A Qualitative Exploration of the "Coming Out" Process for Asexual Individuals

"Coming out" is an important process not only for identity formation in sexual minorities, but also for increasing access to romantic partners of similar identities (Vaughan & Waehler, 2010). It is unclear how asexuality and the variations within the asexual community are revealed and communicated in the coming out process. Some asexual individuals may find no practical value in coming out, as they do not seek romantic partnerships, while others pursue romantic relationships that are devoid of sexual activity. To date, virtually no psychological research has explored the "coming out" experience for those with an asexual identity. The current research analyzed the "coming out" narratives of 169 self-identified asexual individuals recruited from three online asexual communities using a phenomenological approach. Salient themes were extracted from narratives about the experience of developing an asexual identity. Themes included skepticism from family and friends, lack of acceptance and misunderstanding, non-disclosure of the asexual identity, relief upon discovering the asexual community, and the role of the internet in asexual identity discovery and expression. A theoretical model of asexual identity development is proposed based on these findings.

Flourishing, substance use, and engagement in students entering college: a preliminary study

OBJECTIVE

The present study explores the association between positive mental health or flourishing, depression, and engaged learning in undergraduates.

PARTICIPANTS

Entering first year students (N = 428) at a liberal arts college.

METHODS

Students completed measures of depression, flourishing, substance use, and student engagement.

RESULTS

Based on Keyes' model of mental health,(1) 69.1% of students were flourishing, 29.0% were moderately mentally healthy, and 1.9% were languishing. In addition, 21.8% of students had elevated depression scores, and these scores were highly correlated with languishing. Alcohol consumption and binge drinking were not associated with measures of mental health. However, certain kinds of student engagement were associated with flourishing.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest more flourishing in this sample entering college than in previous studies of high school students or adults. Future research should explore flourishing in undergraduates in more diverse samples across educational institutions, and employ prospective designs.

Effectiveness of a computer-based interactive eating disorders prevention program at long-term follow-up

Computer-based delivery of health-related psychoeducational programming is increasingly popular. In the present study, 72 non-symptomatic undergraduate women were randomized to an Internet-based prevention program for eating disorders with or without accompanying discussion groups, or a control group. Sixty-one of the women (84%) completed the Student Bodies program, and were assessed at short and eight-nine month follow-up. Participation in the program resulted in better outcomes across all groups compared to controls, and women in the unmoderated discussion group appeared to have the most reduction in risk. Benefits of the program continued at follow-up. Decrease in risk also was associated with time spent using the Internet-based program. The present study suggests that the use of Student Bodies may reduce risk of eating and body image concerns over the long term, and that moderation of discussion groups may not be essential for successful outcomes. Further research on larger samples will help determine the degree to which discussion groups or the Student Bodies program alone are effective.

Insulin pump use in young adolescents with type 1 diabetes: a descriptive study

There is little research on psychosocial factors and insulin pump use in adolescents. The purpose of the present study was to use qualitative and quantitative methods to explore psychosocial issues related to insulin pump use [continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII)] in youth. Eighteen early adolescents and their parents were interviewed about the experience of using an insulin pump, and transcripts were content-analyzed. In general, interviewees reported modest improvements in glycemic control with initiation of CSII. Teens and parents did, however, report high levels of satisfaction with pump therapy and increased adolescent responsibility for the diabetes regimen. In addition, pump users reported few issues related to body image, appearance, or social aspects of pump dependency. Chief concerns were related to the demands of initiating pump therapy, pump alarms and malfunctions, potential for regimen non-compliance with CSII, and school-related issues. Pump use is not associated with social difficulties, and, in general, youths and their parents report high satisfaction with CSII.

INTERNALIZATION OF THE THIN IDEAL, WEIGHT AND BODY IMAGE CONCERNS

Weight and shape concerns in college women are epidemic. Understanding the role of the thin ideal in the development of such concerns is critical for designing prevention programs. This study examines the association between the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ; Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995), a measure of internalization and awareness of the thin ideal, and eating and body image concerns in college women. Seventy undergraduates completed questionnaires on eating symptomatology, body image and demographics. In general, inernalization, but not awareness, of the thin ideal was associated with eating and weight concerns. In two-way analysis of body mass and dichotomized SATAQ internalization scores, body mass moderated the effects of internalization, with overweight women high in internalization having the most body image concerns. Prospectively, SATAQ-internalization scores predicted increasing drive for thinness over the school year in a subsample of women. Future research should explore the moderating effects of weight on outcomes related to internalization of the thin ideal.

