Intergenerational Consequences of Maternal Childhood Maltreatment on Infant Health Concerns

INTRODUCTION

Childhood maltreatment is a well-established risk factor for health problems in adulthood and may also have intergenerational consequences for infant health. Childhood maltreatment may confer risk for infant health by undermining caregiver capacities for sensitive and responsive caregiving. However, associations among childhood maltreatment, maternal sensitivity, and infant health are not well understood. These processes may be of particular importance among low-income and ethnic minority populations for whom disparities in maltreatment exposure and poorer health outcomes are well-established.

METHOD

The current study drew data from a sample of low-income, Mexican American families to examine whether maternal childhood maltreatment would be associated with more infant health concerns, and whether lower maternal sensitivity would explain their associations. Data were collected from 322 mother-infant dyads during home visits completed during pregnancy and when infants were 12, 18, and 24 weeks old.

RESULTS

Maternal childhood maltreatment exposure and lower maternal sensitivity were both associated with more infant health concerns. Maternal childhood maltreatment was not associated with maternal sensitivity.

DISCUSSION

These findings highlight potential intergenerational consequences of maternal childhood maltreatment for infant health and underscore a need for evaluating pre- and postnatal mechanisms through which these effects may be perpetuated. Furthermore, results indicate that maternal sensitivity may represent a promising target for interventions seeking to counteract intergenerational transmission processes. Clarification about underlying risk processes and potentiating resiliency characteristics may elucidate ways to better support mothers and infants across the lifespan.

The integrative model of family stress underlying Spanish and English vocabulary development in Mexican American children: Unique effects of financial and sociocultural hardships

Early oral language development lays an essential foundation for academic and socioemotional competencies but is vulnerable to the impact of family stress. Despite robust evidence that family stress affects early oral language development in monolingual samples, little is known about whether the family stress processes affecting language acquisition are similar among dual language learners. Furthermore, although Mexican American families often face stressors related to their ethnic minority and immigrant status, no studies to date have tested whether exposure to sociocultural stressors may likewise have negative consequences for early language acquisition. The present study examined whether financial and sociocultural stressors were associated with maternal stress perception, parenting sensitivity, and child Spanish and English receptive vocabulary at child age 3 and 4.5 years. Participants included 322 low-income Mexican American mothers and their children followed from pregnancy through 4.5 years postnatal; most mothers preferred to speak Spanish (82%). Results of a path model indicated that links between family stress and child receptive vocabulary varied by language (Spanish or English) and stress type (financial or cultural). Specifically, Spanish acquisition was more closely related to the quality of mother-child interactions, whereas English acquisition was more susceptible to the direct impact of family stress. The consequences of family stress on children's vocabulary acquisition were evident earlier in development for Spanish than English, and appeared more pronounced for financial versus sociocultural stressors. Findings underscore a need to attend to the impact of poverty on children's Spanish and English language development in low-income, Mexican American children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Infant Temperament Profiles, Cultural Orientation, and Toddler Behavioral and Physiological Regulation in Mexican-American Families

This study sought to (a) replicate infant temperament profiles from predominantly White samples in a sample of low-income, predominantly first-generation Mexican-American families, (b) investigate associations between infant temperament profiles and toddler behavioral and physiological regulation, and (c) explore whether mothers' cultural orientation would moderate those associations. Mothers and infants (n = 322; 46% male) were assessed during pregnancy and at infant ages 9, 12, and 24 months. Latent profile analysis yielded three temperament profiles that were consistent with those from extant research. Compared to the high positive affect, well-regulated profile, the negative reactive, low regulated profile was associated with poorer behavioral and parasympathetic (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia) regulation, but associations depended on mothers' Mexican and Anglo cultural orientation.

Patterns of family negativity in the perinatal period: Implications for mental health among Mexican-origin women

Negativity in the family environment during the perinatal period is likely to have detrimental effects on maternal well-being, especially among low-income ethnic minority mothers who are at increased risk for experiencing postpartum depressive symptoms. With a sample of 322 Mexican and Mexican American families, this study used latent class growth analysis to identify meaningful subgroups of women based on their perceived family negativity reported prenatally and at 6, 12, 18, and 24 weeks postpartum. A 4-trajectory model of family negativity fit the data well: low-stable (58%), moderate-increasing (26%), high-decreasing (8%), and high-increasing (8%). Higher prenatal depressive symptomatology predicted membership in the moderate-increasing, high-decreasing, and high-increasing trajectories, relative to the low-stable trajectory. Findings suggest substantial heterogeneity in family negativity, identifying three significant growth patterns during the perinatal period with differential implications for maternal depressive symptomatology at 24 weeks and 12 months after delivery. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Pathways to Maternal and Child Well-Being: Stability and Transaction across Toddlerhood

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the development of minor parenting stress, parenting satisfaction, and dyadic dysregulation across early childhood and evaluates their roles in predicting maternal and child well-being one year later.

DESIGN

Data was collected from 322 low-income, Mexican American mother-child dyads at child ages 12, 18, 24, and 36 months. Mothers responded to questionnaires during structured interviews, and mother-child dyadic interactions were observed during structured teaching tasks and later coded for global displays of emotional, attentional, and behavioral dysregulation.

RESULTS

Cross-lag path analyses revealed negative concurrent relations between minor parenting stress and parenting satisfaction at every time point and stability in constructs across time. Parenting stress predicted greater subsequent dyadic dysregulation. Greater dyadic dysregulation and stress related to parenting predicted more maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior problems, whereas greater parenting satisfaction predicted less maternal depressive symptoms and child behavior problems.

CONCLUSION

In this minority at-risk population, there was substantial stability in and a lack of transactional relations between minor parenting stresses, parenting satisfaction, and dyadic dysregulation across toddlerhood. These factors are important determinants of maternal and child well-being, with minor parenting stress emerging as particularly powerful.

