Specific Gene Expression in Pseudomonas Putida U Shows New Alternatives for Cadaverine and Putrescine Catabolism

Pseudomonas putida strain U can be grown using, as sole carbon sources, the biogenic amines putrescine or cadaverine, as well as their catabolic intermediates, ɣ-aminobutyrate or δ-aminovalerate, respectively. Several paralogs for the genes that encode some of the activities involved in the catabolism of these compounds, such as a putrescine-pyruvate aminotransferase (spuC1 and spuC2 genes) and a ɣ-aminobutyrate aminotransferase (gabT1 and gabT2 genes) have been identified in this bacterium. When the expression pattern of these genes is analyzed by qPCR, it is drastically conditioned by supplying the carbon sources. Thus, spuC1 is upregulated by putrescine, whereas spuC2 seems to be exclusively induced by cadaverine. However, gabT1 increases its expression in response to different polyamines or aminated catabolic derivatives from them (i.e., ɣ-aminobutyrate or δ-aminovalerate), although gabT2 does not change its expression level concerning no-amine unrelated carbon sources (citrate). These results reveal differences between the mechanisms proposed for polyamine catabolism in P. aeruginosa and Escherichia coli concerning P. putida strain U, as well as allow a deeper understanding of the enzymatic systems used by this last strain during polyamine metabolism.

Potential use of a Yersinia ruckeri O1 auxotrophic aroA mutant as a live attenuated vaccine

The aroA gene of Yersinia ruckeri, which encodes 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase, was insertionally inactivated with a DNA fragment containing a kanamycin resistance determinant and reintroduced by allelic exchange into the chromosome of Y. ruckeri 21102 O1 by means of the suicide vector pIVET8. The Y. ruckeri aroA::Kan(r) mutant was highly attenuated when inoculated intraperitoneally into rainbow trout, with a 50% lethal dose of >5 x 10(7) CFU. The mutants were not recoverable from the internal organs 48 h post-inoculation or later. The vaccination of rainbow trout with the AroA mutant as a live vaccine conferred significant protection (relative percentage survival = 90%) against the pathogenic wild-type strain of Y. ruckeri.

Microbial synthesis of poly(beta-hydroxyalkanoates) bearing phenyl groups from pseudomonas putida: chemical structure and characterization

New poly(beta-hydroxyalkanoates) having aromatics groups (so-called PHPhAs) from a microbial origin have been characterized. These polymers were produced and accumulated as reserve materials when a beta-oxidation mutant of Pseudomonas putida U, disrupted in the gene that encodes the 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (fadA), was cultured in a chemically defined medium containing different aromatic fatty acids (6-phenylhexanoic acid, 7-phenylheptanoic acid, a mixture of them, or 8-phenyloctanoic acid) as carbon sources. The polymers were extracted from the bacteria, purified and characterized by using (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Structural studies revealed that when 6-phenylhexanoic acid was added to the cultures, an homopolymer (poly-3-hydroxy-6-phenylhexanoate) was accumulated. The feeding with 8-phenyloctanoic acid and 7-phenylheptanoic acid leads to the formation of copolymers of the corresponding units with the n - 2 carbons formed after deacetylation, copoly(3-hydroxy-8-phenyloctanoate-3-hydroxy-6-phenylhexanoate) and copoly(3-hydroxy-7-phenylheptanoate-3-hydroxy-5-phenylvalerate), respectively. The mixture of 6-phenylhexanoic acid and 7-phenylheptanoic acid gave rise to the corresponding terpolymer, copoly(3-hydroxy-7-phenylheptanoate-3-hydroxy-6-phenylhexanoate-3-hydroxy-5-phenylvalerate). Studies on the chemical structure of these three polyesters revealed that they were true copolymers but not a mixture of homopolymers and that the different monomeric units were randomly incorporated in the macromolecular chains. Thermal behavior and molecular weight distribution were also discussed. These compounds had a dual attractive interest in function of (i) their broad use as biodegradable polymers and (ii) their possible biomedical applications.

Genetically engineered Pseudomonas: a factory of new bioplastics with broad applications

New bioplastics containing aromatic or mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic monomers have been obtained using genetically engineered strains of Pseudomonas putida. The mutation (-) or deletion (Delta) of some of the genes involved in the beta-oxidation pathway (fadA(-), fadB(-) Delta fadA or Delta fad BA mutants) elicits a strong intracellular accumulation of unusual homo- or co-polymers that dramatically alter the morphology of these bacteria, as more than 90% of the cytoplasm is occupied by these macromolecules. The introduction of a blockade in the beta-oxidation pathway, or in other related catabolic routes, has allowed the synthesis of polymers other than those accumulated in the wild type (with regard to both monomer size and relative percentage), the accumulation of certain intermediates that are rapidly catabolized in the wild type and the accumulation in the culture broths of end catabolites that, as in the case of phenylacetic acid, phenylbutyric acid, trans-cinnamic acid or their derivatives, have important medical or pharmaceutical applications (antitumoral, analgesic, radiopotentiators, chemopreventive or antihelmintic). Furthermore, using one of these polyesters (poly 3-hydroxy-6-phenylhexanoate), we obtained polymeric microspheres that could be used as drug vehicles.

Identification of Staphylococcus spp. by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism of gap gene

Oligonucleotide primers specific for the Staphylococcus aureus gap gene were previously designed to identify 12 Staphylococcus spp. by PCR. In the present study, AluI digestion of PCR-generated products rendered distinctive restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns that allowed 24 Staphylococcus spp. to be identified with high specificity.

The phenylacetyl-CoA catabolon: a complex catabolic unit with broad biotechnological applications

The term catabolon was introduced to define a complex functional unit integrated by different catabolic pathways, which are, or could be, co-ordinately regulated, and that catalyses the transformation of structurally related compounds into a common catabolite. The phenylacetyl-CoA catabolon encompasses all the routes involved in the transformation of styrene, 2-phenylethylamine, trans-styrylacetic acid, phenylacetaldehyde, phenylacetic acid, phenylacetyl amides, phenylacetyl esters and n-phenylalkanoic acids containing an even number of carbon atoms, into phenylacetyl-CoA. This common intermediate is subsequently catabolized through a route of convergence, the phenylacetyl-CoA catabolon core, into general metabolites. The genetic organization of this central route, the biochemical significance of the whole functional unit and its broad biotechnological applications are discussed.