Three unrelated viral transforming proteins (vIRF, EBNA2, and E1A) induce the MYC oncogene through the interferon-responsive PRF element by using different transcription coadaptors

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus vIRF is a viral transcription factor that inhibits interferon signaling and transforms NIH 3T3 cells, but does not bind interferon-stimulated response element (ISRE) DNA sequences. Here we show that induction of the MYC protooncogene is required for cell transformation by vIRF, and that vIRF increases MYC transcription up to 15-fold through specific promoter interactions at an ISRE sequence called the plasmacytoma repressor factor (PRF) element. These effects are resistant to cycloheximide but are inhibited by a dominant-negative ISRE-binding protein, indicating that vIRF acts together with a cellular cofactor at the PRF element to directly transactivate MYC. The coadaptor CREB-binding protein (CBP) binds vIRF and synergizes transactivation of MYC, but, unexpectedly, closely related histone acetyltransferases p300 and P/CAF potently suppress vIRF transactivation. On the basis of the prediction that other interferon-inhibiting viral transforming proteins behave similarly, we found that Epstein-Barr virus-induced nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) also binds p300/CBP, and that both EBNA2 and adenovirus E1A transactivate MYC through the PRF element. For E1A, P/CAF coactivates MYC, whereas both p300 and CBP suppress E1A transactivation. For EBNA2, both P/CAF and CBP coactivate the MYC promoter, whereas p300 suppresses EBNA2 transactivation. These findings demonstrate that viral transforming proteins can activate as well as inhibit transcription through coadaptor interactions. At some promoters CBP and p300 have previously unrecognized, competitive antagonism to each other. While all three viral proteins target the same promoter element, each has a different coadaptor use profile. These findings are consistent with cellular MYC repression playing a role in innate immunity as well as in control of cell proliferation.

Psychosocial variables, age, and angiographically-determined coronary artery disease in women

The present study explored the relationship between psychosocial measures and the degree of coronary stenosis in a sample of 59 women between the ages of 39 and 84. Coronary occlusion was correlated with elevated cholesterol and marginally correlated with age and was inversely associated with years of education. Based on hierarchical multiple regression, an interview-based measure of hostility was associated with coronary stenosis after controlling for traditional risk factors, and age moderated the hostility-stenosis relationship. Further, a second regression model suggested that trait anxiety was inversely correlated with degree of occlusion, perhaps because low-anxious women are referred for catheterization later in the course of the disease. Contrary to hypotheses, there was no evidence that repression of interview-based hostility or anxiety predicted coronary occlusion. Given the small sample size, results should be considered preliminary. Future studies should explore the degree to which anxiety and hostility are associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) in larger samples of women and the degree to which age moderates the hostility-occlusion association.

Seasonal affective disorder in college students: prevalence and latitude

The Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory were used to evaluate a convenience sample of college students in northern New England for winter seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and subsyndromal SAD. Seventy-six students filled out the questionnaire and the inventory in mid-fall, then completed the inventory again in mid-February. The students who had moved from southern latitudes to northern New England were the most likely to experience increased depression in winter. Prevalence rates for SAD and sub-SAD combined (winter 13.2 and 19.7%, respectively) were slightly higher than those reported in previous research. The prevalence of SAD was also higher in female students, which was consistent with findings in previous research.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax and cell cycle progression: role of cyclin D-cdk and p110Rb

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 is etiologically linked to the development of adult T-cell leukemia and various human neuropathies. The Tax protein of human T-cell leukemia virus type I has been implicated in cellular transformation. Like other oncoproteins, such as Myc, Jun, and Fos, Tax is a transcriptional activator. How it mechanistically dysregulates the cell cycle is unclear. Previously, it was suggested that Tax affects cell-phase transition by forming a direct protein-protein complex with p16(INK4a), thereby inactivating an inhibitor of G1-to-S-phase progression. Here we show that, in T cells deleted for p16(INK4a), Tax can compel an egress of cells from G0/G1 into S despite the absence of serum. We also show that in undifferentiated myocytes, expression of Tax represses cellular differentiation. In both settings, Tax expression was found to increase cyclin D-cdk activity and to enhance pRb phosphorylation. In T cells, a Tax-associated increase in steady-state E2F2 protein was also documented. In searching for a molecular explanation for these observations, we found that Tax forms a protein-protein complex with cyclin D3, whereas a point-mutated and transcriptionally inert Tax mutant failed to form such a complex. Interestingly, expression of wild-type Tax protein in cells was also correlated with the induction of a novel hyperphosphorylated cyclin D3 protein. Taken together, these findings suggest that Tax might directly influence cyclin D-cdk activity and function, perhaps by a route independent of cdk inhibitors such as p16(INK4a).

