Early life programming by diet can play a role in risk reduction of otitis in dogs

Introduction

Otitis in dogs is often chronic while local treatment primarily consists of flushing, antibiotics, and/or antifungals. We were interested in finding early life variables that associate with otitis later in life, preferably some that could be modified.

Methods

A cross-sectional hypothesis-driven study with longitudinal data was performed to search for associations between pre- and postnatal exposures, and the incidence of owner-reported otitis in dogs at over 1 year of age. The multivariate logistic regression analysis study included data from 3,064 dogs and explored 26 different early life variables at four early life stages: prenatal, neonatal, postnatal, and puppyhood. We compared two feeding patterns, a non-processed meat-based diet (NPMD, raw) and an ultra-processed carbohydrate-based diet (UPCD, dry).

Results

We report that eating a NPMD diet significantly decreased the risk of otitis later in life, while eating a UPCD diet significantly increased the risk. This was seen in different life stages of mother or puppy: The maternal diet during pregnancy (p=0.011) and the puppies' diet from 2 to 6 months of age (p=0.019) were both significantly associated with otitis incidence later in life, whereas the puppies' first solid diet, was associated in the same way, but did not reach significance (p=0.072). Also, analyzing food ratios showed that when puppies were consuming >25% of their food as NPMD it significantly decreased their incidence of otitis later in life, while a ratio of >75% UPCD in their diet significantly increased their risk of otitis. Also, if the dog was born in the current family, was exposed to sunlight for more than 1 hour daily, and was raised on a dirt floor during puppyhood, there was a lower risk of otitis development later in life.

Discussion

The findings only suggest causality, and further studies are required. However, we propose that veterinarians, breeders, and owners can impact otitis risk by modifying factors such as diet and environment.

Assessing the association between supplemented puppyhood dietary fat sources and owner-reported epilepsy in adulthood, among Finnish companion dogs

Introduction

Epilepsy is a serious and common neurological condition in dogs, despite the wide number of antiepileptic drugs available, in approximately one third of the patients, epilepsy remains unsatisfactorily controlled. We aim to analyze whether feeding dietary fat sources during puppyhood was associated with canine epilepsy in adulthood.

Methods

A nested case-control study was compiled from the validated DogRisk food frequency questionnaire (DogRisk FFQ). DogRisk FFQ collected feeding, disease, and background data about the dog. The study sample consisted of 108 owner-reported epileptic cases and 397 non-epileptic controls. Each case was matched with up to four controls for the key confounding factors of sex, breed, and age. We analyzed associations between feeding as a puppy and owner-reported epilepsy as an adult dog using Cox regression. We tested 55 different food variables.

Results

We found that feeding fish fat from dietary sources at least once a week during puppyhood was inversely associated with epilepsy in later life in the unadjusted analysis [OR 0.46 (95% CI 0.25-0.83), p=0.01], while when adjusting for keeping conditions and dog characteristics the association was [OR 0.45 (95% CI 0.23-0.88), p=0.02]. When adjusted for keeping conditions, dog characteristics, and other feeding factors, the association was of similar magnitude but not significance [OR 0.56 (95% CI 0.27-1.15), p=0.12].

Discussion

The study indicates possible protective associations of feeding the dog with dietary sources of fish fat against epilepsy, although the result could be confounded by other feeding factors. Findings are compatible with current knowledge regarding the role of omega-3 fatty acids and ketogenic diet, a low carbohydrate, high fat diet as supportive treatments of epilepsy. As our findings are based on observations, we suggest the possibility of causality but do not prove it. Dietary intervention studies should now be conducted to confirm our findings.

Mineral, trace element, and toxic metal concentration in hair from dogs with idiopathic epilepsy compared to healthy controls

BACKGROUND

Altered trace element status is associated with epilepsy in humans and dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (IE).

OBJECTIVES

Compare hair element concentrations in epileptic and healthy dogs.

ANIMALS

Sixty-three dogs with IE (53 treated, 10 untreated) and 42 controls.

