Assessing the Release of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Plastic Containers and Reusable Food Pouches: Implications for Human Health

This study investigated the release of microplastics and nanoplastics from plastic containers and reusable food pouches under different usage scenarios, using DI water and 3% acetic acid as food simulants for aqueous foods and acidic foods. The results indicated that microwave heating caused the highest release of microplastics and nanoplastics into food compared to other usage scenarios, such as refrigeration or room-temperature storage. It was found that some containers could release as many as 4.22 million microplastic and 2.11 billion nanoplastic particles from only one square centimeter of plastic area within 3 min of microwave heating. Refrigeration and room-temperature storage for over six months can also release millions to billions of microplastics and nanoplastics. Additionally, the polyethylene-based food pouch released more particles than polypropylene-based plastic containers. Exposure modeling results suggested that the highest estimated daily intake was 20.3 ng/kg·day for infants drinking microwaved water and 22.1 ng/kg·day for toddlers consuming microwaved dairy products from polypropylene containers. Furthermore, an in vitro study conducted to assess the cell viability showed that the extracted microplastics and nanoplastics released from the plastic container can cause the death of 76.70 and 77.18% of human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293T) at 1000 μg/mL concentration after exposure of 48 and 72 h, respectively.

Unusual Red-Shift and Enhanced Photoluminescence of BaMgAl10O17:Eu2+ Phosphor Under Ultraviolet A Excitation for Modern Lighting Systems

An unconventional red-shift but enhanced photoluminescence (PL) under ultraviolet A (UV-A) irradiation of Eu²⁺ doped Barium Magnesium Aluminate (BAM) phosphor prepared in both bulk and nanoforms useful for modern lighting applications has been presented. The solid-state reaction and solution combustion approaches were used for the preparation of phosphors with post-annealing step in reduced atmosphere. A significant broad blue-green (˜500 nm) PL associated with the transition of Eu²⁺ from 4f⁶ 5d¹ excited state to the 4f⁷ ground state has been observed. The observed shifts and PL intensities were found to be extremely reliant on the thermal processing parameters during the synthesis of phosphor/nanophosphormaterials. It's also important to note that the size of the phosphor particles have significant role in defining the red-shift of PL due to quantum confinement effect. Detailed structural and morphological characterizations were also done in this paper. The results are promising and suggest that the BAM phosphor is highly desirable for enhancing the brightness levels in modern lighting and display systems.

Entomophthoramycosis: a neglected tropical mycosis

The term 'entomophthoramycosis' classically refers to infections caused by members of the order Entomophthorales. A new subphylum, Entomophthoramycota, has been created to include Basidiobolomycetes, Neozygitomycetes and Entomophthoramycetes. Basidiobolomycetes encompass Basidiobolus spp., while the Entomophthoramycetes include Conidiobolus spp. Conidiobolus spp. characteristically cause rhinofacial entomophthoramycosis in apparently immunocompetent hosts. Conidiobolus spp. may also cause disseminated infection in immunocompromised patients. Basidiobolus spp. more typically cause subcutaneous entomophthoramycosis of the limbs, buttocks, back and thorax in immunocompetent patients. While once considered to be rare, there is an increasing number of reported cases of gastrointestinal infection caused by Basidiobolus spp. worldwide in countries such as United States, Thailand, Australia, Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. These cases have clinical presentations similar to those of inflammatory bowel diseases, particularly Crohn's disease. Retroperitoneal, pulmonary, nasal and disseminated basidiobolomycosis have also been reported. Histology of entomophthoramycosis may reveal the Splendore-Hoeppli phenomenon. Culture of infected tissue remains the definitive method of laboratory diagnosis. However, molecular methods with specific DNA probes and panfungal primers, as well as real time PCR, are increasingly used to detect and identify these organisms in tissue. Treatment largely consists of therapy with antifungal triazoles. Surgery plays a selective role in the management of entomophthoramycosis, depending upon location, organism and extent of the infection.