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax releases cell cycle arrest induced by p16INK4a

The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) Tax oncoprotein causes cellular transformation by deregulating important cellular processes such as DNA repair, transcription, signal transduction, proliferation, and growth. Although it is clear that normal cell cycle control is deregulated during HTLV-1-induced cellular transformation, the effects of Tax on cell cycle control are not well understood. Flow cytometric analyses of human T cells indicate that cell cycle arrest in late G1, at or before the G1/S restriction point, by p16INK4a is relieved by Tax. Furthermore, Tax-dependent stimulation of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine incorporation and transcriptional activation is inhibited by p16INK4a. This result suggests that p16INK4a is able to block Tax-dependent stimulation of DNA synthesis and cell cycle progression into S phase. In vitro binding assays with recombinant glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins and [35S]methionine-labeled proteins indicate that Tax binds specifically with p16INK4a but not with either p21cip1 or p27kip1. Furthermore, sequential immunoprecipitation assays with specific antisera and [35S]methionine-labeled cell lysates subsequent to coexpression with Tax and p16INK4a indicate that the two proteins form complexes in vivo. Immunocomplex kinase assays with cyclin-dependent kinase 4 antiserum indicate that Tax blocks the inhibition of cdk4 kinase activity by p16INK4a. This study identifies p16INK4a as a novel cellular target for Tax and suggests that the inactivation of p16INK4a function is a mechanism of cell cycle deregulation by Tax.

Brief behavioral treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

7 latency-age children received brief behavioral therapy for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The intervention included reinforcing appropriate behaviors and punishing negative behaviors, skills training, and parental education. There were significant decreases in impulsivity at home and school after intervention. These results suggest that brief behavioral interventions might decrease impulsivity in ADHD children over the short term, but the sample was small and heterogeneous, so replication on a larger sample is required.

Women participants in research: assessing progress

This study reviewed 1,050 articles published in the New England Journal of Medicine, the American Journal of Psychiatry, and the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1982 and 1991/92. The NEJM included the fewest female subjects at both assessments (26.6% in 1982 and 36.5% in 1991/92), and one way analysis of variance showed a significantly smaller percentage of women in the NEJM compared to either the AJP or the JCCP (F = (2,1048) = 11.5, p < .001) in 1991/92. The NEJM did increase the percentage of women participants over the decade (t(534) = 3.0, p = .001), but there was no increase in the proportion of its studies including women. Attempts to encourage the inclusion of women in health-related research have been only modestly successful. Medical research, in particular, continues to underrepresent women in its published studies.

Anxiety, depression, and heart disease in women

This is an extension of previous research that has reported on psychosocial risk factors in women participants in the Recurrent Coronary Prevention Project (RCPP). The RCPP women (N = 83) were under 65 years of age, non-diabetic, non-smoking and had experienced a myocardial infarction (MI) at least 6 months prior to the study. Baseline data was available on 80 RCPP subjects. Seventy three non-smoking, coronary disease-free women participants in the Stanford-Sunnyvale Health Improvement Project (SSHIP) served as a control-comparison group. Women with coronary heart disease had higher serum cholesterol than controls. There were no case-control differences in marital status, occupation, or number of children. RCPP women had Videotaped Structured Interview (VSI) Type A scores comparable to those of the SSHIP women, but had significantly higher VSI-hostility scores (p < .01). In addition. the post-MI women were rated more anxious and depressed, and had more avoidance symptoms than controls ( p < .01). Additional analyses involved the 65 RCPP women located at 8.5-year follow-up. In these women, univariate predictors of coronary recurrence (N = 13) were body mass index (kg/m)2. Peel Index, low time urgency (VSI) and high anxiety ( p < .05). Employment status, marital status, and education were not associated with subsequent cardiac events. These exploratory analyses suggest that the relations between heart disease and hostility, anxiety, and depression in women deserve further investigation.