Two different pathways are involved in the beta-oxidation of n-alkanoic and n-phenylalkanoic acids in Pseudomonas putida U: genetic studies and biotechnological applications

In Pseudomonas putida U, the degradation of n-alkanoic and n-phenylalkanoic acids is carried out by two sets of beta-oxidation enzymes (betaI and betaII). Whereas the first one (called betaI) is constitutive and catalyses the degradation of n-alkanoic and n-phenylalkanoic acids very efficiently, the other one (betaII), which is only expressed when some of the genes encoding betaI enzymes are mutated, catabolizes n-phenylalkanoates (n > 4) much more slowly. Genetic studies revealed that disruption or deletion of some of the betaI genes handicaps the growth of P. putida U in media containing n-alkanoic or n-phenylalkanoic acids with an acyl moiety longer than C4. However, all these mutants regained their ability to grow in media containing n-alkanoates as a result of the induction of betaII, but they were still unable to catabolize n-phenylalkanoates completely, as the betaI-FadBA enzymes are essential for the beta-oxidation of certain n-phenylalkanoyl-CoA derivatives when they reach a critical size. Owing to the existence of the betaII system, mutants lacking betaIfadB/A are able to synthesize new poly 3-OH-n-alkanoates (PHAs) and poly 3-OH-n-phenylalkanoates (PHPhAs) efficiently. However, they are unable to degrade these polymers, becoming bioplastic overproducer mutants. The genetic and biochemical importance of these results is reported and discussed.

A new class of glutamate dehydrogenases (GDH). Biochemical and genetic characterization of the first member, the AMP-requiring NAD-specific GDH of Streptomyces clavuligerus

A new class of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) is reported. The GDH of Streptomyces clavuligerus was purified to homogeneity and characterized. It has a native molecular mass of 1,100 kDa and exists as an alpha(6) oligomeric structure composed of 183-kDa subunits. GDH, which requires AMP as an essential activator, shows a maximal rate of catalysis in 100 mm phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, at 30 degrees C. Under these conditions, GDH displayed hyperbolic behavior toward ammonia (K(m), 33 mm) and sigmoidal responses to changes in alpha-ketoglutarate (S(0.5) 1.3 mm; n(H) 1.50) and NADH (S(0.5) 20 microm; n(H) 1.52) concentrations. Aspartate and asparagine were found to be allosteric activators. This enzyme is inhibited by an excess of NADH or NH(4)(+), by some tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates and by ATP. This GDH seems to be a catabolic enzyme as indicated by the following: (i) it is NAD-specific; (ii) it shows a high value of K(m) for ammonia; and (iii) when S. clavuligerus was cultured in minimal medium containing glutamate as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen, a 5-fold increase in specific activity of GDH was detected compared with cultures provided with glycerol and ammonia. GDH has 1,651 amino acids, and it is encoded by a DNA fragment of 4,953 base pairs (gdh gene). It shows strong sequence similarity to proteins encoded by unidentified open reading frames present in the genomes of species belonging to the genera Mycobacterium, Rickettsia, Pseudomonas, Vibrio, Shewanella, and Caulobacter, suggesting that it has a broad distribution. The GDH of S. clavuligerus is the first member of a class of GDHs included in a subfamily of GDHs (large GDHs) whose catalytic requirements and evolutionary implications are described and discussed.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase-encoding gene as a useful taxonomic tool for Staphylococcus spp

The gap gene of Staphylococcus aureus, encoding glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, was used as a target to amplify a 933-bp DNA fragment by PCR with a pair of primers 26 and 25 nucleotides in length. PCR products, detected by agarose gel electrophoresis, were also amplified from 12 Staphylococcus spp. analyzed previously. Hybridization with an internal 279-bp DNA fragment probe was positive in all PCR-positive samples. No PCR products were amplified when other gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial genera were analyzed using the same pair of primers. AluI digestion of PCR-generated products gave 12 different restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns, one for each species analyzed. However, we could detect two intraspecies RFLP patterns in Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus hominis, and Staphylococcus simulans which were different from the other species. An identical RFLP pattern was observed for 112 S. aureus isolates from humans, cows, and sheep. The sensitivity of the PCR assays was very high, with a detection limit for S. aureus cells of 20 CFU when cells were suspended in saline. PCR amplification of the gap gene has the potential for rapid identification of at least 12 species belonging to the genus Staphylococcus, as it is highly specific.

Phenylacetyl-coenzyme A is the true inducer of the phenylacetic acid catabolism pathway in Pseudomonas putida U

Aerobic degradation of phenylacetic acid in Pseudomonas putida U is carried out by a central catabolism pathway (phenylacetyl-coenzyme A [CoA] catabolon core). Induction of this route was analyzed by using different mutants specifically designed for this objective. Our results revealed that the true inducer molecule is phenylacetyl-CoA and not other structurally or catabolically related aromatic compounds.

From a short amino acidic sequence to the complete gene

A useful strategy directed to the isolation of a required gene with a high GC content is reported. Using a degenerate oligonucleotide probe, deduced from the amino terminus of a protein, it is possible to obtain a fragment of DNA containing its encoding gene by PCR amplification. Furthermore, the cloning of a desired gene can be accomplished in two steps by using an oligonucleotide deduced (i) from an internal sequence, (ii) from a consensus sequence, or (iii) from a DNA sequence adjacent to a disrupting element (transposon, insertion sequence, cassette). This method, which could be applied to a bacteriophage, plasmid, or cosmid genomic library, has been successfully used for cloning several genes from different biological systems.

A major secreted elastase is essential for pathogenicity of Aeromonas hydrophila

Aeromonas hydrophila is an opportunistic pathogen and the leading cause of fatal hemorrhagic septicemia in rainbow trout. A gene encoding an elastolytic activity, ahyB, was cloned from Aeromonas hydrophila AG2 into pUC18 and expressed in Escherichia coli and in the nonproteolytic species Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. masoucida. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the ahyB gene revealed an open reading frame of 1,764 nucleotides with coding capacity for a 588-amino-acid protein with a molecular weight of 62,728. The first 13 N-terminal amino acids of the purified protease completely match those deduced from DNA sequence starting at AAG (Lys-184). This finding indicated that AhyB is synthesized as a preproprotein with a 19-amino-acid signal peptide, a 164-amino-acid N-terminal propeptide, and a 405-amino-acid intermediate which is further processed into a mature protease and a C-terminal propeptide. The protease hydrolyzed casein and elastin and showed a high sequence similarity to other metalloproteases, especially with the mature form of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase (52% identity), Helicobacter pylori zinc metalloprotease (61% identity), or proteases from several species of Vibrio (52 to 53% identity). The gene ahyB was insertionally inactivated, and the construct was used to create an isogenic ahyB mutant of A. hydrophila. These first reports of a defined mutation in an extracellular protease of A. hydrophila demonstrate an important role in pathogenesis.