Structure-based design of non-peptide HIV protease inhibitors

A number of structurally novel P2-ligands have been designed and synthesized. Incorporation of these ligands in the (R)-(hydroxyethyl)sulfonamide isostere provided a series of potent non-peptidyl HIV protease inhibitors.

Structure-based design: potent inhibitors of human brain memapsin 2 (beta-secretase)

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) is one of two proteases that cleave the beta-amyloid precursor protein (APP) to produce the 40-42 residue amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) in the human brain, a key event in the progression of Alzheimer's disease. On the basis of the X-ray crystal structure of our lead inhibitor (2, OM99-2 with eight residues) bound to memapsin, we have reduced the molecular weight and designed potent memapsin inhibitors. Structure-based design and preliminary structure-activity studies have been presented.

Potent HIV protease inhibitors incorporating high-affinity P2-ligands and (R)-(hydroxyethylamino)sulfonamide isostere

Design and synthesis of a series of very potent nonpeptide HIV protease inhibitors are described. The inhibitors are derived from novel high affinity P2-ligands and (R)-(hydroxyethylamino)sulfonamide isostere.

Screening for cervical neoplasia in Dundee and Angus: 10 years on

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of changed cervical screening policies on a steady population with low migratory tendencies.

DESIGN

A retrospective analysis study.

SETTING

Dundee and Angus, Scotland.

SUBJECTS

All women who developed cervical carcinoma between 1957 and 1992.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The incidence of and mortality from cervical cancer after the introduction of organised cervical screening in 1962, according to age, stage, histology and screening history.

RESULTS

The initial fall in incidence of cervical cancer seen in women between 35 and 54 years after the introduction of cervical screening was not sustained during the last 10 years of our study and appears to have been transferred to women aged 55 years and older instead. After 1976 an increase in the incidence of cervical cancer was seen in women under 35 years. The reduction in mortality from cervical cancer appears to have reached a plateau since 1976. No effect of cervical screening was seen on the incidence of adenocarcinoma of the cervix.

CONCLUSIONS

The effect of changed cervical screening policies has been shown for a small population for a period of 35 years. The incidence of the higher stages of squamous cervical cancer continues to fall. The increase in incidence of cervical cancer in women under 35 years confirms similar trends seen in other countries. A background mortality rate refractory to further intensification of screening appears to have been reached. Adenocarcinoma of the cervix appears to gain in importance as cervical screening policies are shown to have their effect on its squamous counterpart.

Monoclonal antibodies differentiate between the haemagglutinating and the receptor-destroying activities of bovine coronavirus

A relatively simple and sensitive method is described which enables the effect of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) on the receptor-destroying enzyme (RDE) and the haemagglutination (HA) activity of bovine coronavirus (BCV) to be analysed in one assay. A lysate of HRT-18 cells infected with the L9 strain of BCV was found to have a higher RDE:HA ratio than purified virus. At 4 degrees C the lysate induced an HA pattern which completely disappeared upon raising of the temperature to 37 degrees C. This L9-infected cell lysate was used to determine the HA inhibition (HAI) titres of MAbs directed against the surface glycoproteins S and HE of BCV. Thereafter, the test plates were incubated at 37 degrees C to enable the ability of the MAbs to prevent elution of virus from BCV-erythrocyte complexes to be assessed. No inhibition of RDE was detectable with MAbs against glycoprotein S, which had HAI titres ranging from 1:16 to 1:128. On the other hand, MAbs directed against glycoprotein HE had similar HAI titres, but they inhibited elution of 8 HA units of BCV at titres of up to 1:65,000.