METHODS

Case-control study using ICP-MS to determine hair calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, selenium, chromium, lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, aluminum, and nickel concentration. Groups were compared using nonparametric tests. Results were controlled for diet, sex, age, and hair color using generalized linear mixed models.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy controls, dogs with IE had lower hair phosphorus (mean ± SD; IE: 286.19 ± 69.62 μg/g, healthy: 324.52 ± 58.69 μg/g; P = .001), higher hair copper (IE: 10.97 ± 3.51 μg/g, healthy: 8.41 ± 1.27 μg/g; P < .001), zinc (IE: 158.25 ± 19.64 μg/g, healthy: 144.76 ± 32.18 μg/g; P < .001), copper/zinc ratio (IE: 0.07 ± 0.02, healthy: 0.06 ± 0.01; P = .003), selenium (IE: 1.65 ± 0.43 μg/g, healthy: 0.94 ± 0.73 μg/g; P < .001), and arsenic (IE: 0.40 ± 0.78 μg/g, healthy: 0.05 ± 0.08 μg/g; P < .001). When comparing treated and untreated epileptic dogs with healthy dogs, the differences in phosphorus and selenium remained significant for both groups, whereas the differences in copper, zinc, and arsenic were significant only for treated dogs. Potassium bromide treatment was strongly associated with high hair arsenic (P = .000).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Altered trace element status could be involved in the pathophysiology of IE in dogs. Antiseizure drugs might affect trace element and arsenic metabolism.

The effect of puppyhood and adolescent diet on the incidence of chronic enteropathy in dogs later in life

Diet has a key role in the homeostasis of the gut microenvironment, influencing the microbiome, the gut barrier, host immunity and gut physiology. Yet, there is little information on the role of early diet in the onset of inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders later in life, especially in dogs. Therefore, the aim of the present cross-sectional, epidemiological study with longitudinal data, was to explore associations of companion dogs' early life diet style and food items with owner-reported chronic enteropathy (CE) incidence in later life. Food frequency questionnaire data from Finnish companion dogs was analyzed using principal component analysis and logistic regression. We found that feeding a non-processed meat-based diet and giving the dog human meal leftovers and table scraps during puppyhood (2-6 months) and adolescence (6-18 months) were protective against CE later in life. Especially raw bones and cartilage as well as leftovers and table scraps during puppyhood and adolescence, and berries during puppyhood were associated with less CE. In contrast, feeding an ultra-processed carbohydrate-based diet, namely dry dog food or "kibble" during puppyhood and adolescence, and rawhides during puppyhood were significant risk factors for CE later in life.

Whole blood trace element and toxic metal concentration in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy and healthy dogs: A case-control study

Background

Idiopathic epilepsy (IE) is the most common neurological disease in dogs. Multiple genes and environmental factors interact to cause clinical signs, although the pathogenesis remains poorly understood. Extensive evidence from recent decades shows that trace elements play a role in epilepsy in humans, and recently it was shown for the first time that also dogs with IE have altered trace element status. On the other hand, toxic metals may cause seizures but research on their role in canine IE is lacking. Therefore, we aimed to investigate trace element and toxic metal concentrations in whole blood from dogs that had been diagnosed with IE and compare them to those of healthy dogs.

Materials and methods

Whole blood concentrations of trace elements (selenium, zinc, copper, manganese, iron, and chromium) and toxic metals (arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead) were analyzed from 19 dogs that had been diagnosed with IE by board-certified neurologists and 19 healthy control dogs using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The concentrations in study and control group were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test.

Results

Dogs diagnosed with IE had significantly higher blood copper concentration (P = 0.007), higher copper/zinc ratio (P = 0.04), and higher selenium concentration (P < 0.001), as well as lower chromium concentration (P = 0.01) when compared to healthy dogs. Treatment of IE with potassium bromide was associated with a significant elevation in blood arsenic concentration (P = 0.01).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the present results support the role of altered trace element status in dogs diagnosed with IE and suggest that copper, selenium, and chromium may be involved in the pathogenesis of canine epilepsy or seizures. The results also suggest that potassium bromide may alter arsenic metabolism in dogs.

