1
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Vandermeulen L, Geric I, Fumagalli L, Kreir M, Lu A, Nonneman A, Premereur J, Wolfs L, Policarpo R, Fattorelli N, De Bondt A, Van Den Wyngaert I, Asselbergh B, Fiers M, De Strooper B, d'Ydewalle C, Mancuso R. Regulation of human microglial gene expression and function via RNAase-H active antisense oligonucleotides in vivo in Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2024; 19:37. [PMID: 38654375 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-024-00725-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microglia play important roles in maintaining brain homeostasis and neurodegeneration. The discovery of genetic variants in genes predominately or exclusively expressed in myeloid cells, such as Apolipoprotein E (APOE) and triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), as the strongest risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD) highlights the importance of microglial biology in the brain. The sequence, structure and function of several microglial proteins are poorly conserved across species, which has hampered the development of strategies aiming to modulate the expression of specific microglial genes. One way to target APOE and TREM2 is to modulate their expression using antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs). METHODS In this study, we identified, produced, and tested novel, selective and potent ASOs for human APOE and TREM2. We used a combination of in vitro iPSC-microglia models, as well as microglial xenotransplanted mice to provide proof of activity in human microglial in vivo. RESULTS We proved their efficacy in human iPSC microglia in vitro, as well as their pharmacological activity in vivo in a xenografted microglia model. We demonstrate ASOs targeting human microglia can modify their transcriptional profile and their response to amyloid-β plaques in vivo in a model of AD. CONCLUSIONS This study is the first proof-of-concept that human microglial can be modulated using ASOs in a dose-dependent manner to manipulate microglia phenotypes and response to neurodegeneration in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Vandermeulen
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ivana Geric
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Laura Fumagalli
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mohamed Kreir
- Preclinical Development & Safety, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ashley Lu
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Annelies Nonneman
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Jessie Premereur
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Rafaela Policarpo
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - An De Bondt
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Ilse Van Den Wyngaert
- Discovery Sciences, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bob Asselbergh
- Neuromics Support Facility, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Neuromics Support Facility, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, W1T 7NF, UK
| | - Constantin d'Ydewalle
- Neuroscience Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340, Beerse, Belgium.
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium.
- MIND Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
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2
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Hou P, Zielonka M, Serneels L, Martinez-Muriana A, Fattorelli N, Wolfs L, Poovathingal S, T'Syen D, Balusu S, Theys T, Fiers M, Mancuso R, Howden AJM, De Strooper B. The γ-secretase substrate proteome and its role in cell signaling regulation. Mol Cell 2023; 83:4106-4122.e10. [PMID: 37977120 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
γ-Secretases mediate the regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP) of more than 150 integral membrane proteins. We developed an unbiased γ-secretase substrate identification (G-SECSI) method to study to what extent these proteins are processed in parallel. We demonstrate here parallel processing of at least 85 membrane proteins in human microglia in steady-state cell culture conditions. Pharmacological inhibition of γ-secretase caused substantial changes of human microglial transcriptomes, including the expression of genes related to the disease-associated microglia (DAM) response described in Alzheimer disease (AD). While the overall effects of γ-secretase deficiency on transcriptomic cell states remained limited in control conditions, exposure of mouse microglia to AD-inducing amyloid plaques strongly blocked their capacity to mount this putatively protective DAM cell state. We conclude that γ-secretase serves as a critical signaling hub integrating the effects of multiple extracellular stimuli into the overall transcriptome of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Hou
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Magdalena Zielonka
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Lutgarde Serneels
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Anna Martinez-Muriana
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Suresh Poovathingal
- Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Single Cell & Microfluidics Expertise Unit, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Dries T'Syen
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Sriram Balusu
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Tom Theys
- Department of Neurosciences, Research Group Experimental Neurosurgery and Neuroanatomy, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Center for Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Dementia Research Institute, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp 2610, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp 2610, Belgium
| | - Andrew J M Howden
- Division of Cell Signaling and Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, VIB, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Center for Human Genetics, KU Leuven, Leuven 3000, Belgium; Dementia Research Institute, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
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3
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Walgrave H, Penning A, Tosoni G, Snoeck S, Davie K, Davis E, Wolfs L, Sierksma A, Mars M, Bu T, Thrupp N, Zhou L, Moechars D, Mancuso R, Fiers M, Howden AJ, De Strooper B, Salta E. microRNA-132 regulates gene expression programs involved in microglial homeostasis. iScience 2023; 26:106829. [PMID: 37250784 PMCID: PMC10213004 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