Comparison of bovine coronavirus (BCV) antigens: monoclonal antibodies to the spike glycoprotein distinguish between vaccine and wild-type strains

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against two major structural proteins of the cell-adapted Mebus strain of bovine coronavirus (BCV-L9) were produced and characterized. Seven MAbs reacted with the peplomeric glycoprotein, gp 100/S, while three MAbs reacted with the nucleoprotein p53/N in Western blot analysis of BCV polypeptides. MAbs to gp 100/S reacted with discontinuous epitopes of gp 100/S in Westerns under mild but not under standard denaturing conditions. In contrast, MAbs to p53/N reacted in both types of Westerns, and those epitopes were thus continuous. MAbs to p53/N failed to neutralize BCV infectivity, while 4 MAbs to gp 100/S neutralized BCV effectively. Cross reactivity of MAbs to gp 100/S specified by five virulent wild-type strains and two high passage, cell-culture-adapted strains in mildly denaturing Westerns and neutralization assays indicated that two epitopes were conserved in all seven strains, while two epitopes of the avirulent strains were not detected in the wild-type strains. Non-neutralizing MAbs of gp 100/S reacted with all seven strains in Westerns with the exception of one MAb that was specific for the highly cell-adapted strain BCV-L9.

In vitro isolation of a neutralization escape mutant of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV)

A neutralization escape mutant (A/1 E) of equine infectious anemia virus was isolated after 13 passages in cell culture in the presence of serum containing antibodies to type- and group-specific determinants of EIAV envelope glycoproteins. Loss of neutralization by the selecting serum correlated with loss of two epitopes in the major envelope glycoprotein gp90 of A/1 E which were present in a parallel variant isolated from a persistently infected pony.

Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) humoral responses of recipient ponies and antigenic variation during persistent infection

Three ponies were inoculated with plasma containing 10(4.8) TCID50 of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) and observed for 165 to 440 days. Each pony developed a febrile response within 3 weeks of infection during which a plasma viremia greater than or equal to 10(3.5) TCID50/ml was observed. Analyses of four isolates from sequential febrile episodes in a single pony were conducted by two-dimensional tryptic peptide maps and with monoclonal antibodies in immunoblots. Structural and antigenic alterations were observed in the envelope glycoproteins gp90 and gp45, with greatest variation in gp90. Specific IgG to EIAV gp90, gp45, and p26 of homologous and heterologous isolates was detectable by immunoblots within one month after infection although IgG levels to gp45 at this time were relatively low. The group-specific determinants of gp90 and gp45 were more antigenic than those of p26; however, binding of IgG to these determinants did not correlate with neutralization of EIAV as assayed in fetal equine kidney cells. Neutralizing antibodies were first detectable within two months of infection and only neutralized viruses isolated prior to serum collection. Neutralizing activity of sera collected later in the infection was broadly reactive regardless of the number of clinical episodes the donor had suffered.

In vivo and in vitro characteristics of contagious ecthyma virus isolates: host response mechanism

Three Vero cell culture-adapted contagious ecthyma virus (CEV) isolates were compared by plaque morphology, ability to induce vesicles in skin and in vivo growth curve characteristics by sampling sequentially experimental skin lesions produced in four sheep and one goat. Two of the isolates (CEV-29A and CEV-378) were from outbreaks of ecthyma in sheep and one (CEV-102) from a human case of orf. When replicating in Vero cells, the viruses exhibited similar growth parameters, but were distinguishable from each other on the basis of plaque morphology. In vivo latent periods for these isolates were 48 h (CEV-29A), 96 h (CEV-102), and 120 h (CEV-378). When isolates CEV-102 and CEV-29A were passaged into another sheep, they produced similar patterns of growth. Isolate CEV-102 produced the highest infectivity titer [1.4 X 10(9) plaque forming units (PFU) g-1], followed by CEV-29A (6.8 X 10(7) PFU g-1) and CEV-378 (2.5 X 10(7) PFU g-1). In addition, these viruses varied in their ability to induce vesicle formation. Virus was no longer detectable at the inoculation sites at 288 h post-infection (PI). We conclude that plaque morphology, ability to induce vesicle formation in the skin and growth curves in the skin can be considered as important criteria to differentiate CEV isolates. A comparison of the growth curves of CEV-378 in the skin of sheep and goats suggested differences in virus-host interaction between the two animal species. Since intravenous injection of 1 X 10(9) PFU of CEV failed to produce lesions in the sham-scarified skin of sheep, virus spread via the hematogenous route from one site to another appears unlikely. No virus-neutralizing antibody or interferons were found in serum samples or in skin homogenates collected between 0 and 24 days PI. Virus-neutralizing antibody was present in the circulation as late as 24 days PI. Lymphocytes collected from CEV-exposed sheep as early as 12 days PI responded specifically to stimulation with CEV antigen. As this was about the time when infectious virus disappeared from the sites, we assume that cell-associated immune mechanisms may play a larger role in virus clearance from skin lesions than virus-neutralizing antibody.

