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Bradfield JP, Kember RL, Ulrich A, Balkiyarova Z, Alyass A, Aris IM, Bell JA, Broadaway KA, Chen Z, Chai JF, Davies NM, Fernandez-Orth D, Bustamante M, Fore R, Ganguli A, Heiskala A, Hottenga JJ, Íñiguez C, Kobes S, Leinonen J, Lowry E, Lyytikainen LP, Mahajan A, Pitkänen N, Schnurr TM, Have CT, Strachan DP, Thiering E, Vogelezang S, Wade KH, Wang CA, Wong A, Holm LA, Chesi A, Choong C, Cruz M, Elliott P, Franks S, Frithioff-Bøjsøe C, Gauderman WJ, Glessner JT, Gilsanz V, Griesman K, Hanson RL, Kaakinen M, Kalkwarf H, Kelly A, Kindler J, Kähönen M, Lanca C, Lappe J, Lee NR, McCormack S, Mentch FD, Mitchell JA, Mononen N, Niinikoski H, Oken E, Pahkala K, Sim X, Teo YY, Baier LJ, van Beijsterveldt T, Adair LS, Boomsma DI, de Geus E, Guxens M, Eriksson JG, Felix JF, Gilliland FD, Biobank PM, Hansen T, Hardy R, Hivert MF, Holm JC, Jaddoe VWV, Järvelin MR, Lehtimäki T, Mackey DA, Meyre D, Mohlke KL, Mykkänen J, Oberfield S, Pennell CE, Perry JRB, Raitakari O, Rivadeneira F, Saw SM, Sebert S, Shepherd JA, Standl M, Sørensen TIA, Timpson NJ, Torrent M, Willemsen G, Hypponen E, Power C, McCarthy MI, Freathy RM, Widén E, Hakonarson H, Prokopenko I, Voight BF, Zemel BS, Grant SFA, Cousminer DL. Trans-ancestral genome-wide association study of longitudinal pubertal height growth and shared heritability with adult health outcomes. Genome Biol 2024; 25:22. [PMID: 38229171 PMCID: PMC10790528 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-023-03136-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pubertal growth patterns correlate with future health outcomes. However, the genetic mechanisms mediating growth trajectories remain largely unknown. Here, we modeled longitudinal height growth with Super-Imposition by Translation And Rotation (SITAR) growth curve analysis on ~ 56,000 trans-ancestry samples with repeated height measurements from age 5 years to adulthood. We performed genetic analysis on six phenotypes representing the magnitude, timing, and intensity of the pubertal growth spurt. To investigate the lifelong impact of genetic variants associated with pubertal growth trajectories, we performed genetic correlation analyses and phenome-wide association studies in the Penn Medicine BioBank and the UK Biobank. RESULTS Large-scale growth modeling enables an unprecedented view of adolescent growth across contemporary and 20th-century pediatric cohorts. We identify 26 genome-wide significant loci and leverage trans-ancestry data to perform fine-mapping. Our data reveals genetic relationships between pediatric height growth and health across the life course, with different growth trajectories correlated with different outcomes. For instance, a faster tempo of pubertal growth correlates with higher bone mineral density, HOMA-IR, fasting insulin, type 2 diabetes, and lung cancer, whereas being taller at early puberty, taller across puberty, and having quicker pubertal growth were associated with higher risk for atrial fibrillation. CONCLUSION We report novel genetic associations with the tempo of pubertal growth and find that genetic determinants of growth are correlated with reproductive, glycemic, respiratory, and cardiac traits in adulthood. These results aid in identifying specific growth trajectories impacting lifelong health and show that there may not be a single "optimal" pubertal growth pattern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Bradfield
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Rachel L Kember
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Anna Ulrich
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Zhanna Balkiyarova
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Imperial College London, London, UK
- People-Centred Artificial Intelligence Institute, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Akram Alyass
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Izzuddin M Aris
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Joshua A Bell
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - K Alaine Broadaway
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Zhanghua Chen
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90032, USA
| | - Jin-Fang Chai
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Neil M Davies
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- K.G. Jebsen Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | | | - Ruby Fore
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Amitavo Ganguli
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Anni Heiskala
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Jouke-Jan Hottenga
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Carmen Íñiguez
- Department of Statistics and Computational Research, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Sayuko Kobes
- Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Center, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, USA
| | - Jaakko Leinonen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Estelle Lowry
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Leo-Pekka Lyytikainen
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Finnish Cardiovascular Research Center - Tampere, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, 33014, Tampere, Finland
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Tampere University Hospital, 33521, Tampere, Finland
| | - Anubha Mahajan
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Niina Pitkänen
- Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Theresia M Schnurr
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Christian Theil Have
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - David P Strachan
- Population Health Research Institute, St George's, University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Elisabeth Thiering
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München- German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
- Division of Metabolic and Nutritional Medicine, Dr. Von Hauner Children's Hospital, University of Munich Medical Center, Munich, Germany
| | - Suzanne Vogelezang
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kaitlin H Wade
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- Bristol Medical School, Population Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Carol A Wang
- School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, 2305, Australia
| | - Andrew Wong
- MRC Unit for Lifelong Health and Ageing at UCL, London, UK
| | - Louise Aas Holm
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Obesity Clinic, Copenhagen University Hospital Holbæk, Holbæk, Denmark
| | - Alessandra Chesi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Catherine Choong
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Miguel Cruz
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Bioquímica, Hospital de Especialidades, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Paul Elliott
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Steve Franks
- Institute of Reproductive & Developmental Biology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Christine Frithioff-Bøjsøe
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Obesity Clinic, Copenhagen University Hospital Holbæk, Holbæk, Denmark
| | - W James Gauderman
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90032, USA
| | - Joseph T Glessner
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Vicente Gilsanz
- Center for Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - Robert L Hanson
- Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Center, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, USA
| | - Marika Kaakinen
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
- Institute of Reproductive & Developmental Biology, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Heidi Kalkwarf
- Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Andrea Kelly
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Division of Endocrinology & Diabetes, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Joseph Kindler
- College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Mika Kähönen