Early childhood predictors of global competence in adolescence for youth with typical development or intellectual disability

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

We aimed to determine whether a second-order global competence latent factor could be identified as underlying relations between adolescent mental health, social skills, and academic functioning. A secondary aim was to test whether early childhood characteristics predict adolescent global competence. A final aim was to test differences in these models across youth with typical cognitive development (TD) or intellectual disability (ID).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Participants were 246 youth with TD (n = 148) or ID (n = 98), with assessments from early childhood (3, 4, 5 years) and adolescence (13, 15). These youths' parents and teachers provided measures. A Multiple Indicator, Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model was tested using structural equation modeling, in which parenting, maternal depression, and emotional dysregulation in early childhood were entered as predictors of adolescent global competence.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

A second-order global competence factor emerged, and was predicted by early childhood variables. The final MIMIC model demonstrated excellent fit. Negative parenting in early childhood predicted lower adolescent global competence for both TD and ID youth. Maternal depression predicted adolescent global competence only for youth with ID, while emotion dysregulation predicted only for youth with TD.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Results have implications for longitudinal mechanisms of influence and early intervention targets for specific populations.

Developmental Trajectories of Maternal Sensitivity across the First Year of Life: Relations among Emotion Competence and Dyadic Reciprocity

OBJECTIVE

Maternal sensitivity is a commonly used construct to capture the quality of mother-child interactions, but inconsistencies in conceptualizing and defining maternal sensitivity limit understanding of how sensitive caregiving may be associated with child development. The purposes of this study are to (1) examine and compare the developmental trajectories of individual maternal sensitivity behaviors to that of a global index of sensitivity across the first year of infant life and (2) determine whether differences in trajectories of sensitivity are meaningful for infant emotion competence and dyadic reciprocity at 12 months.

DESIGN

A total of 322 low-income, Mexican American mothers and infants were observed during a free play task at 3, 4.5, 6, and 12 months. Observations were coded for 11 distinct behaviors known to compose maternal sensitivity. At 12 months, mother-infant interactions were also coded for dyadic reciprocity, and mothers reported on infant emotion competence.

RESULTS

Latent growth models indicated that individual sensitivity behaviors differed from the global index of sensitivity with respect to initial levels and slopes, with increasing (e.g., vocal appropriateness), decreasing (e.g., touch), and stable (e.g., elaboration) trajectories. The individual and global indices of sensitivity differed in prediction of emotion competence and dyadic reciprocity. Trajectories of global and individual indices of maternal sensitivity operated similarly in predicting dyadic reciprocity, with the exception of consistency of style. In contrast, the global index of sensitivity was unrelated to emotion competence, and only initial levels of positive affect emerged as significant predictors of emotion competence.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings offer a more nuanced understanding of maternal sensitivity and suggest that component aspects of maternal sensitivity uniquely contribute to child and family competencies.

Prenatal Maternal Depressive Symptoms Predict Early Infant Health Concerns

INTRODUCTION

Recent research suggests that health disparities among low-SES and ethnic minority populations may originate from prenatal and early life exposures. Postpartum maternal depressive symptoms have been linked to poorer infant physical health, yet prenatal depressive symptoms not been thoroughly examined in relation to infant health.

METHODS

In a prospective study of low-income Mexican American mothers and their infants, women (N = 322, median age 27.23, IQR = 22.01-32.54) completed surveys during pregnancy (median gestation 39.50, IQR = 38.71-40.14 weeks) and 12 weeks after birth. We investigated (1) if prenatal depressive symptoms predicted infant physical health concerns at 12 weeks of age, (2) whether these associations occurred above and beyond concurrent depressive symptoms, and (3) if birth weight, gestational age, and breastfeeding were mediators of prenatal depression predicting subsequent infant health.

RESULTS

Higher prenatal depressive symptoms were associated with more infant physical health concerns at 12 weeks (p < .001), after accounting for 12-week maternal depressive symptoms, breastfeeding, gestational age, and birth weight. Twelve-week maternal depressive symptoms were concurrently associated with more infant health concerns (p < .01). Birth weight, gestational age, and breastfeeding were not associated with maternal depression or infant health concerns.

DISCUSSION

Results establish a link between prenatal depressive symptoms and an elevated risk of poor health evident shortly after birth. These findings underscore the importance of the prenatal period as a possible sensitive period for infants' health, and the need for effective interventions for depression during pregnancy to mitigate potentially teratogenic effects on the developing fetus and reduce risks for later health concerns.

Mother-infant dyadic dysregulation and postpartum depressive symptoms in low-income Mexican-origin women

The current study evaluated a mechanistic pathway by which prenatal stress increases the risk of postpartum depressive (PPD) symptoms via observed dyadic emotional, behavioral, and attentional dysregulation and associated cortisol responses during mother-infant interactions.

METHODS

Participants included 322 low-income Mexican American mother-infant dyads. Depressive symptoms, economic hardship, and negative life events were assessed at a prenatal visit. Dysregulation in dyadic (mother-infant) interactions and cortisol responses to mother-infant interaction were evaluated at 12 weeks after the birth. Twenty-four weeks after the birth, PPD symptoms were predicted from prenatal stress (negative life events and economic hardship) and prenatal depressive symptoms, mediated through dyadic dysregulation and maternal and infant cortisol responses.

RESULTS

More negative life events in the prenatal period predicted more dyadic dysregulation at 12 weeks postpartum. Dyadic dysregulation and economic hardship predicted elevated 12-week infant cortisol total response and reactivity, and higher total infant cortisol response predicted higher maternal PPD symptoms at 24 weeks. Maternal cortisol response was not associated with dyadic dysregulation, either form of prenatal stress, or PPD symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate the salience of early psychosocial processes and mother-infant relationship challenges for subsequent maternal affective well-being.