Fibroblast growth factor and cyclic AMP (cAMP) synergistically activate gene expression at a cAMP response element

Growth factors and cyclic AMP (cAMP) are known to activate distinct intracellular signaling pathways. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) activates ras-dependent kinase cascades, resulting in the activation of MAP kinases, whereas cAMP activates protein kinase A. In this study, we report that growth factors and cAMP act synergistically to stimulate proenkephalin gene expression. Positive synergy between growth factor- and cAMP-activated signaling pathways on gene expression has not been previously reported, and we suggest that these synergistic interactions represent a useful model for analyzing interactions between these pathways. Transfection and mutational studies indicate that both FGF-dependent gene activation and cAMP-dependent gene activation require cAMP response element 2 (CRE-2), a previously characterized cAMP-dependent regulatory element. Furthermore, multiple copies of this element are sufficient to confer FGF regulation upon a minimal promoter, indicating that FGF and cAMP signaling converge upon transcription factors acting at CRE-2. Among many different ATF/AP-1 factors tested, two factors, ATF-3 and c-Jun, stimulate proenkephalin transcription in an FGF- or Ras-dependent fashion. Finally, we show that ATF-3 and c-Jun form heterodimeric complexes in SK-N-MC cells and that the levels of both proteins are increased in response to FGF but not cAMP. Together, these results indicate that growth factor- and cAMP-dependent signaling pathways converge at CRE-2 to synergistically stimulate gene expression and that ATF-3 and c-Jun regulate proenkephalin transcription in response to both growth factor- and cAMP-dependent intracellular signaling pathways.

Novel interactions between human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax and activating transcription factor 3 at a cyclic AMP-responsive element

Human proenkephalin gene transcription is transactivated by human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) Tax in human Jurkat T lymphocytes. This transactivation was further enhanced in Jurkat cells treated with concanavalin A, cyclic AMP, or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. Deletion and cis-element transfer analyses of the human proenkephalin promoter identified a cyclic AMP-responsive AP-1 element (-92 to -86) as both necessary and sufficient to confer Tax-dependent transactivation. Different AP-1 or cyclic AMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB)/activating transcription factor (ATF) proteins which bind this element were expressed in murine teratocarcinoma F9 cells to identify those capable of mediating Tax-dependent transactivation of human proenkephalin gene transcription. Although CREB, c-Fos, c-Jun, and JunD did not have significant effects, JunB inhibited the Tax-dependent transactivation. In contrast, ATF3 dramatically induced Tax-dependent transactivation, which was further enhanced by protein kinase A. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays with recombinant fusion proteins expressed and purified from bacteria indicate that the DNA-binding activity of ATF3 is also dramatically enhanced by Tax. Chimeric fusion proteins consisting of the DNA-binding domain of the yeast transcription factor Gal4 and the amino-terminal domain (residues 1 to 66) of ATF3 were able to mediate Tax-dependent transactivation of a Gal4-responsive promoter, which suggests a direct involvement of this region of ATF3. Recombinant fusion proteins of glutathione S-transferase with either the amino- or carboxy-terminal (residues 139 to 181) domain of ATF3 were able to specifically interact with Tax. Furthermore, specific antisera directed against Tax coimmunoprecipitated ATF3 only in the presence of Tax.

Causal attributions and coronary heart disease in women

The relationship between coronary heart-disease endpoints and attributional style in women has been previously unexamined. This study examined the attributions of 73 postmyocardial infarction (MI) women about their heart disease and explored the relationship between attributions and nonfatal coronary recurrence. Women's primary causal attributions included personal behavior (9.6%), blaming others (19.3%), stress (28.8%), luck (12.3%), and family history (13.7%). The largest proportion of recurrences occurred in women attributing their infarcts to marital problems. Of the attributional ratings, ascriptions involving spouses were the only attributions that met entry criteria for logistic regression (p = .019) after controlling for severity of first infarction.

Self-reported compliance with diabetes self-management during pregnancy

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined regimen compliance in pregnant women with pre-existing (overt) diabetes across multiple self-care tasks at three times during the pregnancy: mid-second, early third, and late third trimesters.

METHOD

Forty-nine pregnant women with Type I (68%) or Type II (32%) diabetes completed measures to assess compliance with the diabetic regimen, major and minor life stressors, and social support for the diabetic regimen.