Antigenic mapping of the envelope proteins of equine infectious anemia virus: identification of a neutralization domain and a conserved region on glycoprotein 90

Monoclonal antibodies (MCAbs) were used to dissect the antigenic sites of the surface glycoproteins of the prototype cell-adapted Wyoming strain of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). Serologic reactivities of these MCAbs were determined by ELISA, additive ELISA, competitive ELISA, and Western blot assays. The results indicated that antigenic reactivity of gp90 was localized on at least four distinct epitopes, two of which were important in neutralization. Our studies also revealed that these epitopes were localized on overlapping antigenic sites on gp90. On the other hand, only two distinct non-overlapping epitopes were identified on gp45. Competitive binding studies of neutralizing MCAbs and reference EIA-positive horse serum delineated the presence of a neutralization domain on gp90 that appears to be immunodominant both in naturally infected horses and in mice immunized with EIAV. Limited proteolytic fragmentation of the gp90 component of several serologically distinct EIAV isolates produced common 12K immunoreactive fragments that contained a conserved epitope. These results indicate the occurrence of conserved antigenic regions on EIAV glycoproteins as well as a neutralization domain on gp90, which can be used as potential targets for vaccine development.

Identification of gag precursor of equine infectious anaemia virus with monoclonal antibodies to the major viral core protein, p26

Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against the major core protein p26 of equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) were produced and characterized. Sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Western blot immunoassay were employed to confirm the specificity of these MAbs. Western blot analysis also indicated that MAbs to p26 reacted with another EIAV protein of 55,000 apparent Mr (designated here as Pr55gag) present in density gradient-purified virus preparations. Rabbit antiserum prepared against p26 as well as MAbs to p26 detected Pr55gag and several other intermediate clevage products in detergent-soluble lysates of virus-infected cells in Western blot and immunoprecipitation assays. The results suggest that Pr55gag is the gag polyprotein of EIAV.

Structural proteins of bovine coronavirus strain L 9: effects of the host cell and trypsin treatment

The polypeptide profile of the cell-adapted strain of bovine coronavirus (Mebus BCV-L 9) is remarkably affected by the host cell and trypsin. We compared the structural proteins of virus purified from different cell lines and found cell-dependent differences in the virus structure. BCV was purified from four clones of human rectal tumour cells (HRT-18): 3F3, D2, 3E3, and 4B3. The structural profiles of BCV propagated in clones 3E3 and 3F3 were identical, consisting of proteins with molecular weights of 185, 160, 140, 125, 110, 100, 52, 46, 37, 31-34, and 26-28 kilodaltons (kd). BCV purified from clone D2 lacked the 100 kd species, and clone 4B3 yielded virus lacking the 46 kd protein. We compared the structures of BCV propagated in HRT-18 cells [BCV(HRT-18)] and virus raised in bovine fetal spleen cells [BCV(D2 BFS)]. The concentration of the 185 kd protein was higher in BCV (D2BFS), and it also contained a 200 kd species. Protein profiles of in vitro trypsin treated and untreated BCV(HRT-18) differed only under reducing conditions, suggesting that trypsin cleavage sites are located within disulfide-linked regions of affected proteins. Propagation of BCV in D2 BFS cells in the presence of trypsin resulted in cleavage of the 185 kd protein and a concomitant increase of the 100 kd protein. Activation of the fusion function probably depends on this cleavage process because fusion of BCV-infected D2 BFS cells is trypsin dependent.