Copepod reproductive effort and oxidative status as responses to warming in the marine environment

The marine ecosystems are under severe climate change‐induced stress globally. The Baltic Sea is especially vulnerable to ongoing changes, such as warming. The aim of this study was to measure eco‐physiological responses of a key copepod species to elevated temperature in an experiment, and by collecting field samples in the western Gulf of Finland. The potential trade‐off between reproductive output and oxidative balance in copepods during thermal stress was studied by incubating female Acartia sp. for reproduction rate and oxidative stress measurements in ambient and elevated temperatures. Our field observations show that the glutathione cycle had a clear response in increasing stress and possibly had an important role in preventing oxidative damage: Lipid peroxidation and ratio of reduced and oxidized glutathione were negatively correlated throughout the study. Moreover, glutathione‐s‐transferase activated in late July when the sea water temperature was exceptionally high and Acartia sp. experienced high oxidative stress. The combined effect of a heatwave, increased cyanobacteria, and decreased dinoflagellate abundance may have caused larger variability in reproductive output in the field. An increase of 7°C had a negative effect on egg production rate in the experiment. However, the effect on reproduction was relatively small, implying that Acartia sp. can tolerate warming at least within the temperature range of 9–16°C. However, our data from the experiment suggest a link between reproductive success and oxidative stress during warming, shown as a significant combined effect of temperature and catalase on egg production rate.

Diet and dog characteristics affect major and trace elements in hair and blood of healthy dogs

Obtaining correct amounts of essential elements, and avoiding toxic metals are key factors in dog health. Through analyzing major and trace elements in hair and blood of 50 healthy companion dogs using ICP-MS, we study their associations with dog characteristics and diet, hypothesizing that eating the same diet long-term results in strong correlations between hair and blood element concentrations, and that dog characteristics and diet affect element status. The correlation between hair and blood was significant for Hg (R = 0.601, p = 0.000) and Pb (R = 0.384, p = 0.010). The following associations were significant (p < 0.05): Dark hair had higher Ca and Mg compared to light hair. Females had higher hair Zn, blood Mn, and blood As compared to males. Blood Mn and Se increased, while blood Pb decreased with age. Raw diet fed dogs had higher hair Zn and Se compared to dry or mixed diet fed dogs, and lower blood Mn compared to dry diet fed dogs. Dry and mixed diet fed dogs had higher blood Cd compared to raw diet fed dogs. Mixed diet fed dogs had higher hair Ca and Mg compared to raw or dry diet fed dogs, and higher hair Pb compared to dry diet fed dogs. Wild game consumption was associated with higher blood Pb, and rice consumption with higher blood As. In conclusion, hair provides an alternative for assessing Hg and Pb exposure, and major and trace elements status is affected by hair color, sex, age, and diet.

Puppyhood diet as a factor in the development of owner-reported allergy/atopy skin signs in adult dogs in Finland

BACKGROUND

The increased prevalence of atopic dermatitis (AD) in dogs necessitates research in its disease etiology.

OBJECTIVES

To explore the association between puppyhood dietary exposures and prevalence of owner-reported allergy/atopy skin signs (AASS) after the age of 1 year.

ANIMALS

Four thousand and twenty-two dogs were eligible, 1158 cases, and 2864 controls.

METHODS

This cross-sectional hypothesis-driven observational study was extracted from the DogRisk food frequency questionnaire. Forty-six food items and the ratio of 4 major diet types were tested for their association with AASS incidence later in life. Potential puppyhood dietary risk factors for AASS incidence were specified using binary multivariable logistic regression. The model was adjusted for age and sex.

RESULTS

Eating raw tripe (odds ratio, 95% confidence intervals OR, 95% CI = 0.36, 0.16-0.79; P = .01), raw organ meats (OR, 95% CI = 0.23, 0.08-0.67; P = .007), human meal leftovers, and fish oil supplements as well as eating more that 20% of the diet as raw and/or <80% of the diet as dry, in general, were associated with significantly lower AASS incidence in adulthood. In contrast, dogs fed fruits (OR, 95% CI = 2.01, 1.31-3.07; P = .001), mixed-oil supplements, dried animal parts, and dogs that drank from puddles showed significantly higher AASS incidence in adulthood.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Puppyhood exposure to raw animal-based foods might have a protective influence on AASS incidence in adulthood, while puppyhood exposure to mixed oils, heat processed foods and sugary fruits might be a potential risk factor of AASS incidence later. The study suggests a causal relationship but does not prove it.

