Exploring aquaporin functions during changes in leaf water potential

Maintenance of optimal leaf tissue humidity is important for plant productivity and food security. Leaf humidity is influenced by soil and atmospheric water availability, by transpiration and by the coordination of water flux across cell membranes throughout the plant. Flux of water and solutes across plant cell membranes is influenced by the function of aquaporin proteins. Plants have numerous aquaporin proteins required for a multitude of physiological roles in various plant tissues and the membrane flux contribution of each aquaporin can be regulated by changes in protein abundance, gating, localisation, post-translational modifications, protein:protein interactions and aquaporin stoichiometry. Resolving which aquaporins are candidates for influencing leaf humidity and determining how their regulation impacts changes in leaf cell solute flux and leaf cavity humidity is challenging. This challenge involves resolving the dynamics of the cell membrane aquaporin abundance, aquaporin sub-cellular localisation and location-specific post-translational regulation of aquaporins in membranes of leaf cells during plant responses to changes in water availability and determining the influence of cell signalling on aquaporin permeability to a range of relevant solutes, as well as determining aquaporin influence on cell signalling. Here we review recent developments, current challenges and suggest open opportunities for assessing the role of aquaporins in leaf substomatal cavity humidity regulation.

Dissecting the Role of SAL1 in Metabolizing the Stress Signaling Molecule 3′-Phosphoadenosine 5′-Phosphate in Different Cell Compartments

Plants possess the most highly compartmentalized eukaryotic cells. To coordinate their intracellular functions, plastids and the mitochondria are dependent on the flow of information to and from the nuclei, known as retrograde and anterograde signals. One mobile retrograde signaling molecule is the monophosphate 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphate (PAP), which is mainly produced from 3′-phosphoadenosine 5′-phosphosulfate (PAPS) in the cytosol and regulates the expression of a set of nuclear genes that modulate plant growth in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. The adenosine bisphosphate phosphatase enzyme SAL1 dephosphorylates PAP to AMP in plastids and the mitochondria, but can also rescue sal1 Arabidopsis phenotypes (PAP accumulation, leaf morphology, growth, etc.) when expressed in the cytosol and the nucleus. To understand better the roles of the SAL1 protein in chloroplasts, the mitochondria, nuclei, and the cytosol, we have attempted to complement the sal1 mutant by specifically cargoing the transgenic SAL1 protein to these four cell compartments. Overexpression of SAL1 protein targeted to the nucleus or the mitochondria alone, or co-targeted to chloroplasts and the mitochondria, complemented most aspects of the sal1 phenotypes. Notably, targeting SAL1 to chloroplasts or the cytosol did not effectively rescue the sal1 phenotypes as these transgenic lines accumulated very low levels of SAL1 protein despite overexpressing SAL1 mRNA, suggesting a possibly lower stability of the SAL1 protein in these compartments. The diverse transgenic SAL1 lines exhibited a range of PAP levels. The latter needs to reach certain thresholds in the cell for its impacts on different processes such as leaf growth, regulation of rosette morphology, sulfate homeostasis, and glucosinolate biosynthesis. Collectively, these findings provide an initial platform for further dissection of the role of the SAL1–PAP pathway in different cellular processes under stress conditions.

Reactive oxygen species and organellar signaling

The evolution of photosynthesis and its associated metabolic pathways has been crucial to the successful establishment of plants, but has also challenged plant cells in the form of production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Intriguingly, multiple forms of ROS are generated in virtually every plant cell compartment through diverse pathways. As a result, a sophisticated network of ROS detoxification and signaling that is simultaneously tailored to individual organelles and safeguards the entire cell is necessary. Here we take an organelle-centric view on the principal sources and sinks of ROS across the plant cell and provide insights into the ROS-induced organelle to nucleus retrograde signaling pathways needed for operational readjustments during environmental stresses.