Biological Sensitivity to the Effects of Maternal Postpartum Depressive Symptoms on Children's Behavior Problems

Resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) may confer infant susceptibility to the postpartum environment. Among infants with higher RSA, there may be a positive relation between depressive symptoms across the first 6 months postpartum (PPD) and later behavior problems, and toddlers' dysregulation during mother-child interactions may partially explain the effects. Among a sample of low-income Mexican-American families, infant RSA (N = 322; 46% male) was assessed at 6 weeks of age; mothers (M_age  = 27.8, SD = 6.5) reported PPD symptoms every 3 weeks from 6 to 24 weeks and infant behavior problems at 36 months. Dysregulation was observed at 24 months. PPD was positively associated with behavior problems only among infants with lower RSA; however, this relation was not mediated by dysregulation.

Ontogeny of emotional and behavioral problems in a low-income, Mexican American sample

Clinically meaningful behavior problems are thought to be present beginning in the early toddler years, yet few studies have investigated correlates of behavior problems assessed before age 2 years. The current study investigated the direct and interactive contributions of early infant and caregiver characteristics thought to play an important role in the ontogeny of behavior problems. Specifically, the study examined: (a) the links between infant temperamental reactivity and toddler behavioral symptoms, (b) whether maternal sensitivity moderated associations between temperamental reactivity and behavioral symptoms, (c) whether variability in temperamental reactivity was explained by exposure to maternal stressful life events (SLEs) in utero, and (d) whether child sex moderated these pathways. Data were collected from 322 low-income, Mexican American families. Mother reports of SLEs were obtained between 23 and 40 weeks gestation; temperamental negativity and surgency at 6 weeks and 12 months; and internalizing and externalizing behaviors at 18 months. Maternal sensitivity during structured mother-infant interaction tasks at a 12-month visit was assessed by objective raters. Results indicated that significant paths linked maternal prenatal SLEs with 6-week negativity, 6-week negativity with 12-month negativity, and 12-month negativity with 18-month behavioral symptoms. Sex-specific effects were also observed. Maternal SLEs were directly associated with internalizing behaviors for girls only. Surgency and maternal sensitivity moderated the associations of negativity with subsequent externalizing behaviors for girls only. Results suggest that ecological stressors associated with sociodemographic risk factors such as low-income and ethnic minority status begin to exert cascades of influence on children's developmental outcomes even before birth. (PsycINFO Database Record

Developmental Patterns of Child Emotion Dysregulation as Predicted by Serotonin Transporter Genotype and Parenting

Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3-6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent-child interactions. To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.

Developmental Risk and Goodness of Fit in the Mother-Child Relationship: Links to Parenting Stress and Children's Behaviour Problems

Despite the compelling nature of goodness of fit, empirical support has lagged for this construct. The present study examined an interactional approach to measuring goodness of fit and prospectively explored associations with mother-child relationship quality, child behavior problems, and parenting stress across the preschool period. In addition, as goodness of fit might be particularly important for children at developmental risk, the presence of early developmental delay was considered as a moderator of goodness of fit processes. Children with (n = 110) and without (n = 137) developmental delays and their mothers were coded while interacting in the lab at child age 36 months and during naturalistic home observations at child ages 36 and 48 months. Mothers also completed questionnaires at child age 60 months. Results highlight the effects of child developmental risk as a moderator of mother-child goodness of fit processes across the preschool period. There was also evidence that the goodness of fit between maternal scaffolding and child activity level at 36 months influenced both mother and child functioning at 60 months. Findings call for more precise models and expanded developmental perspectives to fully capture the transactional and dynamic nature of goodness of fit.

Multiple domains of stress predict postpartum depressive symptoms in low-income Mexican American women: the moderating effect of social support

Prenatal stress can have a lasting effect on women's mental health after childbirth. The negative effects may be particularly salient in women from low income and ethnic minority backgrounds, who are at increased risk for postpartum depression. However, social support may have the potential to attenuate the negative impact of stress. The present study evaluated 269 Mexican American women (ages 18-42; 83 % Spanish-speaking; median income $10,000-$15,000) for prenatal stress (daily hassles, family stress, partner stress, and culture-specific stress) in relation to depressive symptoms 6 weeks postpartum. Prenatal social support was examined as a buffer against the impact of prenatal stress. Partner stress, family stress, and daily hassles uniquely predicted depressive symptoms. Moderate and high levels of social support attenuated risk for depression due to family stressors. Prenatal interpersonal and daily stressors negatively impact the mental health of women after birth, but social support can mitigate some of these effects. Among Mexican American pregnant women, effective interpersonal support and stress management may be associated with reduced risk for postpartum depression.

Family Interactions and Developmental Risk Associated With Early Cognitive Delay: Influences on Children's Behavioral Competence

Family interactions can be important contributors to the development of child psychopathology, yet the mechanisms of influence are understudied, particularly for populations at risk. This prospective longitudinal study addresses differences in whole family interactions in 194 families of young children with and without early-identified developmental risk associated with cognitive delay. The influence of family interactions on children's later externalizing behaviors, internalizing behaviors, and social skills was examined, and developmental risk was tested as a potential moderator of these relations. Results indicated that the presence of cognitive developmental risk was linked to higher levels of family control than in families of typically developing children, but groups did not differ on dimensions of cohesion, warmth, organization, or conflict. Observed cohesion and organization were associated with better social skills for all children, regardless of risk status. Significant interactions emerged, indicating that higher levels of conflict and control were associated with higher levels of behavior problems, but only for families of typically developing children. These findings underscore the importance of family-level assessment in understanding the development of children's behavior and suggest the need for deeper analysis of the nuances of family process over time.