microRNA-132 (miR-132), a known neuronal regulator, is one of the most robustly downregulated microRNAs (miRNAs) in the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Increasing miR-132 in AD mouse brain ameliorates amyloid and Tau pathologies, and also restores adult hippocampal neurogenesis and memory deficits. However, the functional pleiotropy of miRNAs requires in-depth analysis of the effects of miR-132 supplementation before it can be moved forward for AD therapy. We employ here miR-132 loss- and gain-of-function approaches using single-cell transcriptomics, proteomics, and in silico AGO-CLIP datasets to identify molecular pathways targeted by miR-132 in mouse hippocampus. We find that miR-132 modulation significantly affects the transition of microglia from a disease-associated to a homeostatic cell state. We confirm the regulatory role of miR-132 in shifting microglial cell states using human microglial cultures derived from induced pluripotent stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Walgrave
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Amber Penning
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Giorgia Tosoni
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sarah Snoeck
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Kristofer Davie
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Bioinformatics Core Facility, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Emma Davis
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Annerieke Sierksma
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mayte Mars
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Taofeng Bu
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicola Thrupp
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lujia Zhou
- Discovery Neuroscience, Janssen Research and Development, Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340 Beerse, Belgium
| | - Diederik Moechars
- Discovery Neuroscience, Janssen Research and Development, Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, 2340 Beerse, Belgium
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Andrew J.M. Howden
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Evgenia Salta
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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4
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Shah D, Gsell W, Wahis J, Luckett ES, Jamoulle T, Preman P, Moechars D, Craessaerts K, Horré K, Hendrickx V, Jaspers T, Wolfs L, Vermaercke B, Fiers M, Holt M, Vegh Z, Thal DR, D'Hooge R, Vandenberghe R, Himmelreich U, Bonin V, de Strooper B. Astrocytes mediate neuronal network hyperactivity in early AD. Alzheimers Dement 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/alz.068629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Disha Shah
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | - Jérôme Wahis
- Laboratory of Glia Biology, VIB, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Emma S. Luckett
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Tarik Jamoulle
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Pranav Preman
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Daan Moechars
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | - Katrien Horré
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | - Tom Jaspers
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Ben Vermaercke
- Neuro‐Electronics Research Flanders, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Matthew Holt
- Laboratory of Glia Biology, VIB, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | | | - Rudi D'Hooge
- Laboratory for Biological Psychology Leuven Belgium
| | - Rik Vandenberghe
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | - Vincent Bonin
- Neuro‐Electronics Research Flanders, KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
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5
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Shah D, Gsell W, Wahis J, Luckett ES, Jamoulle T, Vermaercke B, Preman P, Moechars D, Hendrickx V, Jaspers T, Craessaerts K, Horré K, Wolfs L, Fiers M, Holt M, Thal DR, Callaerts-Vegh Z, D'Hooge R, Vandenberghe R, Himmelreich U, Bonin V, De Strooper B. Astrocyte calcium dysfunction causes early network hyperactivity in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Rep 2022; 40:111280. [PMID: 36001964 PMCID: PMC9433881 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysfunctions of network activity and functional connectivity (FC) represent early events in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Astrocytes regulate local neuronal activity in the healthy brain, but their involvement in early network hyperactivity in AD is unknown. We show increased FC in the human cingulate cortex several years before amyloid deposition. We find the same early cingulate FC disruption and neuronal hyperactivity in AppNL-F mice. Crucially, these network disruptions are accompanied by decreased astrocyte calcium signaling. Recovery of astrocytic calcium activity normalizes neuronal hyperactivity and FC, as well as seizure susceptibility and day/night behavioral disruptions. In conclusion, we show that astrocytes mediate initial features of AD and drive clinically relevant phenotypes. The cingulate cortex of humans and mice shows early functional deficits in AD Astrocyte calcium signaling is decreased before the presence of amyloid plaques Recovery of astrocyte calcium signals mitigates neuronal hyperactivity Recovery of astrocytes normalizes cingulate connectivity and behavior disruptions
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Affiliation(s)
- Disha Shah
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Willy Gsell
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jérôme Wahis
- Laboratory of Glia Biology, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Emma S Luckett
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tarik Jamoulle
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ben Vermaercke
- Neuro-electronics Research Flanders, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pranav Preman
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Daan Moechars
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Véronique Hendrickx
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tom Jaspers
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katleen Craessaerts
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katrien Horré
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mark Fiers
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Matthew Holt
- Laboratory of Glia Biology, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dietmar Rudolf Thal
- Laboratory for Neuropathology, Department of Imaging and Pathology, LBI, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Rudi D'Hooge
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU-Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rik Vandenberghe
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute (LBI), KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Uwe Himmelreich
- Biomedical MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vincent Bonin
- Neuro-electronics Research Flanders, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart De Strooper
- Laboratory for the Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases, VIB Center for Brain and Disease Research, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, WC1E 6BT London, UK.