Early Life Modifiable Exposures and Their Association With Owner Reported Inflammatory Bowel Disease Symptoms in Adult Dogs

Background: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an idiopathic multifactorial disease in humans and dogs, usually assigned to the interactions between genes, gut microbiota, diet, environment, and the immune system. We aimed to investigate the modifiable early life exposures associated with IBD in dogs.

Materials and Methods: The study data was extracted from the validated owner-reported DogRisk food frequency questionnaire. This was a cross-sectional questionnaire-based study that tested 21 different early life dietary and environmental, demographic and genetic variables for their association with IBD or not, in adult dogs. A total of 7,015 dogs participated in this study. The study covered early life periods; prenatal, neonatal, early, and late postnatal periods. Two feeding patterns, a non-processed meat-based diet (NPMD) and an ultra-processed carbohydrate-based diet (UPCD) were studied. Data was analyzed using logistic regression analysis with a backward stepwise deletion.

Results: From the final models we found that the NPMD during early and late postnatal periods were significantly associated with lower IBD risk later in life. The UPCD during the same periods was associated with a higher risk of IBD incidence. Also, the maternal diet during the neonatal period showed a non-significant trend of lower IBD risk in the offspring with the NPMD and a higher IBD risk with the UPCD. Additionally, the normal body weight of puppies during the first 6 months of age was associated with a lower risk of IBD in adulthood while, slim puppies associated significantly with IBD in adulthood. From the non-modifiable background variables, we identified the maternal history of IBD as the strongest risk factor for later incidence of IBD. Furthermore, male dogs were twice as likely to develop IBD as female dogs were.

Conclusions: It is reassuring for owners to know that they themselves can have an impact on their dog's health. A high-fat, low-carbohydrate NPMD exposure during early life, and a normal body condition in puppyhood were significantly associated with less IBD in adult dogs. The opposite was true for UPCD exposure and abnormal body condition score in 6 month old puppies.

Environmentally driven changes in Baltic salmon oxidative status during marine migration

The fitness and recruitment of fish stocks can be markedly affected by environmental disturbances including global warming, eutrophication and contamination. Understanding the effects of environmental stressors on salmon physiology during marine residence is of a global concern as marine survival has decreased. We present a unique combination of physiological responses - antioxidant defence and oxidative damage biomarkers, stable isotopes and contaminant exposure biomarkers - measured from adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) collected at the Baltic Sea and studied in relation to environmental variables and fitness estimates. The results demonstrate that feeding populations of salmon display marked temporal and spatial variation in oxidative status. Better oxidative status of salmon was characterized by a higher amount of reduced glutathione (GSH) and decreased lipid peroxidation (LPX), when the weight-at-age of 3-4-year old sprats was higher and contaminant exposure biomarker (EROD) was lower. Summer season conditions, which included cooler sea surface temperature (SST), higher bottom O₂ and less cyanobacteria also indicated conditions for better oxidative status. Summer SST was additionally shown to affected glutathione metabolism enzyme activities. Oxidative status was associated with stable isotopes δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N indicating indirect effect of abiotic conditions and lower levels of the food web. Differences in condition factor and growth were associated with oxidative status in one and two sea winter salmon, respectively. Wild salmon survival was higher in years when they had higher GSH and catalase activity and lower LPX. Enhanced glutathione metabolism and increased protein carbonyls were associated with higher occurrence of yolk-sac fry mortality (M74). Our results show that oxidative status can provide information on exposure to complex combinations of environmental conditions and stressors in the wild and provide a link of physiological function to individual and population level fitness effects.

Identification of modifiable pre- and postnatal dietary and environmental exposures associated with owner-reported canine atopic dermatitis in Finland using a web-based questionnaire