Father involvement in Mexican-origin families: Preliminary development of a culturally informed measure

OBJECTIVES

An increasing body of research has documented the significant influence of father involvement on children's development and overall well-being. However, extant research has predominately focused on middle-class Caucasian samples with little examination of fathering in ethnic minority and low-income families, particularly during the infancy period. The present study evaluated measures of early father involvement (paternal engagement, accessibility, and responsibility) that were adapted to capture important cultural values relevant to the paternal role in Mexican-origin families.

METHODS

A sample of 180 Mexican-origin mothers (M age = 28.3) and 83 Mexican-origin fathers (M age = 31.5) were interviewed during the perinatal period.

RESULTS

Descriptive analyses indicated that Mexican-origin fathers are involved in meaningful levels of direct interaction with their infant. A 2-factor model of paternal responsibility was supported by factor analyses, consisting of a behavioral responsibility factor aligned with previous literature and culturally derived positive machismo factor. Qualities of the romantic relationship, cultural orientation, and maternal employment status were related to indices of father involvement.

CONCLUSIONS

These preliminary results contribute to understanding of the transition to fatherhood among low-income Mexican-origin men and bring attention to the demographic, social, and cultural contexts in which varying levels of father involvement may emerge.

Reconceptualizing Family Adaptation to Developmental Delay

This study explores accurate conceptualization of the adaptation construct in families of children with developmental delay aged 3 to 8 years. Parents' self-reported measures of adaptation and observed dyadic relationship variables were examined. Confirmatory factor analysis and longitudinal growth modeling were used to evaluate the nature of adaptational processes. Results indicate that adaptational processes vary across adaptation index, child developmental level, and parent gender. Adaptation indices did not load onto a single construct at any time point. Several adaptational processes remained stable across time, although others showed linear or quadratic change. The findings of the current study indicate that it is time for a change in how adaptation is conceived for families of children with developmental delay.

Crossover Effects Among Parental Hostility and Parent-Child Relationships During the Preschool Period

Parental hostility may have widespread effects across members of the family, whereby one parent's hostility might disrupt the other parent's ability to maintain a positive relationship with his or her children. The present study prospectively examined crossover effects of parental hostility on parent-child relationship quality in a sample of 210 families. At child ages 3, 4, and 5, mothers and fathers completed questionnaires assessing feelings of hostility. In addition, mother-child and father-child dyadic relationship quality were coded at each age during naturalistic home observations. Results from structural equation analyses indicated that mother and father hostility were relatively stable over the two year period. Further, results were consistent with notions of fathering vulnerability, such that the father-child relationship might be especially susceptible to parental hostility. Possible compensatory processes, wherein mothers may compensate for father hostility, were also explored. Child and parent gender add further complexity to the results, as the father-son relationship appears most susceptible to crossover effects of parental hostility, whereas the father-daughter relationship might be somewhat protected in the early childhood period. Findings from the current investigation highlight the need for broader perspectives on family functioning, considering influences across family subsystems and the effects of both parent and child gender.

Effects of prenatal factors and temperament on infant cortisol regulation in low-income Mexican American families

Prenatal psychosocial exposures can significantly affect infant health and development. Infants with higher temperamental negativity are theorized to be more susceptible to environmental exposures. We evaluated the interaction of prenatal maternal exposures and infant temperamental negativity to predict infant cortisol response to mildly challenging mother-infant interaction tasks. Participants included 322 Mexican American mother-infant dyads (mother age 18-42; 82% Spanish-speaking; modal family income $10,000-$15,000). Mothers reported depressive symptoms and social support prenatally and infant temperamental negativity at 6 weeks postpartum. Salivary cortisol was collected from infants before and after mother-infant interaction tasks at 12 weeks. Higher prenatal maternal depressive symptoms and lower social support predicted higher cortisol among infants with higher temperamental negativity. Higher infant temperamental negativity predicted an increase in maternal distress and a decrease in social support from prenatal to 12 weeks postpartum. Interactive influences of maternal social-contextual factors and infant temperament may influence the development of infant neurobiological regulation and promote or strain maternal and infant adaptation over time.

Intimate partner violence before and during pregnancy: related demographic and psychosocial factors and postpartum depressive symptoms among Mexican American women

Although research examining intimate partner violence (IPV) has expanded in recent years, there has been relatively little examination of the related demographic and psychosocial factors, as well as mental health outcomes, for IPV before and during pregnancy, especially in a Mexican American population. The current study provides a snapshot of the occurrence of IPV in a community sample of low-income, perinatal Mexican American women (n = 320). Results indicated that 13.1% of the women reported IPV before pregnancy and 11.3% reported IPV during pregnancy. For both IPV before and during pregnancy, women born in the United States were more likely to report IPV than foreign-born women. For IPV before pregnancy, women who were not in a serious romantic relationship or reported a history of childhood trauma were also more likely to report IPV. For IPV during pregnancy, women who reported higher general stress and lower social support were also more likely to report IPV. Finally, the current study provided strong evidence that a history of IPV predicted elevated postpartum depressive symptoms, above and beyond the impact of prenatal depressive symptoms. This study brings greater awareness to a complex and harmful situation in an understudied population. Results are discussed in terms of the relation between demographic and psychosocial risk for IPV before and during pregnancy, acculturation, and postpartum depressive symptoms, as well as the implications for the development of future prevention and intervention programs.