Novel biodegradable aromatic plastics from a bacterial source. Genetic and biochemical studies on a route of the phenylacetyl-coa catabolon

Novel biodegradable bacterial plastics, made up of units of 3-hydroxy-n-phenylalkanoic acids, are accumulated intracellularly by Pseudomonas putida U due to the existence in this bacterium of (i) an acyl-CoA synthetase (encoded by the fadD gene) that activates the aryl-precursors; (ii) a beta-oxidation pathway that affords 3-OH-aryl-CoAs, and (iii) a polymerization-depolymerization system (encoded in the pha locus) integrated by two polymerases (PhaC1 and PhaC2) and a depolymerase (PhaZ). The complete assimilation of these compounds requires two additional routes that specifically catabolize the phenylacetyl-CoA or the benzoyl-CoA generated from these polyesters through beta-oxidation. Genetic studies have allowed the cloning, sequencing, and disruption of the genes included in the pha locus (phaC1, phaC2, and phaZ) as well as those related to the biosynthesis of precursors (fadD) or to the catabolism of their derivatives (acuA, fadA, and paa genes). Additional experiments showed that the blockade of either fadD or phaC1 hindered the synthesis and accumulation of plastic polymers. Disruption of phaC2 reduced the quantity of stored polymers by two-thirds. The blockade of phaZ hampered the mobilization of the polymer and decreased its production. Mutations in the paa genes, encoding the phenylacetic acid catabolic enzymes, did not affect the synthesis or catabolism of polymers containing either 3-hydroxyaliphatic acids or 3-hydroxy-n-phenylalkanoic acids with an odd number of carbon atoms as monomers, whereas the production of polyesters containing units of 3-hydroxy-n-phenylalkanoic acids with an even number of carbon atoms was greatly reduced in these bacteria. Yield-improving studies revealed that mutants defective in the glyoxylic acid cycle (isocitrate lyase(-)) or in the beta-oxidation pathway (fadA), stored a higher amount of plastic polymers (1.4- and 2-fold, respectively), suggesting that genetic manipulation of these pathways could be useful for isolating overproducer strains. The analysis of the organization and function of the pha locus and its relationship with the core of the phenylacetyl-CoA catabolon is reported and discussed.

Catabolism of phenylacetic acid in Escherichia coli. Characterization of a new aerobic hybrid pathway

The paa cluster of Escherichia coli W involved in the aerobic catabolism of phenylacetic acid (PA) has been cloned and sequenced. It was shown to map at min 31.0 of the chromosome at the right end of the mao region responsible for the transformation of 2-phenylethylamine into PA. The 14 paa genes are organized in three transcription units: paaZ and paaABCDEFGHIJK, encoding catabolic genes; and paaXY, containing the paaX regulatory gene. The paaK gene codes for a phenylacetyl-CoA ligase that catalyzes the activation of PA to phenylacetyl-CoA (PA-CoA). The paaABCDE gene products, which may constitute a multicomponent oxygenase, are involved in PA-CoA hydroxylation. The PaaZ protein appears to catalyze the third enzymatic step, with the paaFGHIJ gene products, which show significant similarity to fatty acid beta-oxidation enzymes, likely involved in further mineralization to Krebs cycle intermediates. Three promoters, Pz, Pa, and Px, driven the expression of genes paaZ, paaABCDEFGHIJK, and paaX, respectively, have been identified. The Pa promoter is negatively controlled by the paaX gene product. As PA-CoA is the true inducer, PaaX becomes the first regulator of an aromatic catabolic pathway that responds to a CoA derivative. The aerobic catabolism of PA in E. coli represents a novel hybrid pathway that could be a widespread way of PA catabolism in bacteria.

Elucidation of conditions allowing conversion of penicillin G and other penicillins to deacetoxycephalosporins by resting cells and extracts of Streptomyces clavuligerus NP1

Using resting cells and extracts of Streptomyces clavuligerus NP1, we have been able to convert penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) to deacetoxycephalosporin G. Conversion was achieved by increasing by 45x the concentration of FeSO4 (1.8 mM) and doubling the concentration of alpha-ketoglutarate (1.28 mM) as compared with standard conditions used for the normal cell-free conversion of penicillin N to deacetoxycephalosporin C. ATP, MgSO4, KCl, and DTT, important in cell-free expansion of penicillin N, did not play a significant role in the ring expansion of penicillin G by resting cells or cell-free extracts. When these conditions were used with 14 other penicillins, ring expansion was achieved in all cases.

Molecular characterization of the phenylacetic acid catabolic pathway in Pseudomonas putida U: the phenylacetyl-CoA catabolon

Fourteen different genes included in a DNA fragment of 18 kb are involved in the aerobic degradation of phenylacetic acid by Pseudomonas putida U. This catabolic pathway appears to be organized in three contiguous operons that contain the following functional units: (i) a transport system, (ii) a phenylacetic acid activating enzyme, (iii) a ring-hydroxylation complex, (iv) a ring-opening protein, (v) a beta-oxidation-like system, and (vi) two regulatory genes. This pathway constitutes the common part (core) of a complex functional unit (catabolon) integrated by several routes that catalyze the transformation of structurally related molecules into a common intermediate (phenylacetyl-CoA).

The phenylacetic acid uptake system of Aspergillus nidulans is under a creA-independent model of catabolic repression which seems to be mediated by acetyl-CoA

The filamentous fungus Aspergillus nidulans is able to grow on phenylacetic acid (PhAc) as the sole carbon source and has a highly specific phenylacetic acid transport system mediating the uptake of this aromatic compound. This transport system is also able to transport some phenoxyacetic acid (PhOAc), although less efficiently. Maximal uptake rates were observed at 37 degrees C in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). Under these conditions, uptake was linear for at least 1 minute, with K(m) values for PhAc and PhOAc of 74 and 425 microM, respectively. The PhAc transport system is strongly induced by PhAc and, to a lesser extent by PhOAc and other phenyl derivatives. The utilization of glucose (and other sugars), glycerol or acetate results in a substantially reduced uptake. This negative effect caused by certain carbon sources is independent of the creA gene, the regulatory gene mediating carbon catabolite repression. Negative regulation by acetate is prevented by a loss-of-function mutation in the gene encoding acetyl-CoA synthetase, strongly suggesting that this regulation is mediated by the intracellular pool of acetyl-CoA.

