb2. The formation of this complex may directly link tyrosine phosphorylation events to Ras activation in hemopoietic progenitors and may be a critical step in stimulating these cells to transit through G1 into S phase.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase associates, via its Src homology 2 domains, with the activated erythropoietin receptor

The erythropoietin receptor (EpR) belongs to a family of hematopoietin receptors whose members lack tyrosine kinase activity. Nonetheless, within minutes of binding Ep, a number of cellular proteins become transiently phosphorylated on tyrosine residues. One of these proteins, as we and others have shown previously, is the EpR itself. To identify the remaining protein substrates, we have examined the antiphosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates of lysates from Ba/F3 cells expressing high levels of cell surface EpRs. We now present data showing that, in response to Ep, the 85-Kd regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) becomes immunoprecipitable with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies. This appears to be due, in large part, to the specific association of PI 3-kinase with the tyrosine-phosphorylated EpR, either directly or through a 93- or 70-Kd tyrosine-phosphorylated intermediate. The activity of this EpR associated PI 3-kinase, assessed in anti-EpR immunoprecipitates, is maximal within 2 minutes of incubation with Ep and returns almost to baseline levels by 10 minutes. In vitro studies suggest that the interaction between PI 3-kinase and the activated EpR is mediated by the N- and C-terminal SH2 domains of p85 and tyrosine-phosphorylated motifs on the EpR.

Harmonization of requirements for influenza virus vaccines: the first year's experience with the EEC guideline

An EEC guideline on the harmonization of requirements for influenza vaccines was published at the end of 1991. The document gives guidance on four different areas of harmonization. The 1992 production season was the first season during which this guideline was effective. The experience obtained as well as recommendations for further harmonization are discussed. After these important steps in the field of production and control of influenza vaccines, it is felt necessary to harmonize the use of influenza vaccines.

Transformation and amplification of the K-fgf proto-oncogene in NIH-3T3 cells, and induction of metastatic potential

A plasmid containing the K-fgf proto-oncogene linked to the dihydrofolate reductase gene has been constructed, and used in transfection experiments to investigate the effects of K-fgf expression on the tumorigenic and metastatic properties of NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. Analysis of cells transfected with K-fgf revealed that expression of the K-fgf proto-oncogene can, in a single step, induce both tumorigenic and metastatic characteristics, as determined in soft agar cloning experiments, and in tumorigenicity and experimental lung metastasis assays with BALB/c nu/nu mice. Selection for resistance to increasing concentrations of methotrexate lead to the isolation of a series of cell lines containing amplifications of both the dihydrofolate reductase gene and the linked K-fgf gene, which synthesized elevated levels of growth factor message and protein. The most highly resistant and gene amplified cell lines exhibited lower than expected levels of K-fgf mRNA, and also appeared to have down-regulated cell surface growth factor receptors. Further support for the concept that altered K-fgf expression can induce fully malignant and metastatic cells was obtained in experimental metastasis assays, where K-fgf transfected and gene amplified cell lines were highly aggressive.

Characterization of deoxyguanosine-resistant hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase(-)metastatic variants altered in soybean-agglutinin-binding properties and cell-surface glycoproteins

The isolation of deoxyguanosine-resistant 10T1/2 mouse cell lines following stepwise selection in the presence of increasing concentrations of drug led to the identification of a highly metastatic line, as measured by the ability to form secondary tumors in syngenic mice after intravenous injection. This metastatic deoxyguanosine-resistant mutant was determined to be deficient in hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase activity, accounting for the resistance to deoxyguanosine. Lectin-binding studies determined that the metastatic potential of high- and low-metastatic revertant clones of this deoxyguanosine-resistant mutant was negatively correlated to soybean agglutinin binding, but not to concanavalin A or wheat germ agglutinin binding. Examination of labelled cell-surface glycoproteins led to the identification of two glycoproteins, gp80 and gp48, which were present on the low-metastatic wild-type cell line but absent from the highly metastatic drug-resistant cells. Our studies suggest that these cell-surface glycoprotein alterations play a role in determining the malignant properties of the cells, and indicate that metastatic variants with the properties described in this report would be useful biological tools for investigations into the roles played by specific cell-surface structures in mechanisms of tumor progression.

Differential effects of glycoprotein processing inhibition on experimental metastasis formation by T24-H-ras transformed fibroblasts

Highly metastatic mouse 10T1/2 cell lines (Ciras 2, Ciras 3 and dGC2M5) which have been T24-H-ras transfected, are shown to have differential responses in metastatic properties when grown in the presence of the processing inhibitors, swainsonine, castanospermine and deoxymannojirimycin. Concanavalin A binding data indicated the inhibitors caused similar shifts in oligo-saccharide structures, resulting in more high mannose character for all cell lines. However, swainsonine inhibited the experimental metastasis of dGC2M5, but did not affect the metastatic properties of Ciras 2 and Ciras 3. Inversely, castanospermine reduced experimental metastasis of Ciras 2 and 3 and did not inhibit dGC2M5. These results show that closely related metastatic cell lines respond differently in their metastatic ability when changes occur in N-linked oligosaccharide content. This observation emphasizes the importance of oligosaccharide structure in the malignant phenotype and indicates that some caution should be used when generalizing about the effects of processing inhibitors on a complex process like metastasis.