Economic Stress and Cortisol Among Postpartum Low-Income Mexican American Women: Buffering Influence of Family Support

Low-income Mexican American women experience significant health disparities during the postpartum period. Contextual stressors, such as economic stress, are theorized to affect health via dysregulated cortisol output. However, cultural protective factors including strong family support may buffer the impact of stress. In a sample of 322 low-income Mexican American women (mother age 18-42; 82% Spanish-speaking; modal family income $10,000-$15,000), we examined the interactive influence of economic stress and family support at 6 weeks postpartum on maternal cortisol output (AUCg) during a mildly challenging mother-infant interaction task at 12 weeks postpartum, controlling for 6-week maternal cortisol and depressive symptoms. The interaction significantly predicted cortisol output such that higher economic stress predicted higher cortisol only among women reporting low family support. These results suggest that family support is an important protective resource for postpartum Mexican American women experiencing elevated economic stress.

Maternal prenatal stress and infant regulatory capacity in Mexican Americans

The early postpartum period lays important groundwork for later self-regulation as infants' dispositional traits interact with caregivers' co-regulatory behaviors to produce the earliest forms of self-regulation. Although emerging literature suggests that fetal exposure to maternal stress may be integral in determining child self-regulatory capacity, the complex pathways that characterize these early developmental processes remain unclear. The current study considers these complex, transactional processes in a low income, Mexican American sample. Data were collected from 295 Mexican American infants and their mothers during prenatal, 6- and 12-week postpartum home interviews. Mother reports of stress were obtained prenatally, and mother reports of infant temperament were obtained at 6 weeks. Observer ratings of maternal sensitivity and infant regulatory behaviors were obtained at the 6- and 12-week time points. Study results indicate that prenatal stress predicts higher levels of infant negativity and surgency, both of which directly or interactively predict later engagement in regulatory behaviors. Unexpectedly, prenatal stress also predicted more engagement in orienting, but not self-comforting behaviors. Advancing understandings about the nature of these developmental pathways may have significant implications for targets of early intervention in this high risk population.

Parent-child interaction over time in families of young children with borderline intellectual functioning

A previous study suggested that mothers of 5-year-old children with borderline intellectual functioning displayed lower positive engagement with their children as compared with both mothers of typically developing children and mothers of children with significant developmental delays (Fenning, Baker, Baker, & Crnic, 2007). The current study integrated father data and followed these families over the subsequent 1-year period. Parent and child behavior were coded from naturalistic home observations at both waves. Results revealed that mothers of children with borderline intellectual functioning displayed a greater increase in negative-controlling parenting from child age 5 to 6 than did other mothers; fathers displayed more negative-controlling behavior in comparison to fathers of typically developing children. In addition, children with borderline intellectual functioning themselves exhibited a more significant escalation in difficult behavior than did typically developing children. Cross-lagged analyses for the sample as a whole indicated that maternal negative-controlling behavior predicted subsequent child difficulties, whereas negative paternal behavior was predicted by earlier child behavior. In conjunction with evidence from Fenning et al. (2007), these findings suggest a complex, dynamic, and systemic developmental pattern in the emotional behavior of families of children with borderline intellectual functioning. Implications and areas in need of additional research are discussed.

Prenatal stress, partner support, and infant cortisol reactivity in low-income Mexican American families

Maternal exposure to significant prenatal stress can negatively affect infant neurobiological development and increase the risk for developmental and health disturbances. These effects may be pronounced in low SES and ethnic minority families. We explored prenatal partner support as a buffer of the impact of prenatal stress on cortisol reactivity of infants born to low-income Mexican American women. Women (N=220; age 18-42; 84% Spanish-speaking; 89% foreign born; modal family income $10,000-$15,000) reported on economic stress and satisfaction with spousal/partner support during the prenatal period (26-38 weeks gestation), and infant salivary cortisol reactivity to mildly challenging mother-infant interaction tasks was assessed at women's homes at six weeks postpartum. Multilevel models estimated the interactive effect of prenatal stress and partner support on cortisol reactivity, controlling for covariates and potential confounds. Infants born to mothers who reported high prenatal stress and low partner support exhibited higher cortisol reactivity relative to those whose mothers reported high support or low stress. The effects did not appear to operate through birth outcomes. For low-income Mexican American women, partner support may buffer the impact of prenatal stress on infant cortisol reactivity, potentially promoting more adaptive infant health and development.

Reciprocity among maternal distress, child behavior, and parenting: transactional processes and early childhood risk

Transactional theories support that parent-child processes are best studied in conjunction with one another, addressing their reciprocal influence and change across time. This study tested a longitudinal, autoregressive model exploring bidirectional relations among maternal symptomatology, child internalizing/externalizing symptoms, and maternal sensitivity during the preschool period (child ages 3 to 5 years), comparing relations among families of typically developing children and children with developmental risk. This study included 250 families, 110 of which had a child with early developmental delay. Analyses utilized data from maternal report, father report, and observational methods. The results indicated significant stability in maternal symptomatology, child internalizing/externalizing symptoms, and maternal sensitivity over time. Support for bidirectional effects between maternal symptomatology and child internalizing symptoms was found specifically for mothers of children with developmental risk. Maternal symptomatology was found to mediate the influence of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms on maternal sensitivity. The findings underscore critical transactional processes within families of children with early developmental risk that connect increased maternal symptomatology to emerging child internalizing symptoms during the preschool period.

Determinants of Change in Maternal Sensitivity: Contributions of Context, Temperament, and Developmental Risk

OBJECTIVE

Maternal sensitivity is a fundamental parenting construct and a determinant of positive child outcomes and healthy parent-child relationships. Few longitudinal studies have investigated determinants of sensitive parenting, particularly in a population of children at risk for developmental delay.

DESIGN

This study modeled trajectories of maternal sensitivity observed in two independent parenting contexts at child ages 3-, 4-, and 5-years. The sample included N = 247 mother-child dyads, with n = 110 children classified as at risk for developmental delays. Predictors included maternal distress, child anger proneness, and developmental risk status.