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Finnish Cardiovascular Research Center - Tampere, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, 33014, Tampere, Finland
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Tampere University Hospital, 33521, Tampere, Finland
| | - Carla Lanca
- Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joan Lappe
- Department of Medicine and College of Nursing, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NB, USA
| | - Nanette R Lee
- USC-Office of Population Studies Foundation, Inc, University of San Carlos, Cebu, Philippines
| | - Shana McCormack
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Division of Endocrinology & Diabetes, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Frank D Mentch
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Jonathan A Mitchell
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Nina Mononen
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Finnish Cardiovascular Research Center - Tampere, Tampere University, 33014, Tampere, Finland
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Fimlab Laboratories, 33520, Tampere, Finland
| | - Harri Niinikoski
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Turku University Hospital and University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Physiology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Emily Oken
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Katja Pahkala
- Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
- Paavo Nurmi Centre, Unit for Health and Physical Activity, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Xueling Sim
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yik-Ying Teo
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Leslie J Baier
- Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Center, NIDDK, NIH, Bethesda, USA
| | - Toos van Beijsterveldt
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Linda S Adair
- Department of Nutrition, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Dorret I Boomsma
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Reproduction & Development (AR&D) Research Institute, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Eco de Geus
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mònica Guxens
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Johan G Eriksson
- Institute of Clinical Medicine Department of General Practice and Primary Health Care, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Folkhälsan Research Center, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Janine F Felix
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Frank D Gilliland
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90032, USA
| | | | - Torben Hansen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rebecca Hardy
- Cohort and Longitudinal Studies Enhancement Resources (CLOSER), UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
| | - Marie-France Hivert
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Jens-Christian Holm
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Pediatrics, The Children's Obesity Clinic, Copenhagen University Hospital Holbæk, Holbæk, Denmark
- The Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vincent W V Jaddoe
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Pediatrics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Marjo-Riitta Järvelin
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
- Unit of Primary Health Care, Oulu University Hospital, OYS, Kajaanintie 50, 90220, Oulu, Finland
| | - Terho Lehtimäki
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Finnish Cardiovascular Research Center - Tampere, Tampere University, 33014, Tampere, Finland
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Fimlab Laboratories, 33520, Tampere, Finland
| | - David A Mackey
- Lions Eye Institute, Centre for Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Centre for Eye Research Australia, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - David Meyre
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
- Inserm UMR_S1256 Nutrition-Genetics-Environmental Risk Exposure, University of Lorraine, Nancy, France
- Department of Biochemistry-Molecular Biology-Nutrition, University Hospital Centre of Nancy, Nancy, France
| | - Karen L Mohlke
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Juha Mykkänen
- Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Sharon Oberfield
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Craig E Pennell
- School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
- Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, 2305, Australia
- Department of Maternity and Gynaecology, John Hunter Hospital, Newcastle, NSW, 2305, Australia
| | - John R B Perry
- Metabolic Research Laboratory, School of Clinical Medicine, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
- MRC Epidemiology Unit, School of Clinical Medicine, Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0QQ, UK
| | - Olli Raitakari
- Research Centre of Applied and Preventive Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
- Department of Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Fernando Rivadeneira
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Seang-Mei Saw
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sylvain Sebert
- Center for Life Course Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Imperial College London, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - John A Shepherd
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Science, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Marie Standl
- Institute of Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München- German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Thorkild I A Sørensen
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nicholas J Timpson
- MRC Integrative Epidemiology Unit at the University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Maties Torrent
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Fundació Institut d'Investigació Sanitària Illes Balears - IdISBa, Palma, Spain
| | - Gonneke Willemsen
- Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elina Hypponen
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
- Australian Centre for Precision Health, Unit of Clinical and Health Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Chris Power
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Mark I McCarthy
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
- Current Address: Genentech, 1 DNA Way, San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Rachel M Freathy
- Department of Clinical and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX2 5DW, UK
| | - Elisabeth Widén
- Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hakon Hakonarson
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Inga Prokopenko
- Department of Clinical & Experimental Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
- People-Centred Artificial Intelligence Institute, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
- UMR 8199 - EGID, Institut Pasteur de Lille, CNRS, University of Lille, 59000, Lille, France
| | - Benjamin F Voight
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Department of Systems Pharmacology and Translational Therapeutics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Institute of Translational Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Babette S Zemel
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Struan F A Grant
- Center for Applied Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Division of Endocrinology & Diabetes, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Division of Human Genetics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
| | - Diana L Cousminer
- Center for Spatial and Functional Genomics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Department of Genetics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Division of Human Genetics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA.
- Currently Employed By GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 S Collegeville Rd, Collegeville, PA, 19426, USA.
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