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Thrupp N, Sala Frigerio C, Wolfs L, Skene NG, Fattorelli N, Poovathingal S, Fourne Y, Matthews PM, Theys T, Mancuso R, de Strooper B, Fiers M. Single-Nucleus RNA-Seq Is Not Suitable for Detection of Microglial Activation Genes in Humans. Cell Rep 2021; 32:108189. [PMID: 32997994 PMCID: PMC7527779 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) is used as an alternative to single-cell RNA-seq, as it allows transcriptomic profiling of frozen tissue. However, it is unclear whether snRNA-seq is able to detect cellular state in human tissue. Indeed, snRNA-seq analyses of human brain samples have failed to detect a consistent microglial activation signature in Alzheimer’s disease. Our comparison of microglia from single cells and single nuclei of four human subjects reveals that, although most genes show similar relative abundances in cells and nuclei, a small population of genes (∼1%) is depleted in nuclei compared to whole cells. This population is enriched for genes previously implicated in microglial activation, including APOE, CST3, SPP1, and CD74, comprising 18% of previously identified microglial-disease-associated genes. Given the low sensitivity of snRNA-seq to detect many activation genes, we conclude that snRNA-seq is not suited for detecting cellular activation in microglia in human disease. A small set of genes is depleted in microglial nuclei relative to single cells This set is enriched for microglial activation genes, including APOE and SPP1 This depletion is confirmed in publicly available datasets Single-nucleus sequencing is not suited for the detection of human microglial activation
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Thrupp
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Carlo Sala Frigerio
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, University College London, London, UK
| | - Leen Wolfs
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathan G Skene
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London and Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Suresh Poovathingal
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yannick Fourne
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Paul M Matthews
- UK Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College London and Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tom Theys
- Department of Neurosciences, Research Group Experimental Neurosurgery and Neuroanatomy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart de Strooper
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Mark Fiers
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute at University College London, University College London, London, UK.
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7
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Walgrave H, Balusu S, Snoeck S, Vanden Eynden E, Craessaerts K, Thrupp N, Wolfs L, Horré K, Fourne Y, Ronisz A, Silajdžić E, Penning A, Tosoni G, Callaerts-Vegh Z, D'Hooge R, Thal DR, Zetterberg H, Thuret S, Fiers M, Frigerio CS, De Strooper B, Salta E. Restoring miR-132 expression rescues adult hippocampal neurogenesis and memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Stem Cell 2021; 28:1805-1821.e8. [PMID: 34033742 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem cells residing in the hippocampal neurogenic niche sustain lifelong neurogenesis in the adult brain. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) is functionally linked to mnemonic and cognitive plasticity in humans and rodents. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the process of generating new neurons at the hippocampal neurogenic niche is impeded, yet the mechanisms involved are unknown. Here we identify miR-132, one of the most consistently downregulated microRNAs in AD, as a potent regulator of AHN, exerting cell-autonomous proneurogenic effects in adult neural stem cells and their progeny. Using distinct AD mouse models, cultured human primary and established neural stem cells, and human patient material, we demonstrate that AHN is directly affected by AD pathology. miR-132 replacement in adult mouse AD hippocampus restores AHN and relevant memory deficits. Our findings corroborate the significance of AHN in mouse models of AD and reveal the possible therapeutic potential of targeting miR-132 in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Walgrave
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sriram Balusu
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sarah Snoeck
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Neurodegeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Elke Vanden Eynden
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katleen Craessaerts
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicky Thrupp
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katrien Horré
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yannick Fourne
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alicja Ronisz
- KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory for Neuropathology, KU Leuven, and Department of Pathology, UZ Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Edina Silajdžić
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, SE5 9RX, UK
| | - Amber Penning
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Neurodegeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Giorgia Tosoni
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Neurodegeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Zsuzsanna Callaerts-Vegh
- KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory for Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rudi D'Hooge
- KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory for Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dietmar Rudolf Thal
- KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Laboratory for Neuropathology, KU Leuven, and Department of Pathology, UZ Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, 431 80 Mölndal, Sweden; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, WC1N 3BG, UK; Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, 431 80 Mölndal, Sweden; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Sandrine Thuret
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, SE5 9RX, UK