Relationships between heparanase activity and increasing metastatic potential of fibroblasts transfected with various oncogenes

We have examined the effects of transformation by activated H-ras and other transforming oncogenes on the activity of the enzyme, heparanase. Degradation of 3H-N-acetylated-partially N-desulfated heparan sulfate by cellular extracts of the transformants was assessed by gel permation chromatography. More extensive degradation was observed with 10T1/2 mouse embryo fibroblasts transfected with an activated H-ras oncogene. The cells having the highest metastatic potential (CIRAS-3) were shown to contain the greatest heparanase activity, giving 49% higher levels of activity than parental cells (P less than 0.0002). Furthermore, the enzyme activity produced by a series of H-ras transformed cell lines increased progressively with metastatic potential (non-parametric rank correlation coefficient r = 0.96). Transfection of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts with activated H-ras, v-src or v-fes oncogenes, which induced the metastatic phenotype, did not lead to large increases in heparanase activities. Also, inhibition of ras-induced malignancy by cotransfection of rat REF cells with the Ad2 E1a oncogene did not produce significant declines in heparanase activities. These results are consistent with the view that modifications in heparanase activity can play a role in the complex process of metastasis in some, but not all situations.

Lack of correlation between deoxyribonucleotide pool sizes, spontaneous mutation rates and malignant potential in Chinese hamster ovary cells

To examine the relationship between altered spontaneous mutation rates and malignant characteristics of cells, two hydroxyurea-resistant Chinese hamster ovary cell lines, with alterations in ribonucleotide reductase, were examined for their rates of spontaneous mutation to 6-thioguanine and ouabain resistance, tumor growth rates and their ability to form experimental lung metastases. The most resistant cell line, HR-R2T, showed no changes in the rate of spontaneous mutation to 6-thioguanine or ouabain resistance compared to the parental wild-type cell line; however, the mutant line formed lung metastases in experimental metastasis assays with BALB/c nu/nu mice, and exhibited metastatic abilities significantly different from the wild-type population. Furthermore, the HR-R2T population did not show imbalances in any of the deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate pool sizes, which are frequently observed in cells altered in ribonucleotide reductase activity. The second hydroxyurea-resistant line, HNR-AT, had gross alterations in dCTP and dGTP pools and although the rate of spontaneous mutation to 6-thioguanione resistance was unaltered, it showed a moderate decrease in the rate of spontaneous mutation to ouabain resistance when compared to the parental wild-type population. Interestingly, the HNR-AT cell line did not form any lung metastases in the experimental metastasis assay. Both mutant cell lines, HR-R2T, and HNR-AT, had increased tumor growth rates in C57 BALB/c "beige" nude (nu/nu) mice as compared to the parental wild-type population. In total, the results obtained with the two mutant cell lines question the association of altered mutation rates with increased metastatic potential. Although several explanations are possible for the altered malignant properties exhibited by HR-R2T and HNR-AT cells, it is interesting to note that the results are consistent with earlier suggestions that changes in ribonucleotide reductase may accompany modifications in the malignant characteristics of cells.

Generation of metastatic variants in populations of mutator and amplificator mutants

Genetic instability has been hypothesized by P. C. Nowell and other investigators to be an important aspect of tumor progression that leads to the generation of metastatic variants. In this study we examined the rate of generation of metastatic variants in mutant cell lines having increased rates of spontaneous mutation and gene amplification. Parallel clonal populations of the spontaneous mutation rate mutant thy-49 and the gene amplification mutants YMP1 and YMP7 and their respective wild types were generated and grown to a critical population size. The number of metastatic variants in each clonal population was then determined following iv injection into nude mice. Lung tumors were scored 3-4 weeks after injection of cells, and the mean number per clonal population was determined. Analysis of the means with the Luria-Delbruck fluctuation test showed no significant differences in the rate of generation of metastatic variants produced in the genetically unstable lines compared to their normal counterparts. This study suggests that increased spontaneous mutation and gene amplification rates in mammalian cells are not sufficient on their own to increase the rate of generation of metastatic variants.

Altered responsiveness of metastatic versus non-metastatic fibroblasts to heparin-binding growth factors

Cells may become more metastatic partially by gaining growth factor autonomy. This hypothesis was examined by investigating the effects on DNA synthesis of a novel hepatic heparin-binding growth factor (HBGF), and of the well-characterized HBGF, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), using cells of varying metastatic potential. Cells were rendered metastatic by transfection of parental 10T 1/2 fibroblasts with the T24-H-ras oncogene. Both HBGFs stimulated DNA synthesis 2.0-11.1 fold in 10T 1/2 cells in the presence of alpha-minimal essential medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum. In contrast, cells of intermediate metastatic potential or of high metastatic potential, were inhibited approximately 2-fold by the hepatic HBGF, and did not respond to bFGF in alpha-minimal essential medium plus 10% fetal bovine serum. This lack of stimulation was converted to an enhancement of DNA synthesis in the absence of serum when using metastatic but not non-metastatic cells. This is the first demonstration that metastatic cells have a significantly altered responsiveness to these growth factors as compared to non-metastatic parental cells, and indicates that these modifications may play a role in a mechanism of tumor progression.