A cross-sectional hypothesis generating study was performed to investigate modifiable exposures such as whether feeding pattern (a non-processed meat based diet, NPMD, or an ultra-processed carbohydrate based diet, UPCD), certain environmental factors and their timing of exposure might be associated with the development of canine atopic dermatitis (CAD). Also, genetic and demographic factors were tested for associations with CAD. The data was collected from the validated internet-based DogRisk food frequency questionnaire in Finland. A total of 2236 dogs were eligible for the study (the owners reported 406 cases and 1830 controls). Our main interest was to analyze modifiable early risk factors of CAD, focusing on nutritional and environmental factors. We tested four early life periods; prenatal, neonatal, early postnatal and late postnatal periods. Twenty-two variables were tested for associations with CAD using logistic regression analysis. From the final models we identified novel dietary associations with CAD: the NPMD during the prenatal and early postnatal periods had a significant negative association with the incidence of CAD in adult dogs (age above 1 year). Oppositely, UPCD was associated with a significantly higher risk for CAD incidence. Other variables that were associated with a significantly lower risk for CAD were maternal deworming during pregnancy, sunlight exposure during early postnatal period, normal body condition score during the early postnatal period, the puppy being born within the same family that it would stay in, and spending time on a dirt or grass surface from 2 to 6 months. Also, the genetic factors regarding maternal history of CAD, allergy-prone breeds and more than 50% white-colored coat all showed a significant positive association with CAD incidence in agreement with previous findings. Although no causality can be established, feeding NPMD early in life seemed to be protective against CAD, while UPCD could be considered a risk factor. Prospective intervention studies are needed to establish the causal effects of the protective role of NPMD on prevalence of CAD during the fetal and early postnatal life.

Spatial variation in transcript and protein abundance of Atlantic salmon during feeding migration in the Baltic Sea

The fitness and reproductive output of fishes can be affected by environmental disturbances. In this study, transcriptomics and label-free proteomics were combined to investigate Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) sampled from three different field locations within the Baltic Sea (Baltic Main Basin (BMB), Gulf of Finland (GoF), and Bothnian Sea (BS)) during marine migration. The expression of several stress related mRNAs and proteins of xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and cell death were increased in salmon from GoF compared to salmon from BMB or BS. Respiratory electron chain and ATP synthesis related gene ontology-categories were upregulated in GoF salmon, whereas those associated with RNA processing and synthesis, translation, and protein folding decreased. Differences were seen also in metabolism and immune function related gene expression. Comparisons of the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles between salmon from GoF and salmon from BMB or BS suggest environmental stressors, especially exposure to contaminants, as a main explanation for differences. Salmon feeding in GoF are thus “disturbed by hazardous substances”. The results may also be applied in evaluating the conditions of pelagic ecosystems in the different parts of Baltic Sea.

Transcription and redox enzyme activities: comparison of equilibrium and disequilibrium levels in the three-spined stickleback

Evolutionary and acclimatory responses require functional variability, but in contrast with mRNA and protein abundance data, most physiological measurements cannot be obtained in a high-throughput manner. Consequently, one must either rely on high-throughput transcriptomic or proteomic data with only predicted functional information, or accept the limitation that most physiological measurements can give fewer data than those provided by transcriptomics or proteomics. We evaluated how transcriptional and redox enzyme activity data agreed with regard to population differentiation (i.e. a system in steady state in which any time lag between transcription, translation and post-translational effects would be irrelevant) and in response to an acute 6°C increase in temperature (i.e. a disequilibrium state wherein translation could not have caught up with transcription) in the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Transcriptional and enzyme activity data corresponded well with regard to population differentiation, but less so with regard to acute temperature increase. The data thus suggest that transcriptional and functional measurements can lead to similar conclusions when a biological system is in a steady state. The responses to acute changes must, as has been demonstrated earlier, be based on changes in cellular conditions or properties of existing proteins without significant de novo synthesis of new gene products.

TransLISA, a novel quantitative, nonradioactive assay for transcription factor DNA-binding analyses

Transcription factors are DNA-binding proteins that regulate key biological processes. Their interactions with DNA are commonly analyzed with gel-based electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) using radioactively labeled probes. Within various fields of research, there exists an increasing demand to develop assays with faster sample throughput combined with improved sensitivity, increased analytical range, and precise quantification. Here, we describe the development and performance of a 384-well plate immunoassay, termed TransLISA, which is a novel homogeneous assay for rapid and sensitive quantification of the DNA-binding activity of transcription factors in cell and tissue lysates. TransLISA outperforms EMSAs, because it eliminates the need to use radioactive chemicals and allows fast and precise quantification of DNA-binding activity of transcription factors from large number of samples simultaneously. We have used TransLISA to demonstrate the DNA-binding activity of heat shock factor 1, representing a well-known model of inductive transcriptional regulatory responses, but the method is easily adaptable for the study of any transcription factor. Thus, TransLISA can replace EMSAs and may be used in various applications and research fields where quantitative, cost-effective and large-scale measurements of the DNA-binding activity of transcription factors are required, including screening of responses in multiple treatments in cellular and molecular biology, evolutionary research, environmental monitoring, and drug discovery.