RESULTS

Pregnant women with overt diabetes generally reported being compliant with their self-care regimen. There were, however, notable differences in reported compliance levels across different regimen tasks. Specifically, 74 to 79 percent of women reported being always compliant with dietary recommendations compared to 86 to 88 percent for insulin administration, 85 to 89 percent in managing insulin reactions, and 94 to 96 percent for glucose testing. Furthermore, stress in the form of major and minor life events and regimen-related social support were significantly related to self-reported compliance with dietary recommendations. There was no relationship between compliance and blood glucose levels.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that psychiatric consultants focus on ways to increase social support as one means of improving compliance in pregnant women with diabetes.

Enhancing flossing compliance in college freshmen

This study examined the relationship between dental compliance and health locus of control in 41 college freshmen. Subjects were randomly assigned to either a control (N = 13) or experimental (N = 28) group. Dental flossing compliance was assessed in all subjects using a brief dental exam that assessed pocket depth and plaque as indexes of flossing behavior. The Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale was used to measure health locus of control. An educational, low-fear intervention, consisting of the presentation of a pictorial diagram of the progression of periodontal disease and discussion of the importance of flossing was presented to the experimental subjects before monitoring began. Control subjects underwent a brief dental examination and flossing instruction only. Self-reported flossing compliance was monitored for 24 days following the dental examination and intervention. Significant decreases in the dental exam variables associated with plaque were found for both the experimental and control conditions. The low-fear, educational intervention had no significant impact on compliance. Instead, a dental exam and self-monitoring were as effective at increasing flossing compliance as the more time-consuming educational approach. A significant increase in internality of health locus of control across all subjects was also found. No significant interaction was found between health locus of control and group, but a trend was apparent. Control subjects who were externally oriented had the lowest flossing compliance scores while internal subjects in both conditions had higher flossing compliance scores.

Differential regulation of proenkephalin expression in astrocytes by cytokines

Astrocytes have previously been shown to respond to cytokines such as interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and gamma-interferon from multiple sources including microglia and astrocytes. Recently, astrocytes have also been shown to express the opioid precursor gene proenkephalin and proenkephalin-derived peptides. The objectives of the current study were to determine if immune cytokines regulate proenkephalin gene expression in primary cultures of neonatal rat cerebral astrocytes. Northern analysis of RNA from primary cultures of neonatal rat cerebral astrocytes indicated that proenkephalin transcript levels were decreased by approximately 50% with gamma-interferon treatment and increased approximately 100% by treatment with both tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta relative to untreated controls. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha treatment was unable to reverse the inhibitory effect of gamma-interferon pretreatment on proenkephalin messenger RNA levels in the astrocytes. In contrast, expression of the constitutively expressed glutamine synthetase gene was not altered by either tumor necrosis factor-alpha or gamma-interferon treatment. These cytokines also regulate the secretion of proenkephalin-derived peptides from astrocytes. The levels of immunoreactive Met-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7 were increased by approximately 50% with tumor necrosis factor-alpha and decreased by approximately 40% with gamma-interferon relative to untreated controls. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha was again unable to reverse the inhibitory effect of gamma-interferon pretreatment on the secretion of proenkephalin-derived peptides. These results provide additional support for the hypothesis that rapidly proliferating astrocytes may serve an important and pivotal role in mediating the bi-directional neuroimmune interactions during central nervous system disease, infection, or trauma.

Differential regulation of anterior pituitary prodynorphin and gonadotropin-subunit gene expression by steroid hormones

Prodynorphin is expressed by neurons of the hypothalamus and gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland (AP) and plays a role in the negative feedback regulation of the reproductive neuroendocrine axis. The present study examined whether gonadal steroid hormones are capable of modulating pituitary prodynorphin expression in immature, female rats. Steroids were administered via subcutaneous Silastic implants and rats were killed at 29 days of age. Northern blot analysis was used to measure AP prodynorphin, luteinizing hormone-beta (LH beta), follicle-stimulating hormone-beta (FSH beta), and common alpha-subunit mRNA levels (normalized to 18S ribosomal RNA). Treatment groups (n = 5-6) consisted of control (CNT; empty implants), estradiol (E2; 4 days), E2 + progesterone (E2 + P4; 8 days and 4 days, respectively), and dihydrotestosterone (DHT; 4 days). Pituitary prodynorphin mRNA was significantly suppressed in only the DHT-treated animals (26 +/- 10% of CNT, p < 0.01). LH beta mRNA was suppressed by all steroid treatments (p < 0.01), FSH beta was lower in only the E2 group, and alpha-subunit was reduced in both the E2 + P4 and DHT groups (p < 0.01). Serum LH was suppressed by all steroid treatments but FSH was reduced in only the E2 and E2 + P4 groups (p < 0.01). Treatment of prepubescent rats with continuous high levels of gonadal steroids is known to severely reduce endogenous hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) release and this is supported by our observation of reduced gonadotropin-subunit gene expression.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Characterization of macaque 3 beta-hydroxy-5-ene steroid dehydrogenase/delta 5-delta 4 isomerase: structure and expression in steroidogenic and peripheral tissues in primate