Antigenic analysis of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) variants by using monoclonal antibodies: epitopes of glycoprotein gp90 of EIAV stimulate neutralizing antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies produced against the prototype cell-adapted Wyoming strain of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), a lentivirus, were studied for reactivity with the homologous prototype and 16 heterologous isolates. Eighteen hybridomas producing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were isolated. Western blot (immunoblot) analyses indicated that 10 were specific for the major envelope glycoprotein (gp90) and 8 for the transmembrane glycoprotein (gp45). Four MAbs specific to epitopes of gp90 neutralized prototype EIAV infectivity. These neutralizing MAbs apparently reacted with variable regions of the envelope gp90, as evidenced by their unique reactivity with the panel of isolates, suggesting recognition of at least three different neutralization epitopes. The conformation of these epitopes appears to be continuous, as they resisted treatment with sodium dodecyl sulfate and reducing reagents. Monoclonal antibodies that reacted with conserved epitopes on gp90 or gp45 failed to neutralize EIAV. Our data also demonstrated that there was a large spectrum of possible EIAV serotypes and confirmed that antigenic variation occurs with high frequency in EIAV. Moreover, the data showed that variation is a rapid and random process, as no pattern of variant evolution was evident by comparison of 13 isolates from parallel infections. These results represent the first production of neutralizing MAbs specific for a lentivirus glycoprotein and document alterations in one or more neutralization epitopes of the major surface glycoprotein among sequential isolates of EIAV recovered during persistent infection.

Rapid emergence of novel antigenic and genetic variants of equine infectious anemia virus during persistent infection

Previous results from our laboratory have demonstrated that equine infectious anemia virus displays structural variations in its surface glycoproteins and RNA genome during passage and chronic infections in experimentally infected Shetland ponies (Montelaro et al., J. Biol. Chem. 259:10539-10544, 1984; Payne et al., J. Gen. Virol. 65:1395-1399, 1984). The present study was undertaken to obtain an antigenic and biochemical characterization of equine infectious anemia virus isolates recovered from an experimentally infected pony during sequential disease episodes, each separated by intervals of only 4 to 8 weeks. The virus isolates could be distinguished antigenically by neutralization assays with serum from the infected pony and by Western blot analysis with a monoclonal antibody against the major surface glycoprotein gp90, thus demonstrating that novel antigenic variants of equine infectious anemia virus predominate during each clinical episode. The respective virion glycoproteins displayed different electrophoretic mobilities on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels, indicating structural variation. Tryptic peptide and glycopeptide maps of the viral proteins of each virus isolate revealed biochemical alterations involving amino acid sequence and glycosylation patterns in the virion surface glycoproteins gp90 and gp45. In contrast, no structural variation was observed in the internal viral proteins pp15, p26, and p9 from any of the four virus isolates. Oligonucleotide mapping experiments revealed similar but unique RNase T1-resistant oligonucleotide fingerprints of the RNA genomes of each of the virus isolates. Localization of altered oligonucleotides for one virus isolate placed two of three unique oligonucleotides within the predicted env gene region of the genome, perhaps correlating with the structural variation observed in the envelope glycoproteins. Thus these results support the concept that equine infectious anemia virus is indeed capable of relatively rapid genomic variations during replication, some of which result in altered glycoprotein structures and antigenic variants which are responsible for the unique periodic disease nature observed in persistently infected animals. The findings of envelope specific differences in isolates of visna virus and of human T-cell lymphotropic virus III (acquired immune deficiency syndrome-related virus) suggest that this variation may be a common characteristic of the subfamily Lentivirinae.