Molecular cloning and expression in different microbes of the DNA encoding Pseudomonas putida U phenylacetyl-CoA ligase. Use of this gene to improve the rate of benzylpenicillin biosynthesis in Penicillium chrysogenum

The gene encoding phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (pcl), the first enzyme of the pathway involved in the aerobic catabolism of phenylacetic acid in Pseudomonas putida U, has been cloned, sequenced, and expressed in two different microbes. In both, the primary structure of the protein was studied, and after genetic manipulation, different recombinant proteins were analyzed. The pcl gene, which was isolated from P. putida U by mutagenesis with the transposon Tn5, encodes a 48-kDa protein corresponding to the phenylacetyl-CoA ligase previously purified by us (Martínez-Blanco, H., Reglero, A. Rodríguez-Aparicio, L. B., and Luengo, J. M. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 7084-7090). Expression of the pcl gene in Escherichia coli leads to the appearance of this enzymatic activity, and cloning and expression of a 10.5-kb DNA fragment containing this gene confer this bacterium with the ability to grow in chemically defined medium containing phenylacetic acid as the sole carbon source. The appearance of phenylacetyl-CoA ligase activity in all of the strains of the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum transformed with a construction bearing this gene was directly related to a significant increase in the quantities of benzylpenicillin accumulated in the broths (between 1.8- and 2.2-fold higher), indicating that expression of this bacterial gene (pcl) helps to increase the pool of a direct biosynthetic precursor, phenylacetyl-CoA. This report describes the sequence of a phenylacetyl-CoA ligase for the first time and provides direct evidence that the expression in P. chrysogenum of a heterologous protein (involved in the catabolism of a penicillin precursor) is a useful strategy for improving the biosynthetic machinery of this fungus.

Enzymatic synthesis of hydrophobic penicillins

Our knowledge of the enzymes and genes involved in the biosynthesis of beta-lactam antibiotics has increased notably in the last decade. The purification to homogeneity of some of these proteins as well as their biochemical characterization has allowed some of them to be used for synthesizing many different penicillins and cephalosporin-like products in vitro. In this report we describe the most important advances in this field, placing special emphasis on the enzymatic synthesis of hydrophobic penicillins. The use of purified acyl-CoA: 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum and several acyl-CoA ligases obtained from different microbial origins has led to the reproduction "in vitro" of the last step involved in in penicillin biosynthesis. By coupling these enzymatic systems (AT and acyl-CoA ligases) an impressive number of beta-lactam antibiotics has been obtained. Thus, most of the known natural penicillins, many of the semisynthetic variants and others, which until now can only be obtained chemically, have been synthesized enzymatically from their natural precursors. Furthermore, the use of heterologous proteins in coupled systems has opened a new and exciting field in beta-lactam antibiotic research, lending new perspectives to the traditional methodology followed by antibiotic fermentation industries.

Aerobic catabolism of phenylacetic acid in Pseudomonas putida U: biochemical characterization of a specific phenylacetic acid transport system and formal demonstration that phenylacetyl-coenzyme A is a catabolic intermediate

The phenylacetic acid transport system (PATS) of Pseudomonas putida U was studied after this bacterium was cultured in a chemically defined medium containing phenylacetic acid (PA) as the sole carbon source. Kinetic measurement was carried out, in vivo, at 30 degrees C in 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). Under these conditions, the uptake rate was linear for at least 3 min and the value of Km was 13 microM. The PATS is an active transport system that is strongly inhibited by 2,4-dinitrophenol, 4-nitrophenol (100%), KCN (97%), 2-nitrophenol (90%), or NaN3 (80%) added at a 1 mM final concentration (each). Glucose or D-lactate (10 mM each) increases the PATS in starved cells (140%), whereas arsenate (20 mM), NaF, or N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (1 mM) did not cause any effect. Furthermore, the PATS is insensitive to osmotic shock. These data strongly suggest that the energy for the PATS is derived only from an electron transport system which causes an energy-rich membrane state. The thiol-containing compounds mercaptoethanol, glutathione, and dithiothreitol have no significant effect on the PATS, whereas thiol-modifying reagents such as N-ethylmaleimide and iodoacetate strongly inhibit uptake (100 and 93%, respectively). Molecular analogs of PA with a substitution (i) on the ring or (ii) on the acetyl moiety or those containing (iii) a different ring but keeping the acetyl moiety constant inhibit uptake to different extents. None of the compounds tested significantly increase the PA uptake rate except adipic acid, which greatly stimulates it (163%). The PATS is induced by PA and also, gratuitously, by some phenyl derivatives containing an even number of carbon atoms on the aliphatic moiety (4-phenyl-butyric, 6-phenylhexanoic, and 8-phenyloctanoic acids). However, similar compounds with an odd number of carbon atoms (benzoic, 3-phenylpropionic, 5-phenylvaleric, 7-phenylheptanoic, and 9-phenylnonanoic acids) as well as many other PA derivatives do not induce the system, suggesting that the true inducer molecule is phenylacetyl-coenzyme A (PA-CoA). Furthermore, after P. putida U is cultured in the same medium containing other carbon sources (glucose or octanoic, benzoic, or 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid) in the place of PA, the PATS and PA-CoA are not detected; neither the PATS nor PA-CoA is found in cases in which mutants (PA- and PCL-) lacking the enzyme which catalyzed the initial step of the PA degradation (phenylacetyl-CoA ligase) are used. PA-CoA has been extracted from bacteria and identified as a true PA catabolite by high-performance liquid chromatography and also enzymatically with pure acyl-CoA:6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase from Penicillium chrysogenum.

Inhibition of penicillin biosynthetic enzymes by halogen derivatives of phenylacetic acid

The effect of phenylacetic acid (PAA) and several analogs on the activity of isopenicillin N synthase (IPNS) and acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum Wis 54-1255 has been tested. Whereas the substitution on the ring of a hydrogen atom by hydroxy-, methyl- or methoxy- groups did not cause any effect, the presence of halogens (Cl or Br) at positions 3 and/or 4 of PAA strongly inhibited these two enzymes. The replacement of hydrogen atoms by fluorine in certain positions also caused inhibition, but to a lesser extent.

Catabolism of aromatics in Pseudomonas putida U. Formal evidence that phenylacetic acid and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid are catabolized by two unrelated pathways

Phenylacetic acid (PhAcOH) and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (4HOPhAcOH) are catabolized in Pseudomonas putida U through two different pathways. Mutation carried out with the transposon Tn5 has allowed the isolation of several mutants which, unlike the parental strain, are unable to grow in chemically defined medium containing either PhAcOH or 4HOPhAcOH as the sole carbon source. Analysis of these strains showed that the ten mutants unable to grow in PhAcOH medium grew well in the one containing 4HOPhAcOH, whereas four mutants handicapped in the degradation of 4HOPhAcOH were all able to utilize PhAcOH. These results show that the degradation of these two aromatic compounds in P. putida U is not carried out as formerly believed through a single linear and common pathway, but by two unrelated routes. Identification of the blocked point in the catabolic pathway and analysis of the intermediate accumulated, showed that the mutants unable to utilize 4HOPhAcOH corresponded to two different groups: those blocked in the gene encoding 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid-3-hydroxylase; and those blocked in the gene encoding homoprotocatechuate-2,3-dioxygenase. Mutants unable to use PhAcOH as the sole carbon source have been also classified into two different groups: those which contain a functional PhAc-CoA ligase protein; and those lacking this enzyme activity.