RESULTS

Maternal sensitivity changed during more demanding parenting tasks over the 3-year period but not during a low-demand task. Mothers of children with developmental risk, relative to mothers of typically developing children, and mothers of boys relative to mothers of girls, showed less sensitivity during more demanding parenting tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Early developmental risk and child gender contribute to the nature of maternal sensitivity over time, but their contributions depend on the situational demands of the interaction. This contextualized view of sensitivity provides further evidence in support of parenting as a dynamic developmental process.

Activative Fathering Predicts Later Children's Behaviour Dysregulation and Sociability

This study examined activative fathering observed during father-child interactions in the family home, focusing on the relation between activative fathering at child age 4 and children's behaviour dysregulation and sociability at child age 5. One hundred twenty-seven families participated in the study. Activative fathering was associated with later lower child dysregulation during a problem solving task, higher dysregulation during a wait task, and higher sociability in the home. Contrary to expectations, paternal control did not moderate these relations. Results are discussed in relation to father-child activation relationship theory.

The family model stress and maternal psychological symptoms: mediated pathways from economic hardship to parenting

Although much of the extant research on low-income families has targeted parental depression as the predominant psychological response to economic hardship, the current study examined a range of maternal psychological symptoms that may mediate the relations between early economic pressure and later parenting behaviors. A family stress model was examined using data from 1,142 mothers living in 2 areas of high rural poverty, focusing on the infancy through toddlerhood period. Maternal questionnaires and observations of mother-child interactions were collected across 4 time points (6, 15, 24, and 36 months). Results from structural equation analyses indicated that early economic pressure was significantly related to a variety of symptoms (depression, hostility, anxiety, and somatization), but only depression and somatization were significantly related to decreased levels of sensitive, supportive parenting behaviors. In contrast, anxiety was positively associated with sensitive parenting. Depression and anxiety were both found to mediate the relations between economic pressure and sensitive parenting behaviors. Results further suggest that mothers did not experience change in objective economic hardship over time but did experience a small decrease in economic pressure. Discussion centers on the apparent indirect influence of early economic hardship on later psychological symptoms and parenting behaviors, as well as detailing the need for broader and more complex perspectives on maternal psychological responses that arise as a result of economic disadvantage.

Mother-Child Affect and Emotion Socialization Processes Across the Late Preschool Period: Predictions of Emerging Behavior Problems

The current study examined concurrent and longitudinal relations between maternal negative affective behavior and child negative emotional expression in preschool age children with (n = 96) or without (n = 126) an early developmental risk, as well as the predictions of later behavior problems. Maternal negative affective behavior, child externalizing emotional expression, and child internalizing emotional expression were observed during a number of lab tasks at child ages 4 and 5, and child externalizing and internalizing behavior problems were assessed via maternal questionnaire at age 6. Path analyses using structural equation modeling were utilized to test the relations among the variables at ages 4, 5, and 6. A parent-driven model of emotion socialization emerged, wherein stronger relations were found among maternal negative affect and child externalizing emotions and behaviors than among maternal negative affect and child internalizing emotions and behaviors. Early child risk did not appear to alter the overall emotion socialization process, although higher levels of maternal and child negativity were observed for the children with a developmental risk. Results underscore the complexity of emotion socialization processes throughout the preschool period.

Developmental risk and young children's regulatory strategies: predicting behavior problems at age five

Children with early developmental delays are at heightened risk for behavior problems and comorbid psychopathology. This study examined the trajectories of regulatory capabilities and their potentially mediating role in the development of behavior problems for children with and without early developmental delays. A sample of 231 children comprised of 137 typically developing children and 94 children with developmental delays were examined during mildly frustrating laboratory tasks across the preschool period (ages 3-5). Results indicated that children with delays had greater use of maladaptive strategies (distraction, distress venting) and lower use of adaptive strategies (constructive coping) than typically developing children. For both groups, strategies had similar rates of growth across time; maladaptive strategies decreased and adaptive strategies increased. The intercept of strategy use, but not the slope, was found to mediate the relation between developmental risk and externalizing behaviors. Findings support that dysregulation, rather than the developmental risk, may be responsible for the high levels of comorbid psychopathology.

Preschool Children with and without Developmental Delay: Risk, Parenting, and Child Demandingess

Although past literature has established relations between early child risk factors, negative parenting, and problematic child behavior, the nature of these interrelations and pathways of influence over time remains largely unknown, especially in children with developmental delays or disabilities. In the current study data were drawn from the longitudinal Collaborative Family Study and included a sample of 260 families with preschool children with and without developmental delays. Child-related risk was assessed at child age 36 months, maternal intrusiveness and negative affect at 48 months, and child demandingness at 60 months. Results indicated significant relations between early risk, negative parenting, and subsequent child demandingness. Sickliness as an infant was the most salient predictive risk factor of later child demandingness. Developmental delay was the most significant predictor of subsequent negative parenting. Results are discussed as being more indicative of additive rather than mediational processes given that early child risk and negative maternal parenting both contributed uniquely to the subsequent development of child demandingness.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children with and without intellectual disability: an examination across time

BACKGROUND

Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are at heightened risk for mental disorders, and disruptive behaviour disorders appear to be the most prevalent. The current study is a longitudinal examination of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children with and without intellectual disability (ID) across ages 5 to 8.

METHOD

We assessed 228 5-year-old children, 87 with ID and 141 with typical development (TD), for clinical diagnoses using a structured interview. These interviews were conducted with mothers annually from child age 5 to 8.