Molecular markers of yolk sac fry development in nine families of lake trout

Salmonids in certain areas of North America and northern Europe suffer from reproductive disturbances manifested through the death of yolk sac fry. These disturbances are referred to as early mortality syndrome (EMS) in the Great Lakes region and M74 in the Baltic Sea. Both of these syndromes have been associated with reduced concentrations of thiamine in affected females and their eggs. However, large variations in signs and mortality, both within and between the individual syndromes, have been reported. Yolk sac fry mortality (M74) in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar has been shown to be associated with reduced DNA binding of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor 1 (HIF-1), reduced production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) protein, decreased capillary density, and down-regulation of adult-type globin gene transcription (which is responsible for the protein part of adult hemoglobin). One of the main effects of all of these changes is reduced oxygen transport to the tissues of affected fry. In this study, the developmental patterns of HIF-1 DNA binding, VEGF protein expression, and adult-type globin gene transcription were analyzed in nine family groups of Lake Michigan lake trout Salvelinus namaycush. The results indicate that HIF-1 DNA binding and globin gene transcription increase from hatch to the end of yolk sac stage. Interindividual and between-family biological variations were detected, especially in VEGF protein expression and globin gene transcription. Our results demonstrate the possibility of using these molecular markers in investigating the etiology of EMS and making comparisons between the mechanisms of different salmonid yolk sac fry mortalities.

Tissue-specific expression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor and putative developmental regulatory modules in Baltic salmon yolk-sac fry

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is an ancient protein that is conserved in vertebrates and invertebrates, indicating its important function throughout evolution. AhR has been studied largely because of its role in toxicology-gene expression via AhR is induced by many aromatic hydrocarbons in mammals. Recently, however, it has become clear that AhR is involved in various aspects of development such as cell proliferation and differentiation, and cell motility and migration. The mechanisms by which AhR regulates these various functions remain poorly understood. Across-species comparative studies of AhR in invertebrates, non-mammalian vertebrates and mammals may help to reveal the multiple functions of AhR. Here, we have studied AhR during larval development of Baltic salmon (Salmon salar). Our results indicate that AhR protein is expressed in nervous system, liver and muscle tissues. We also present putative regulatory modules and module-matching genes, produced by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) cloning and in silico analysis, which may be associated with evolutionarily conserved functions of AhR during development. For example, the module NFKB-AHRR-CREB found from salmon ChIP sequences is present in human ULK3 (regulating formation of granule cell axons in mouse and axon outgrowth in Caernohabditis elegans) and SRGAP1 (GTPase-activating protein involved in the Slit/Robo pathway) promoters. We suggest that AhR may have an evolutionarily conserved role in neuronal development and nerve cell targeting, and in Wnt signaling pathway.

Oxidative stress during Baltic salmon feeding migration may be associated with yolk-sac fry mortality

The wild populations of salmon in the Baltic Sea suffer from yolk-sac fry mortality (M74). M74 mainly occurs in populations spawning in rivers flowing to the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. On the basis of studies with fry, M74 may be caused by oxidative stresses. Because the eggs of M74-offspring-producing females have lower thiamine and astaxanthin levels and more oxidized fatty acids than eggs of females producing healthy offspring, oxidative stresses that adult salmon experience during their feeding migration may be decisive for the development of M74. In this study we have measured several oxidative stress parameters and have evaluated bothtemporal and regional differences in these parameters in salmon individuals during their feeding migration. At present, salmon feeding in the Gulf of Finland and in the Bothnian Sea are affected by oxidative stress as compared to populations feeding in the Baltic Proper. Moreover, the feeding population of salmon in the central Baltic Proper suffered much more from oxidative stress in 1999 than in 2006-2007. In 1999 the incidence of M74 was higher than that expected in 2007/2008. Oxidative stresses experienced by feeding salmon may thus be behind the development of M74.