Polysialic acids

1. Polysialic acids are linear homopolymers of N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) and deaminated neuraminic acid (KDN) residues joined by alpha 2,8, alpha 2-9 or alpha 2,8/alpha 2,9 ketosidic linkages. 2. They occur in glycoproteins of embryonic neural membranes (playing a role of neural cell adhesion molecules), in non-neural tissues (postnatal kidney), tumours, (neuroectodermal tumours), fish eggs and in the capsule of certain bacteria such as Neisseria meningitidis group B. 3. These polymers are synthesized through reactions which involve (a) the synthesis of sialic acid; (b) its activation to a cytidine monophosphate sugar nucleotide and (c) the polymerization of the different residues by a polysialyl-transferase complex. 4. Polysialic acids are involved in organogenesis and in cell growth. In several tissues they act as oncodevelopmental antigens, and in bacteria are also virulent determinants.

Characterisation of the gene encoding acetyl-CoA synthetase in Penicillium chrysogenum: conservation of intron position in plectomycetes

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (ACS; EC 6.2.1.1) from some plectomycete fungi is possibly involved in an accessory step of penicillin biosynthesis, in addition to its role in primary metabolism. We present the characterisation of the gene encoding this enzyme in Penicillium chrysogenum, which we designated acuA. Sequencing of genomic and cDNA clones showed that the coding region was interrupted by five introns, located at the same positions as those present in the Aspergillus nidulans homologue. This supports the possibility that the gene acquired its definitive mosaic organisation before the Penicillium/Aspergillus divergence. The mature transcript encodes a polypeptide with an M(r) of 74,287 which is 89.4% identical to its A. nidulans counterpart.

Purification of Pseudomonas putida acyl coenzyme A ligase active with a range of aliphatic and aromatic substrates

Acyl coenzyme A (acyl-CoA) ligase (acyl-CoA synthetase [ACoAS]) from Pseudomonas putida U was purified to homogeneity (252-fold) after this bacterium was grown in a chemically defined medium containing octanoic acid as the sole carbon source. The enzyme, which has a mass of 67 kDa, showed maximal activity at 40 degrees C in 10 mM K2PO4H-NaPO4H2 buffer (pH 7.0) containing 20% (wt/vol) glycerol. Under these conditions, ACoAS showed hyperbolic behavior against acetate, CoA, and ATP; the Kms calculated for these substrates were 4.0, 0.7, and 5.2 mM, respectively. Acyl-CoA ligase recognizes several aliphatic molecules (acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric, hexanoic, heptanoic, and octanoic acids) as substrates, as well as some aromatic compounds (phenylacetic and phenoxyacetic acids). The broad substrate specificity of ACoAS from P. putida was confirmed by coupling it with acyl-CoA:6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase from Penicillium chrysogenum to study the formation of several penicillins.

Comparative analysis of the antibodies against capsular polysaccharides of Escherichia coli K-92 and K-235: an immunochemical method for the identification of polysialic acids

1. The antibodies produced against the capsular poly-N-acetylneuraminic acid (poly-Neu5Ac) of E. coli K-92 (alpha 2-8-, alpha 2-9-linked) were 100-fold less sensitive than those obtained against E. coli K-235 capsular polysaccharide (CP) (alpha 2-8-linked) and recognized both kinds of polymers to a similar extent. 2. The partial hydrolysis of each purified polysaccharide revealed that E. coli K-92 CP is more labile at acidic pH than the polymer alpha 2-8-linked of E. coli K-235. 3. The antisera against CP from E. coli K-92 bound its own oligomers in which the number of Neu5Ac units was higher than three, whereas they only cross-reacted with the oligomers derived from E. coli K-235 containing a number of residues higher than 12. 4. The antisera against E. coli K-235 CP that recognized alpha 2-8 oligomers with a number of Neu5Ac residues higher than 5, also reacted, although very weakly, with those containing alpha 2-8 and alpha 2-9 linkages in which the carbon length was higher than (Neu5Ac)3. 5. Both types of antibodies were also able to recognize the native antigens in living bacteria and could be employed for the recognition of the type of linkage presents in different sialylpolymers.

Use of long-chain fatty acid-CoA ligase (AMP-forming) from Pseudomonas fragi for the 'in vitro' synthesis of natural penicillins

Five different naturally occurring penicillins containing as side chains hexanoic, trans-3-hexenoic, heptanoic, octanoic or trans-3-octenoic acids have been synthesized 'in vitro' by coupling long-chain fatty acid-CoA ligase (AMP-forming) (EC 6.2.1.3) from Pseudomonas fragi (LFCoA-L) with acyl-CoA: 6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum. The quantity of penicillin produced was directly related with the carbon length of the side chain precursor tested, being maximal with octanoic acid. Fatty acids with a lower length than C5 were not recognized as substrates and nor were certain aromatic molecules.

Purification and characterization of the nuclear cytidine 5'-monophosphate N-acetylneuraminic acid synthetase from rat liver

N-Acetylneuraminic acid cytidylyltransferase (EC 2.7.7.43) (CAMP-NeuAc synthetase) from rat liver catalyzes the formation of cytidine monophosphate N-acetylneuraminic acid from CTP and NeuAc. We have purified this enzyme to apparent homogeneity (241-fold) using gel filtration on Sephacryl S-200 and two types of affinity chromatographies (Reactive Brown-10 Agarose and Blue Sepharose CL-6B columns). The pure enzyme, whose amino acid composition and NH2-terminal amino acid sequence are also established, migrates as a single protein band on non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The molecular mass of the native enzyme, estimated by gel filtration, was 116 +/- 2 kDa whereas its Mr in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was 58 +/- 1 kDa. CMP-NeuAc synthetase requires Mg2+ for catalysis although this ion can be replaced by Mn2+, Ca2+, or Co2+. The optimal pH was 8.0 in the presence of 10 mM Mg2+ and 5 mM dithiothreitol. The apparent Km for CTP and NeuAc are 1.5 and 1.3 mM, respectively. The enzyme also converts N-glycolylneuraminic acid to its corresponding CMP-sialic acid (Km, 2.6 mM), whereas CMP-NeuAc, high CTP concentrations, and other nucleotides (CDP, CMP, ATP, UTP, GTP, and TTP) inhibited the enzyme to different extents.