A GDSL Esterase/Lipase Catalyzes the Esterification of Lutein in Bread Wheat

Xanthophylls are a class of carotenoids that are important micronutrients for humans. They are often found esterified with fatty acids in fruits, vegetables, and certain grains, including bread wheat (Triticum aestivum). Esterification promotes the sequestration and accumulation of carotenoids, thereby enhancing stability, particularly in tissues such as in harvested wheat grain. Here, we report on a plant xanthophyll acyltransferase (XAT) that is both necessary and sufficient for xanthophyll esterification in bread wheat grain. XAT contains a canonical Gly-Asp-Ser-Leu (GDSL) motif and is encoded by a member of the GDSL esterase/lipase gene family. Genetic evidence from allelic variants of wheat and transgenic rice (Oryza sativa) calli demonstrated that XAT catalyzes the formation of xanthophyll esters. XAT has broad substrate specificity and can esterify lutein, β-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin using multiple acyl donors, yet it has a preference for triacylglycerides, indicating that the enzyme acts via transesterification. A conserved amino acid, Ser-37, is required for activity. Despite xanthophylls being synthesized in plastids, XAT accumulated in the apoplast. Based on analysis of substrate preferences and xanthophyll ester formation in vitro and in vivo using xanthophyll-accumulating rice callus, we propose that disintegration of the cellular structure during wheat grain desiccation facilitates access to lutein-promoting transesterification.plantcell;31/12/3092/FX1F1fx1.

Secondary sulfur metabolism in cellular signalling and oxidative stress responses

The sulfur metabolism pathway in plants produces a variety of compounds that are central to the acclimation response to oxidative stresses such as drought and high light. Primary sulfur assimilation provides the amino acid cysteine, which is utilized in protein synthesis and as a precursor for the cellular redox buffer glutathione. In contrast, the secondary sulfur metabolism pathway produces sulfated compounds such as glucosinolates and sulfated peptides, as well as a corresponding by-product 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate (PAP). Emerging evidence over the past decade has shown that secondary sulfur metabolism also has a crucial engagement during oxidative stress. This occurs across various cellular, tissue, and organismal levels including chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signalling events mediated by PAP, modulation of hormonal signalling by sulfated compounds and PAP, control of physiological responses such as stomatal closure, and potential regulation of plant growth. In this review, we examine the contribution of the different components of plant secondary metabolism to oxidative stress homeostasis, and how this pathway is metabolically regulated. We further outline the key outstanding questions in the field that are necessary to understand how and why this 'specialized' metabolic pathway plays significant roles in plant oxidative stress tolerance.

3'-Phosphoadenosine 5'-Phosphate Accumulation Delays the Circadian System

The circadian system optimizes cellular responses to stress, but the signaling pathways that convey the metabolic consequences of stress into this molecular timekeeping mechanism remain unclear. Redox regulation of the SAL1 phosphatase during abiotic stress initiates a signaling pathway from chloroplast to nucleus by regulating the accumulation of a metabolite, 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate (PAP). Consequently, PAP accumulates in response to redox stress and inhibits the activity of exoribonucleases (XRNs) in the nucleus and cytosol. We demonstrated that osmotic stress induces a lengthening of circadian period and that genetically inducing the SAL1-PAP-XRN pathway in plants lacking either SAL1 or XRNs similarly delays the circadian system. Exogenous application of PAP was also sufficient to extend circadian period. Thus, SAL1-PAP-XRN signaling likely regulates circadian rhythms in response to redox stress. Our findings exemplify how two central processes in plants, molecular timekeeping and responses to abiotic stress, can be interlinked to regulate gene expression.

Development of strategies for genetic manipulation and fine-tuning of a chloroplast retrograde signal 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate

Homeostasis of metabolism and regulation of stress-signaling pathways are important for plant growth. The metabolite 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphate (PAP) plays dual roles as a chloroplast retrograde signal during drought and high light stress, as well as a toxic by-product of secondary sulfur metabolism, and thus, its levels are regulated by the chloroplastic phosphatase, SAL1. Constitutive PAP accumulation in sal1 mutants improves drought tolerance but can impair growth and alter rosette morphology. Therefore, it is of interest to derive strategies to enable controlled and targeted PAP manipulation that could enhance drought tolerance while minimizing the negative effects on plant growth. We systematically tested the potential and efficiency of multiple established transgenic manipulation tools in altering PAP levels in Arabidopsis. Dexamethasone (dex)-inducible silencing of SAL1 via hpRNAi [pOpOff:SAL1hpRNAi] yielded reduction in SAL1 transcript and protein levels, yet failed to significantly induce PAP accumulation. Surprisingly, this was not due to insufficient silencing of the inducible system, as constitutive silencing using a strong promoter to drive hpRNAi and amiRNA targeting the SAL1 transcript also failed to increase PAP content or induce a sal1-like plant morphology despite significantly reducing the SAL1 transcript levels. In contrast, using dex-inducible expression of SAL1 cDNA to complement an Arabidopsis sal1 mutant successfully modulated PAP levels and restored rosette growth in a dosage-dependent manner. Results from this inducible complementation system indicate that plants with intermediate PAP levels could have improved rosette growth without compromising its drought tolerance. Additionally, preliminary evidence suggests that SAL1 cDNA driven by promoters of genes expressed specifically during early developmental stages such as ABA-Insensitive 3 (ABI3) could be another potential strategy for studying and optimizing PAP levels and drought tolerance while alleviating the negative impact of PAP on plant growth in sal1. Thus, we have identified ways that can allow future dissection into multiple aspects of stress and developmental regulation mediated by this chloroplast signal.