The conversion of 3 beta-hydroxy-5-ene steroids by the enzyme complex 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5-delta 4 isomerase (3 beta-HSD) is an obligatory step in the biosynthesis of all classes of hormonal steroids in classical steroidogenic as well as in peripheral tissues. To develop a model more closely related to the human, we have isolated and characterized cDNA clones encoding macaque 3 beta-HSD by screening a rhesus monkey ovary lambda gt11 cDNA library using a human 3 beta-HSD cDNA probe. Nucleotide sequence of 1629 bp from overlapping cDNA clones predicts a protein of 372 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 41,874 (excluding the first Met). The deduced amino acid sequence of macaque 3 beta-HSD displays 79.4% and 93.9% similarity with that of bovine and human 3 beta-HSD, respectively. RNA blot analysis performed under high stringency conditions of macaque poly(A)+ RNA samples using full-length 32P-labeled macaque 3 beta-HSD cDNA revealed the presence of an approximately 1.7 kb mRNA species in classical steroidogenic tissues, namely the ovary, testis and adrenal glands as well as in several peripheral tissues including the liver, kidney and epididymis. Computer analysis of the deduced macaque 3 beta-HSD protein sequence predicts the presence of an NH2-terminal membrane-associated segment as well as four additional membrane-spanning segments, thus suggesting that 3 beta-HSD is an integral protein. The availability of macaque cDNA should permit detailed studies concerning the tissue-specific expression as well as the hormonal regulation of 3 beta-HSD mRNA in classical steroidogenic glands as well as in peripheral tissues which are an important site of steroidogenesis in primates.

Association of proenkephalin transcripts with polyribosomes in the heart

Previous results have shown that the relative abundance of proenkephalin mRNA in the rat heart is comparable to the levels found in the brain; however, the extractable enkephalin-containing peptide levels are much lower in the heart. This lack of correspondence between the levels of transcript and peptide could arise from either the inefficient translation of proenkephalin transcripts or the translation of proenkephalin transcripts into peptides that are rapidly secreted or degraded. To distinguish between these possibilities, the translational status of proenkephalin mRNA in the rat heart was established by Northern blot analysis of sucrose density gradient-sedimented polysomal fractions and compared to the striatum, which is known to efficiently translate proenkephalin transcripts. In both tissues, we detected 1.5-kilobase transcripts, but an additional larger transcript of approximately 3.6 kilobases was detected in the heart. Both transcripts were associated primarily with polyribosomes, suggesting active translation of proenkephalin mRNA in the rat heart. RIA of the culture media and extracts from primary cultures of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes indicated the presence of immunoreactive Met-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7, which was stimulated by 8-(4-chlorophenylthio)cAMP. These results suggest that proenkephalin transcripts are translated in the heart and that detectable levels of immunoreactive Met-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7 are present in the media and cell extracts of primary cultures of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes.

The regulation of proenkephalin expression in a distinct population of glial cells

The expression of opioid genes was examined in isolated populations of glial cells in primary culture. Northern blot analysis of purified type I astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and mixed oligodendrocyte-type-2-astrocyte lineage cells derived from cerebral cortex demonstrated robust expression of proenkephalin mRNA exclusively in type I astrocytes. The expression of proenkephalin mRNA was stimulated by the beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol, and 8-(4-chlorophenyl thio)adenosine 3'-5'-cyclic monophosphate (cpt-cAMP). Both of these compounds regulated a proenkephalin-chloramphenicol acetyltransferase fusion gene transiently transfected into type I astrocytes. HPLC and immunoassay of the cell culture media revealed significant levels of unprocessed proenkephalin secreted by the cell and this secretion was stimulated by isoproterenol and cpt-cAMP. The relatively high levels of proenkephalin expressed suggest that enhanced expression in astrocytes may be important during neural development, in trauma-induced gliosis and in neuroimmune interactions.