Isolation and characterization of the acetyl-CoA synthetase from Penicillium chrysogenum. Involvement of this enzyme in the biosynthesis of penicillins

Acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) of Penicillium chrysogenum was purified to homogeneity (745-fold) from fungal cultures grown in a chemically defined medium containing acetate as the main carbon source. The enzyme showed maximal rate of catalysis when incubated in 50 mM HCl-Tris buffer, pH 8.0, at 37 degrees C. Under these conditions, ACS showed hyperbolic behavior against acetate, CoA, and ATP; the Km values calculated for these substrates were 6.8, 0.18, and 17 mM, respectively. ACS recognized as substrates not only acetate but also several fatty acids ranging between C2 and C8 and some aromatic molecules (phenylacetic, 2-thiopheneacetic, and 3-thiopheneacetic acids). ATP can be replaced by ADP although, in this case, a lower activity was observed (37%). ACS in inhibited by some thiol reagents (5,5'-dithiobis(nitrobenzoic acid), N-ethylmaleimide, p-chloromercuribenzoate) and divalent cations (Zn2+, Cu2+, and Hg2+), whereas it was stimulated when the reaction mixtures contained 1 mM dithiothreitol, reduced glutathione, or 2-mercaptoethanol. The calculated molecular mass of ACS was 139 +/- 1 kDa, and the native enzyme is composed of two apparent identical subunits (70 kDa) in an alpha 2 oligomeric structure. ACS activity was regulated "in vivo" by carbon catabolite inactivation when glucose was taken up by cells in which the enzyme had been previously induced. This enzyme can be coupled "in vitro" to acyl-CoA:6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase from P. chrysogenum, thus allowing the reconstitution of the functional enzymatic system which catalyzes the two latter reactions responsible for the biosynthesis of different penicillins. The ACS from Aspergillus nidulans can also be coupled to 6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase to synthesize penicillins. These results strongly indicate that this enzyme can catalyze the activation (to their CoA thioesters) of some of the side-chain precursors required in these two fungi for the production of several penicillins. All these data are reported here for the first time.

Characterization of an inducible transport system for glycerol in Streptomyces clavuligerus. Repression by L-serine

Streptomyces clavuligerus NRRL 3585 grown in a chemically defined medium containing glycerol as the sole carbon source transported this molecule by two different systems. One of these was constitutive with a very low uptake efficiency and insufficient to attend to the metabolic requirements of this bacterium (constitutive glycerol transport system) and the other (glycerol transport system (GTS)) active and specifically induced by D-glycerol which is responsible for the transport of more than 90% of the glycerol taken up the cells. GTS was seen to have an optimal pH and temperature of 7.0 and 30 degrees C, respectively, and its Km was 14 microM. It was repressed by L-serine and addition of this amino acid to the culture broth (10 mM) inhibited the growth of S. clavuligerus but not that of other species of Streptomyces.

H.p.l.c. of oligo(sialic acids). Application to the determination of the minimal chain length serving as exogenous acceptor in the enzymic synthesis of colominic acid

A rapid, sensitive and easy h.p.l.c. method was developed for the quantitative analysis of oligosialic acids. This procedure which permits the complete separation (in 23 min) of several sialyloligomers with a degree of polymerization of between 1 and 16, has been employed to establish the minimal chain length of oligomer accepted, as an exogenous acceptor, by Escherichia coli K-235 sialytransferase complex (ST) leading to the synthesis in vitro of colominic acid. We showed that this membrane-bound enzyme catalyses the direct transfer of Neu5Ac residues (one by one) from CMP-Neu5Ac to an exogenous acceptor molecule which contains at least three Neu5Ac residues. Free Neu5Ac or (Neu5Ac)2 were not recognized as substrates, whereas the maximal rate of polymer elongation was achieved when (Neu5Ac)5 was used as substrate.

"In vitro" synthesis of different naturally-occurring, semisynthetic and synthetic penicillins using a new and effective enzymatic coupled system

Forty-seven different penicillins, including some of great clinical importance, have been synthesized "in vitro" by coupling the newly described enzyme phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (PCL) from Pseudomonas putida and acyl-CoA: 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum. Incubations were carried out at 30 degrees C in 50 mM HCl-Tris buffer pH 8.0. The reaction mixtures contained 6-APA, CoA, ATP, dithiothreitol, Mg2+ and the corresponding penicillin side-chain precursor. This is the first description of the enzymatic synthesis of all the natural penicillins known, many of the semisynthetic until now reported, and some penicillins that could only be currently obtained by chemical synthesis. The efficiency of this prokaryotic-eukaryotic enzymatic-coupled system and its application to the synthesis of different beta-lactam antibiotics are discussed.

Synthesis of 3-furylmethylpenicillin using an enzymatic procedure

3-Furylmethylpenicillin was synthesized in vitro from 3-furylacetic acid, 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), CoA, ATP and Mg2+. The reaction was catalyzed in two steps by the enzymes phenyl-acetyl-CoA ligase (PCL) from Pseudomonas putida and acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum. PCL catalyzes the activation of 3-furylacetic acid to 3-furylacetyl-CoA (3-F-CoA) and AT acylates the amino group of 6-APA with the 3-furylacetyl moiety of 3-F-CoA, releasing CoA and 3-furylmethylpenicillin.

In vitro enzymatic synthesis of new penicillins containing keto acids as side chains

Seven different penicillins containing alpha-ketobutyric, beta-ketobutyric, gamma-ketovaleric, alpha-ketohexanoic, delta-ketohexanoic, epsilon-ketoheptanoic, and alpha-ketooctanoic acids as side chains have been synthesized in vitro by incubating the enzymes phenylacetyl coenzyme A (CoA) ligase from Pseudomonas putida and acyl-CoA:6-aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase from Penicillium chrysogenum with CoA, ATP, Mg(2+), dithiothreitol, 6-aminopenicillanic acid, and the corresponding side chain precursor.

Fluorometric determination of phenylacetyl-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida: a very sensitive assay for a newly described enzyme

Phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (AMP-forming) from Pseudomonas putida is a newly described enzyme (Martinez-Blanco, H., Reglero, A., Rodriguez-Aparicio, L.B. and Luengo, J.M. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 7084-7090) specifically involved in the catabolism of phenylacetic acid. This enzyme catalyzes the formation of phenylacetyl-CoA in the presence of ATP, CoA, Mg2+ and phenylacetic acid. A rapid method of assaying this enzyme in partially purified preparations has been developed by coupling this reaction with adenylate kinase, pyruvate kinase and kinase and lactate dehydrogenase. The rate of phenylacetyl-CoA formation was measured indirectly by monitoring fluorometrically the NADH oxidation at 340 nm (excitation at 340 nm and analysis of the emitted light at 465 nm). The advantage of this method of assay over others (colorimetric, HPLC and spectrophotometric) is discussed.

Acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase from Penicillium chrysogenum studies on its hydrolytic activity

Acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum Wis 54-1255 catalyzes the hydrolysis of different acyl-CoA derivatives generating, in the absence of 6-APA, free acid and CoA. The hydrolytic efficiency of AT is highest for acyl-CoA variants in which the acyl-moiety is higher than six carbon atoms. The maximal rate of catalysis was achieved in 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer, pH 8.5 at 35 degrees C. Unlike the AT activity, the acylase activity has a different optimum temperature and substrate specificity and dithiothreitol is not required for the reaction.

Aliphatic molecules (C-6 to C-8) containing double or triple bonds as potential penicillin side-chain precursors

Three different hexenoyl-CoA derivatives (trans-2-hexenoyl-CoA, trans-3-hexenoyl-CoA and trans-trans-2,4-hexadienoyl-CoA), two octenoyl-CoA (trans-2-octenoyl-CoA, trans-3-octenoyl-CoA) and 2-octynoyl-CoA were tested as substrates of the enzyme acyl-CoA: 6-Aminopenicillanic acid acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum. Only trans-3-hexenoyl-CoA and trans-3-octenoyl-CoA were recognized by AT and efficiently converted into penicillin F and octenoylpenicillin, respectively. The Km values for these substrates were 0.6 and 0.5 mM, suggesting that the affinity of AT for these molecules is similar to that reported for phenyl acetyl-CoA, octanoyl-CoA and hexanoyl-CoA (0.5, 0.6, and 1 mM, respectively). The absence of enzymatic activity shown by AT with the other acyl-CoA derivatives tested is due to the different position of the double or triple bond(s) in their aliphatic chains. The influence of the free rotation round the bond C-2-C-3 and possibility of planar conformation in such molecules and the importance in the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex is discussed.

High production of polysialic acid [Neu5Ac alpha(2-8)-Neu5Ac alpha(2-9)]n by Escherichia coli K92 grown in a chemically defined medium. Regulation of temperature

The capsular polysaccharide of Escherichia coli K92 consists of a linear polymer of Neu5Ac with alternating alpha(2-8) and alpha(2-9) linkages. It accumulates when the bacterium is grown at 37 degrees C in a defined medium containing D-xylose and L-asparagine as carbon and nitrogen sources. Release of the capsular polymer into the medium was maximal (450 micrograms x ml-1) in the stationary phase of growth (76 h). This medium could be useful for obtaining sufficient polymer to develop effective vaccines. The enzyme, CMP-Neu5Ac synthetase, was not detected in cells grown at 20 degrees C. The lack of this enzyme explains the absence of polymer biosynthesis when the bacterium was grown at 20 degrees C.

Design of an enzymatic hybrid system: a useful strategy for the biosynthesis of benzylpenicillin in vitro

A hybrid (prokaryotic-eukaryotic) enzyme system leading to the production of benzylpenicillin has been developed. In vitro synthesis of penicillin G was achieved by incubating 6-aminopenicillanic acid, CoA, phenylacetic acid, homogeneously pure phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (PA-CoA ligase) from Pseudomonas putida and acyl-CoA:6-APA acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum. Benzylpenicillin was also obtained when AT was coupled with PA-CoA ligase and isopenicillin N-synthetase (IPNS). This is the first description of an in vitro assay that, using enzymes of different microbial origin, mimics the three last enzymatic steps leading to the biosynthesis of penicillin G in P. chrysogenum.

Biosynthesis of benzylpenicillin (G), phenoxymethylpenicillin (V) and octanoylpenicillin (K) from glutathione S-derivatives

"In vitro" synthesis of benzylpenicillin and phenoxymethylpenicillin has been carried out by direct N-acylation of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) with S-phenylacetyl- and (S-phenoxyacetyl)glutathione. The reactions were catalyzed by the enzyme acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase (AT) from Penicillium chrysogenum and in both cases the synthesis of antibiotics was enhanced by CoA. Penicillin K, a natural penicillin, was also synthesized "in vitro" by incubating (S-octanoyl)glutathione, 6-APA and AT, but in this case the formation of antibiotic required the presence of CoA. Furthermore, benzylpenicillin was obtained from (S-phenylacetyl)cysteinylglycine and 6-APA, suggesting that some intermediates of the gamma-glutamyl cycle are directly involved in the biosynthesis of penicillins. To explain "in vivo" formation of this beta-lactam antibiotic, a biosynthetic pathway which includes several glutathione-S-derivatives and a non-enzymatic reaction, is proposed.

Purification and biochemical characterization of phenylacetyl-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida. A specific enzyme for the catabolism of phenylacetic acid

A new enzyme, phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (AMP-forming) (PA-CoA ligase, EC 6.2.1-) involved in the catabolism of phenylacetic acid (PAA) in Pseudomonas putida is described and characterized. PA-CoA ligase was specifically induced by PAA when P. putida was grown in a chemically defined medium in which phenylacetic acid was the sole carbon source. Hydroxyl, methyl-phenylacetyl derivatives, and other PAA close structural molecules did not induce the synthesis of this enzyme and neither did acetic, butyric, succinic, nor fatty acids (greater than C5 atoms carbon length). PA-CoA ligase requires ATP, CoA, PAA, and MgCl2 for its activity. The maximal rate of catalysis was achieved in 50 mM HCl/Tris buffer, pH 8.2, at 30 degrees C and under these conditions, the Km calculated for ATP, CoA, and PAA were 9.7, 1.0, and 16.5 mM, respectively. The enzyme is inhibited by some divalent cations (Cu2+, Zn2+, and Hg2+) and by the sulfhydryl reagents N-ethylmaleimide, 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid), and p-chloromercuribenzoate. PA-CoA ligase was purified to homogeneity (513-fold). It runs as a single polypeptide in 12% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and has a molecular mass of 48 +/- 1 kDa. PA-CoA ligase does not use as substrate either 3-hydroxyphenylacetic, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic, or 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acids and shows a substrate specificity different from other acyl-CoA-activating enzymes. The enzyme is detected in P. putida from the early logarithmic phase of growth and is repressed by glucose, suggesting that PA-CoA ligase is a specific enzyme involved in the utilization of PAA as energy source.