A chloroplast retrograde signal, 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate, acts as a secondary messenger in abscisic acid signaling in stomatal closure and germination

Organelle-nuclear retrograde signaling regulates gene expression, but its roles in specialized cells and integration with hormonal signaling remain enigmatic. Here we show that the SAL1-PAP (3'-phosphoadenosine 5'- phosphate) retrograde pathway interacts with abscisic acid (ABA) signaling to regulate stomatal closure and seed germination in Arabidopsis. Genetically or exogenously manipulating PAP bypasses the canonical signaling components ABA Insensitive 1 (ABI1) and Open Stomata 1 (OST1); priming an alternative pathway that restores ABA-responsive gene expression, ROS bursts, ion channel function, stomatal closure and drought tolerance in ost1-2. PAP also inhibits wild type and abi1-1 seed germination by enhancing ABA sensitivity. PAP-XRN signaling interacts with ABA, ROS and Ca²⁺; up-regulating multiple ABA signaling components, including lowly-expressed Calcium Dependent Protein Kinases (CDPKs) capable of activating the anion channel SLAC1. Thus, PAP exhibits many secondary messenger attributes and exemplifies how retrograde signals can have broader roles in hormone signaling, allowing chloroplasts to fine-tune physiological responses.

The Transcription Factor MYB29 Is a Regulator of ALTERNATIVE OXIDASE1a

Plants sense and integrate a variety of signals from the environment through different interacting signal transduction pathways that involve hormones and signaling molecules. Using ALTERNATIVE OXIDASE1a (AOX1a) gene expression as a model system of retrograde or stress signaling between mitochondria and the nucleus, MYB DOMAIN PROTEIN29 (MYB29) was identified as a negative regulator (regulator of alternative oxidase1a 7 [rao7] mutant) in a genetic screen of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). rao7/myb29 mutants have increased levels of AOX1a transcript and protein compared to wild type after induction with antimycin A. A variety of genes previously associated with the mitochondrial stress response also display enhanced transcript abundance, indicating that RAO7/MYB29 negatively regulates mitochondrial stress responses in general. Meta-analysis of hormone-responsive marker genes and identification of downstream transcription factor networks revealed that MYB29 functions in the complex interplay of ethylene, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and reactive oxygen species signaling by regulating the expression of various ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR and WRKY transcription factors. Despite an enhanced induction of mitochondrial stress response genes, rao7/myb29 mutants displayed an increased sensitivity to combined moderate light and drought stress. These results uncover interactions between mitochondrial retrograde signaling and the regulation of glucosinolate biosynthesis, both regulated by RAO7/MYB29. This common regulator can explain why perturbation of the mitochondrial function leads to transcriptomic responses overlapping with responses to biotic stress.

Learning the Languages of the Chloroplast: Retrograde Signaling and Beyond

The chloroplast can act as an environmental sensor, communicating with the cell during biogenesis and operation to change the expression of thousands of proteins. This process, termed retrograde signaling, regulates expression in response to developmental cues and stresses that affect photosynthesis and yield. Recent advances have identified many signals and pathways-including carotenoid derivatives, isoprenes, phosphoadenosines, tetrapyrroles, and heme, together with reactive oxygen species and proteins-that build a communication network to regulate gene expression, RNA turnover, and splicing. However, retrograde signaling pathways have been viewed largely as a means of bilateral communication between organelles and nuclei, ignoring their potential to interact with hormone signaling and the cell as a whole to regulate plant form and function. Here, we discuss new findings on the processes by which organelle communication is initiated, transmitted, and perceived, not only to regulate chloroplastic processes but also to intersect with cellular signaling and alter physiological responses.