RESULTS

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder was over 3 times as prevalent in the ID group as in the TD group across ages 5, 6, 7 and 8. The diagnosis of ADHD tended to emerge earlier and was more stable in the ID group; however, the total number and relative frequency of ADHD symptoms endorsed appeared to be similar within the two groups across time. With respect to the developmental course, the trajectories of ADHD inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms over time were similar in the two groups.

DISCUSSION

Children with ID appear to be at heightened risk for ADHD and they may experience a longer and more persistent course of the disorder. These findings highlight the need for making interventions available for early treatment of this condition in children with ID.

Developmental changes in anger expression and attention focus: learning to wait

Being able to wait is an essential part of self-regulation. In the present study, the authors examined the developmental course of changes in the latency to and duration of target-waiting behaviors by following 65 boys and 55 girls from rural and semirural economically strained homes from ages 18 months to 48 months. Age-related changes in latency to and duration of children's anger expressions and attention focus (e.g., self-initiated distraction) during an 8-min wait for a gift were found. On average, at 18 and 24 months of age, children were quick to react angrily and slower to shift attention away from the desired object than they were at later ages. Over time, children were quicker to distract themselves. By 36 months, distractions occurred before children expressed anger, and anger expressions were briefer. At 48 months, children typically made a quick bid to their mothers about having to wait before distracting themselves; on average, they did not appear angry until the latter half of the wait. Unexpectedly, children bid to their mothers as much at age 48 months as they had at 18 months; however, bids became less angry as children got older. Developmental changes in distraction and bidding predicted age-related changes in the latency to anger. Findings are discussed in terms of the neurocognitive control of attention around age 30 months, the limitations of children's self-regulatory efforts at age 48 months, and the importance of fostering children's ability to forestall, as well as modulate, anger.

Emotion Socialization by Mothers and Fathers: Coherence among Behaviors and Associations with Parent Attitudes and Children's Social Competence

This study examined interrelations among different types of parental emotion socialization behaviors in 88 mothers and 76 fathers (co-residing with participating mothers) of 8-year-old children. Parents completed questionnaires assessing emotion socialization behaviors, emotion-related attitudes, and their children's social functioning. An observed parent-child emotion discourse task and a child social-problem solving interview were also performed. Parent gender differences and concordance within couples in emotion socialization behaviors were identified for some but not all behaviors. Fathers' reactions to child emotion, family expressiveness, and fathers' emotion coaching during discussion cohered, and a model was supported in which the commonality among these behaviors was predicted by fathers' emotion-coaching attitudes, and was associated with children's social competence. A cohesive structure for the emotion socialization construct was less clear for mothers, although attitudes predicted all three types of emotion socialization behavior (reactions, expressiveness, and coaching). Implications for developmental theory and for parent-focused interventions are discussed.

Mental disorders in five-year-old children with or without developmental delay: focus on ADHD

Epidemiological studies of children and adolescents with intellectual disability have found 30 to 50% exhibiting clinically significant behavior problems. Few studies, however, have assessed young children, included a cognitively typical comparison group, assessed for specific disorders, and/or studied family correlates of diagnosis. We assessed 236 5-year-old children--95 with developmental delay (DD) and 141 with typical development--for clinical diagnoses using a structured interview. Every disorder assessed was more prevalent in the DD group. The percent of children meeting criteria for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) most highly differentiated the two groups (ratio = 3.21:1). There was high stability from externalizing behavior problems at age 3 to ADHD diagnoses at age 5 in both groups. In regression analyses, parenting stress at child age 3 related to later ADHD diagnosis in both groups and maternal scaffolding (sensitive teaching) also predicted ADHD in the DD group.

Resilience and the course of daily parenting stress in families of young children with intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND

Parenting stresses have consistently been found to be higher in parents of children with intellectual disabilities (ID); yet, some families are able to be resilient and thrive in the face of these challenges. Despite the considerable research on stress in families of ID, there is still little known about the stability and compensatory factors associated with everyday parenting stresses.

METHODS

Trajectories of daily parenting stress were studied for both mothers and fathers of children with ID across child ages 36-60 months, as were specific familial risk and resilience factors that affect these trajectories, including psychological well-being of each parent, marital adjustment and positive parent-child relationships.

RESULTS

Mothers' daily parenting stress significantly increased over time, while fathers' daily parenting stress remained more constant. Decreases in mothers' daily parenting stress trajectory were associated with both mother and father's well-being and perceived marital adjustment, as well as a positive father-child relationship. However, decreases in fathers' daily parenting stress trajectory were only affected by mother's well-being and both parents' perceived marital adjustment.

CONCLUSIONS

Parenting stress processes are not shared entirely across the preschool period in parents of children with ID. Although individual parent characteristics and high-quality dyadic relationships contribute to emerging resilience in parents of children with ID, parents also affect each others' more resilient adaptations in ways that have not been previously considered.

Thinking about feelings: emotion focus in the parenting of children with early developmental risk

BACKGROUND

Children with developmental delays exhibit more difficulty with certain emotional processes than their typically developing peers, which seems to partially account for the increased risk for the development of social problems in this population. Despite considerable study with typically developing populations, research on parental emotion socialisation in families of children with delays is scarce. This study examined the degree to which parents of children with early delays prioritized emotion relative to other important areas of child development and the degree to which they focused on emotion during relevant interactions with their children.

METHOD

Families of 8-year-old children with (n = 42) and without (n = 89) early developmental delays completed questionnaires and interviews, and participated in a parent-child emotion discourse task.

RESULTS

As predicted, parents of children with developmental delays reported lower prioritization of emotion and focused less on emotion during discourse than did parents of typically developing children. A model was supported in which a pathway existed from developmental status through prioritization to emotion focus. Emotion focus, in turn, predicted children's social skills as reported on by multiple informants.