Proenkephalin gene expression in the primate uterus: regulation by estradiol in the endometrium

Proenkephalin mRNA has previously been shown to be expressed in the rodent uterus with varying levels during the estrous cycle. To examine for the potential regulation of proenkephalin gene expression by steroid hormones in a primate displaying a menstrual cycle and to define the functional tissue within the uterus expressing this transcript, we have used Northern blot analysis of extracted RNA from isolated uterine tissue subtypes from normal adult rhesus macaques obtained during the menstrual cycle and from ovariectomized females under different physiological steroid hormone treatments. A strong band of proenkephalin mRNA of 1.3 kilobases was detected almost exclusively in the proliferative endometrium from monkeys in the follicular phase of the cycle. No proenkephalin mRNA was detected in secretory endometrium obtained from monkeys in the luteal phase. When ovariectomized macaques were implanted with silastic capsules of 17 beta-estradiol, proenkephalin mRNA was detected in the endometrium but not the myometrium of the estradiol-treated animals. No proenkephalin mRNA was detected in ovariectomized control animals. Under these conditions, we were unable to detect proenkephalin mRNA in ovariectomized macaques implanted with separate silastic capsules of 17 beta-estradiol and progesterone or in decidual tissue from early or late pregnancy. These results suggest that in the primate uterus 1) proenkephalin mRNA is expressed primarily in the endometrium of the uterus, 2) expression of the proenkephalin gene is regulated by 17 beta-estradiol in the endometrium, and 3) this effect of estradiol is antagonized by progesterone.

Insulin/insulin-like growth factor I and other epigenetic modulators of myelin basic protein expression in isolated oligodendrocyte progenitor cells

The expression of myelin basic protein by the oligodendrocyte is an integral event in the maturation of central nervous system function. Although much is known concerning the various myelin basic protein species, their temporal expression, and processing of RNA transcripts, little is known about the epigenetic factors responsible for the regulation of myelin basic protein (MBP) expression. In this study, we present evidence that insulin/insulin-like growth factor-I can increase the levels of MBP protein in isolated oligodendrocyte progenitor cells cultured in a serumless, chemically defined medium (ODM). Insulin was found to increase MBP protein in a dose-responsive manner, reaching a maximal level at 72 hr of exposure. Both insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and insulin were demonstrated to have no effect on MBP RNA levels. These data indicate that insulin/IGF-I increased MBP protein levels at a level distal to transcription The dose response of insulin action suggests that it may have a MBP regulatory function, distinct from IGF-I. When added individually, the other supplements of ODM, transferrin (500 ng/ml), and basic fibroblast growth factor (5 ng/ml) had no effect on MBP expression. However, when all three components were combined, a synergistic effect resulting in increased MBP protein and total RNA levels was found. The phorbol ester 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate was found to reduce intracellular MBP RNA levels. The cAMP analogue/dibutyryl cAMP had contrasting effects on MBP RNA levels; no effect occurred in cultures grown in fetal calf serum, but a reduction in RNA levels was found in cultures grown in ODM. These data suggest that only a select range of extrinsic factors may be involved in MBP regulation, and depending on the environmental milieu, epigenetic agents may modulate gene activity differently.

Characterisation of an ATP-dependent Ca2+ transport system in a plasma membrane enriched fraction from rat parotid

A membrane fraction enriched in plasma membrane marker enzymes K+-dependent p-nitrophenyl phosphatase, 5'-nucleotidase and alkaline phosphatase was prepared from rat parotid glands using Percoll self-forming gradient. This fraction contained an ATP-dependent CA2+ transport system which was distinct from those located on the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria of parotid glands. The Km for ATP was 0.57 +/- 0.07 mM (n = 3). Nucleotides other than ATP such as ADP, AMP, GTP, CTP, UTP or ITP were unable to support significant Ca2+ uptake. ATP-dependent Ca2+ uptake displayed sigmoidal kinetics with respect to free Ca2+ concentration with a Hill coefficient of 2.02. The K0.5 for Ca2+ was 44 +/- 3.1 nM (n = 3) and the average Vmax was 13.5 +/- 1.1 nmol/min per mg of protein. The pH optimum was 7.2. Trifluorperazine inhibited Ca2+ transport with half maximal inhibition observed at 30.8 microM. Complete inhibition was observed at 70 microM trifluorperazine. Exogenous calmodulin however had no effect on the rate of transport. Na+ and K+ ions activated Ca2+ transport at 20 to 30 mM ion concentrations. Higher concentrations of Na+ or K+ were inhibitory.