Chloroplast Activity and 3'phosphadenosine 5'phosphate Signaling Regulate Programmed Cell Death in Arabidopsis

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a crucial process both for plant development and responses to biotic and abiotic stress. There is accumulating evidence that chloroplasts may play a central role during plant PCD as for mitochondria in animal cells, but it is still unclear whether they participate in PCD onset, execution, or both. To tackle this question, we have analyzed the contribution of chloroplast function to the cell death phenotype of the myoinositol phosphate synthase1 (mips1) mutant that forms spontaneous lesions in a light-dependent manner. We show that photosynthetically active chloroplasts are required for PCD to occur in mips1, but this process is independent of the redox state of the chloroplast. Systematic genetic analyses with retrograde signaling mutants reveal that 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphate, a chloroplast retrograde signal that modulates nuclear gene expression in response to stress, can inhibit cell death and compromises plant innate immunity via inhibition of the RNA-processing 5'-3' exoribonucleases. Our results provide evidence for the role of chloroplast-derived signal and RNA metabolism in the control of cell death and biotic stress response.

Periodic root branching in Arabidopsis requires synthesis of an uncharacterized carotenoid derivative

In plants, continuous formation of lateral roots (LRs) facilitates efficient exploration of the soil environment. Roots can maximize developmental capacity in variable environmental conditions through establishment of sites competent to form LRs. This LR prepattern is established by a periodic oscillation in gene expression near the root tip. The spatial distribution of competent (prebranch) sites results from the interplay between this periodic process and primary root growth; yet, much about this oscillatory process and the formation of prebranch sites remains unknown. We find that disruption of carotenoid biosynthesis results in seedlings with very few LRs. Carotenoids are further required for the output of the LR clock because inhibition of carotenoid synthesis also results in fewer sites competent to form LRs. Genetic analyses and a carotenoid cleavage inhibitor indicate that an apocarotenoid, distinct from abscisic acid or strigolactone, is specifically required for LR formation. Expression of a key carotenoid biosynthesis gene occurs in a spatially specific pattern along the root's axis, suggesting spatial regulation of carotenoid synthesis. These results indicate that developmental prepatterning of LRs requires an uncharacterized carotenoid-derived molecule. We propose that this molecule functions non-cell-autonomously in establishment of the LR prepattern.

Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum

A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites that act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants, and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: how do plants regulate metabolism to balance the 'competing interests' between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism (e.g., sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves, and the recycling of sulfur-containing compounds) with the drought stress response. In this review, we highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. We propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants.

Reconsidering the nature and mode of action of metabolite retrograde signals from the chloroplast

Plant organelles produce retrograde signals to alter nuclear gene expression in order to coordinate their biogenesis, maintain homeostasis, or optimize their performance under adverse conditions. Many signals of different chemical nature have been described in the past decades, including chlorophyll intermediates, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and adenosine derivatives. While the effects of retrograde signaling on gene expression are well understood, the initiation and transport of the signals and their mode of action have either not been resolved, or are a matter of speculation. Moreover, retrograde signaling should be considered as part of a broader cellular network, instead of as separate pathways, required to adjust to changing physiologically relevant conditions. Here we summarize current plastid retrograde signaling models in plants, with a focus on new signaling pathways, SAL1-PAP, methylerythritol cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP), and β-cyclocitral (β-CC), and outline missing links or future areas of research that we believe need to be addressed to have a better understanding of plant intracellular signaling networks.

Chloroplast-to-nucleus communication: current knowledge, experimental strategies and relationship to drought stress signaling

In order for plant cells to function efficiently under different environmental conditions, chloroplastic processes have to be tightly regulated by the nucleus. It is widely believed that there is inter-organelle communication from the chloroplast to the nucleus, called retrograde signaling. Although some pathways of communication have been identified, the actual signals that move between the two cellular compartments are largely unknown. This review provides an overview of retrograde signaling including its importance to the cell, candidate signals, recent advances, and current experimental systems. In addition, we highlight the potential of using drought stress as a model for studying retrograde signaling.