Carbon catabolite regulation of phenylacetyl-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida

Phenylacetyl-CoA ligase (PA-CoA ligase) from P. putida U is a newly described enzyme involved in the aerobic catabolism of phenylacetic acid. The enzyme was specifically induced when P. putida was grown in a chemically defined medium containing phenylacetic acid as the sole carbon source. The induction of PA-CoA ligase was delayed by adding easily metabolizable carbon sources to the medium; the effect was more drastic in the presence of glucose. Glucose did not cause catabolic inactivation but rather catabolic repression, this effect being reversed by cAMP.

IV. Acyl-CoA: 6-APA acyltransferase of Penicillium chrysogenum: studies on substrate specificity using phenylacetyl-CoA variants

Two different penicillins (p- and m-methylbenzylpenicillin) were obtained "in vitro" by direct enzymatic synthesis, using homogeneously pure acyl-CoA: 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) acyltransferase from Penicillium chrysogenum, 6-APA and p- or m-tolylacetyl-CoA. The Km for these substrates were 6 and 15 mM, respectively, indicating that the affinity of the enzyme for these two molecules is much lower that shown by phenylacetyl-CoA (0.55 mM). Furthermore, acyltransferase does not recognize o-tolylacetyl-CoA as a substrate suggesting that the position of the methyl group on the aromatic moiety may have a very important role in the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex.

Repression of phenylacetic acid transport system in Penicillium chrysogenum Wis 54-1255 by free amino acids and ammonium salts

The phenylacetic acid (PA) transport system in Penicillium chrysogenum is an inducible-system (see Fernández-Cañón et al.; preceding papers) which is repressed by free amino acids when these molecules are added to the complex fermentation broths at the induction time. L-Tyrosine, L-alpha-aminoadipic acid, L-tryptophan, L-phenylalanine and L-methionine are the molecules that cause the greatest delay in induction. The addition of Krebs-cycle intermediates to the complex fermentation broth did not affect the rate of induction with the exception of oxalacetic acid and citric acid which strongly increased it. Ammonium salts and acetate also repressed the biosynthesis of the enzymes involved in the PA uptake.

Uptake of phenylacetic acid by Penicillium chrysogenum Wis 54-1255: a critical regulatory point in benzylpenicillin biosynthesis

The transport system of phenylacetic acid (PA) in Penicillium chrysogenum was studied. Kinetic measurements were carried out "in vivo" at 25 degrees C in 0.06 M phosphate buffer at pH 6.5. Uptake was a linear function of time over 3 minutes and the Km was 5.2 microM. PA uptake was inhibited by 2,4-dinitrophenol, 4-nitrophenol, sodium azide, potassium cyanide. N-ethylmaleimide, amino acids, xylose and fatty acids whereas lactose and ribose stimulated it. Benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin, penicillins DF, K and 6-aminopenicillanic acid did not modify uptake whereas phenoxyacetic acid and many phenyl derivatives strongly inhibited the incorporation of PA. PA transport is an inducible system that is strictly regulated by the carbon source used for P. chrysogenum growth. Uptake is not induced by phenoxyacetic acid and is repressed by L-lysine. The absence of the PA transport system when P. chrysogenum is grown in the presence of readily metabolized sugars and its repression by L-lysine suggests that this is a critical regulatory point in the control of benzylpenicillin biosynthesis.

Phenylacetic acid transport system in Penicillium chrysogenum Wis 54-1255: molecular specificity of its induction

The phenylacetic acid (PA) transport system of Penicillium chrysogenum is induced by PA, 2-hydroxyphenylacetic and 4-phenylbutyric acids but not by benzoic, phenoxyacetic acid and phenylpropionic acids. Substitution in the aromatic moiety (3-hydroxyphenylacetic, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acids), replacement of the aromatic moiety by other rings (thiophene-2-acetic acid, indole-3-acetic or indole-3-butyric acids) or the presence of an amino group in the alpha-position (2-aminophenylacetic acid) eliminates inducing activity. 2-Phenylbutyric acid dose not induce the PA transport system indicating that fatty acid-beta-oxidation is needed to generate the authentic regulatory molecule (phenylacetyl-CoA) from 4-phenylbutyric acid. Furthermore, the uptake system synthesized in presence of PA, 2-hydroxyphenylacetic or 4-phenylbutyric acids is under carbon catabolic repression control and is also repressed by L-lysine suggesting that the three molecules induce in P. chrysogenum a single mechanism of transport.

Regulation of colominic acid biosynthesis by temperature: role of cytidine 5'-monophosphate N-acetylneuraminic acid synthetase

Synthesis of colominic acid in Escherichia coli K-235 is strictly regulated by temperature. Evidence for the role of cytidine 5'-monophospho-N-acetylneuraminic acid (CMP-Neu5Ac) synthetase in this regulation was obtained by measuring its level in E. coli grown at 20 and 37 degrees C. No activity was found in E. coli grown at 20 degrees C. CMP-Neu5Ac started to be quickly synthesized when bacteria grown at 20 degrees C were transferred to 37 degrees C and was halted when cells grown at 37 degrees C were transferred to 20 degrees C. These findings suggest that temperature regulates the synthesis of this enzyme and therefore the concentration of CMP-Neu5Ac necessary for the biosynthesis of colominic acid.

In vitro synthesis of colominic acid by membrane-bound sialyltransferase of Escherichia coli K-235. Kinetic properties of this enzyme and inhibition by CMP and other cytidine nucleotides

The membrane-bound sialyltransferase obtained from Escherichia coli K-235 grown in a chemically defined medium (ideal for colominic acid production) was studied. The in vivo half-life calculated for this enzyme was 20 h. Kinetic tests revealed (at 33 degrees C and pH 8.3) hyperbolic behaviour with respect to CMP-Neu5Ac (Km250 microM) and a transition temperature at 31.3 degrees C. The enzyme was inhibited by NH4+, some divalent cations and by several agents that react with thiol groups. Detergents and fatty acids also inhibited the sialyltransferase activity. In vitro synthesis of colominic acid is strongly inhibited by CMP by blocking the incorporation of [14C]Neu5Ac into a protein-complex intermediate and therefore into free polymer. CDP and CTP also inhibited (91% and 84%) this enzyme activity whereas cytosine and cytidine had no effect. CMP inhibition corresponded to a competitive model the calculated Ki was 30 microM. Incubations of protein[14C]Neu5Ac with CMP, CDP and CTP led to de novo synthesis of CMP-[14C]Neu5Ac. The presence of colominic acid, which usually displaces the reaction equilibrium towards polymer synthesis, did not affect this de novo CMP-[14C]Neu5Ac formation. CMP also inhibited in vivo colominic acid biosynthesis.