CONCLUSIONS

Parents of children with early developmental delays may focus upon emotion less in their parenting than parents of typically developing children, and related behaviours show associations with children's social skill outcomes. Findings are discussed as an initial step in thinking about the role of emotion socialisation in the families of children with delays.

Prediction of social skills in 6-year-old children with and without developmental delays: contributions of early regulation and maternal scaffolding

Children's emotion dysregulation and maternal scaffolding at age 4 were examined as predictors of social skills at age 6, for 66 children with and 106 without early developmental delays. Observed scaffolding and regulation during frustrating laboratory tasks related to later mother, father, and teacher social-skill ratings for children with delays and were stronger predictors of social skills within this group than were developmental level and early behavior problems. In contrast, fewer associations were found for typically developing children, with early behavior problems providing the only unique prediction to social skills. Data support a model in which dysregulation partially mediates the association between developmental status and social-skill outcomes. Implications for research, prevention, and early intervention are discussed.

Parenting Children With Borderline Intellectual Functioning: A Unique Risk Population

Parenting was examined among families of children with borderline intelligence in comparison to families of typically developing children and children with developmental delays. Parenting data were obtained at child age 5 via naturalistic home observation. Mothers of children with borderline intelligence exhibited less positive and less sensitive parenting behaviors than did other mothers and were least likely to display a style of positive engagement. Children with borderline intelligence were not observed to be more behaviorally problematic than other children; however, their mothers perceived more externalizing symptoms than did mothers of typically developing children. Findings suggest the importance of mothers' explanatory models for child difficulties and highlight children with borderline intelligence as uniquely at risk for poor parenting.

Emotional competence and aggressive behavior in school-age children

Examined emotional competence in 87 children, aged 7-10 years, who varied with respect to reports of aggressive behavior to determine whether individual differences in emotional competence characterize children with higher levels of aggressive behavior. Emotional competence was assessed during a 1-hr lab visit that included (a) an observational period consisting of a modified disappointment paradigm, (b) assessment of cognitive and language abilities, and (c) 2 structured emotion interviews. Children with higher levels of aggressive behavior exhibited more intense and frequent expressions of anger, both as reported by mothers and as observed during the disappointment paradigm. Less sophisticated ability to identify the causes of emotion also characterized children with higher levels of aggressive behavior. Gender moderated the relation between aggressive behavior and type of emotion identified such that reports of happiness (in response to receiving a disappointing prize) were associated with lower levels of reported aggressive behavior for boys. The value of assessing children's emotional competence in the context of an emotionally arousing situation is suggested by these findings.

Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year-old children with and without developmental delays

Children and adolescents with mental retardation are at heightened risk for mental disorder. We examined early evidence of behavior problems in 225 three-year-old children with or without developmental delays and the relative impact of cognitive delays and problem behaviors on their parents. Staff-completed Bayley Behavior Scales and parent-completed Child Behavior Checklists (CBCLs) showed greater problems in children with delays than in those without delays. Children with delays were 3 to 4 times as likely to have a total CBCL score within the clinical range. Parenting stress was higher in delayed condition families. Regression analyses revealed that the extent of child behavior problems was a much stronger contributor to parenting stress than was the child's cognitive delay.

Behavior problems and parenting stress in families of three-year-old children with and without developmental delays

Children and adolescents with mental retardation are at heightened risk for mental disorder. We examined early evidence of behavior problems in 225 three-year-old children with or without developmental delays and the relative impact of cognitive delays and problem behaviors on their parents. Staff-completed Bayley Behavior Scales and parent-completed Child Behavior Checklists (CBCLs) showed greater problems in children with delays than in those without delays. Children with delays were 3 to 4 times as likely to have a total CBCL score within the clinical range. Parenting stress was higher in delayed condition families. Regression analyses revealed that the extent of child behavior problems was a much stronger contributor to parenting stress than was the child's cognitive delay.

Minor parenting stresses with young children

The importance of major life stress and minor daily hassles associated with parenting was studied in 74 mothers and their 5-year-old children. Of interest were the relative and absolute contributions of the stress factors to indices of parental, child, and family functioning. Mothers completed questionnaires regarding stressors, aspects of parenting and individual psychological status, social support, family functioning, and child behavioral status. Mother-child pairs were also observed in interactions in a laboratory setting. Analyses indicated that life stress and parenting daily hassles significantly predicted aspects of child, parent, and family status. Hassles, however, proved to be a more powerful stress construct. Further analyses indicated that mothers' social support moderated the influence of hassles on indices of maternal behavior. The results are discussed in relation to the potential for minor parenting stresses to influence microsocial processes within parent-child relationships and contribute to dysfunction in children and families.

Longitudinal predictors of developmental status and social interaction in premature and full-term infants at age two

This investigation involved the longitudinal assessment of 30 mother-preterm and 40 mother-full-term dyads from birth to 2 years of age. Measures of maternal attitudes, maternal perception of the infant, and parental functioning were obtained at 1 and 8 months of infant age. Mother-infant interactions were observed at 4, 8, 12, and 24 months. Infant cognitive, motor, and language development was assessed at 4, 12, and 24 months. Results indicated that by age 2 years, no group differences were apparent on any child development, mother-child interaction, or maternal attitudinal measures; the lone exception was that preterms were significantly poorer in motor skills. This similarity in functioning at age 2 years was in marked contrast to earlier findings of major group differences at 12 months. Correlational and regression analyses indicated that the developmental and social interaction outcomes were predicted by different factors in the two groups; moreover, whereas 40%-60% of the variance in preterm infants' social and cognitive outcomes could be accounted for, only 15%-30% was accounted for in the full-term group. These results are discussed in terms of compensatory mechanisms that may characterize the parenting of high-risk infants, and of the applicability of transactional models of development.