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
| | - Evgenia Salta
- Laboratory of Neurogenesis and Neurodegeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, 1105BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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8
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Fattorelli N, Martinez-Muriana A, Wolfs L, Geric I, De Strooper B, Mancuso R. Stem-cell-derived human microglia transplanted into mouse brain to study human disease. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:1013-1033. [PMID: 33424025 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-020-00447-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are critically involved in complex neurological disorders with a strong genetic component, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Although mouse microglia can recapitulate aspects of human microglia physiology, they do not fully capture the human genetic aspects of disease and do not reproduce all human cell states. Primary cultures of human microglia or microglia derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are difficult to maintain in brain-relevant cell states in vitro. Here we describe MIGRATE (microglia in vitro generation refined for advanced transplantation experiments, which provides a combined in vitro differentiation and in vivo xenotransplantation protocol to study human microglia in the context of the mouse brain. This article details an accurate, step-by-step workflow that includes in vitro microglia differentiation from human PSCs, transplantation into the mouse brain and quantitative analysis of engraftment. Compared to current differentiation and xenotransplantation protocols, we present an optimized, faster and more efficient approach that yields up to 80% chimerism. To quantitatively assess engraftment efficiency by flow cytometry, access to specialized flow cytometry is required. Alternatively, the percentage of chimerism can be estimated by standard immunohistochemical analysis. The MIGRATE protocol takes ~40 d to complete, from culturing PSCs to engraftment efficiency assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Fattorelli
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna Martinez-Muriana
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ivana Geric
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart De Strooper
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium. .,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. .,UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- Centre for Brain and Disease Research, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium. .,Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium. .,Microglia and Inflammation in Neurological Disorders (MIND) Lab, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium. .,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
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9
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Chen WT, Lu A, Craessaerts K, Pavie B, Sala Frigerio C, Corthout N, Qian X, Laláková J, Kühnemund M, Voytyuk I, Wolfs L, Mancuso R, Salta E, Balusu S, Snellinx A, Munck S, Jurek A, Fernandez Navarro J, Saido TC, Huitinga I, Lundeberg J, Fiers M, De Strooper B. Spatial Transcriptomics and In Situ Sequencing to Study Alzheimer’s Disease. Cell 2020; 182:976-991.e19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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10
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Mancuso R, Van Den Daele J, Fattorelli N, Wolfs L, Balusu S, Burton O, Liston A, Sierksma A, Fourne Y, Poovathingal S, Arranz-Mendiguren A, Sala Frigerio C, Claes C, Serneels L, Theys T, Perry VH, Verfaillie C, Fiers M, De Strooper B. Stem-cell-derived human microglia transplanted in mouse brain to study human disease. Nat Neurosci 2019; 22:2111-2116. [DOI: 10.1038/s41593-019-0525-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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11
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Sala Frigerio C, Wolfs L, Fattorelli N, Thrupp N, Voytyuk I, Schmidt I, Mancuso R, Chen WT, Woodbury ME, Srivastava G, Möller T, Hudry E, Das S, Saido T, Karran E, Hyman B, Perry VH, Fiers M, De Strooper B. The Major Risk Factors for Alzheimer's Disease: Age, Sex, and Genes Modulate the Microglia Response to Aβ Plaques. Cell Rep 2019; 27:1293-1306.e6. [PMID: 31018141 PMCID: PMC7340153 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.03.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 418] [Impact Index Per Article: 83.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression profiles of more than 10,000 individual microglial cells isolated from cortex and hippocampus of male and female AppNL-G-F mice over time demonstrate that progressive amyloid-β accumulation accelerates two main activated microglia states that are also present during normal aging. Activated response microglia (ARMs) are composed of specialized subgroups overexpressing MHC type II and putative tissue repair genes (Dkk2, Gpnmb, and Spp1) and are strongly enriched with Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk genes. Microglia from female mice progress faster in this activation trajectory. Similar activated states are also found in a second AD model and in human brain. Apoe, the major genetic risk factor for AD, regulates the ARMs but not the interferon response microglia (IRMs). Thus, the ARMs response is the converging point for aging, sex, and genetic AD risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Sala Frigerio
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicola Fattorelli
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nicola Thrupp
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Iryna Voytyuk
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Inga Schmidt
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Renzo Mancuso
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wei-Ting Chen
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maya E Woodbury
- Foundational Neuroscience Center, AbbVie, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gyan Srivastava
- Foundational Neuroscience Center, AbbVie, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Thomas Möller
- Foundational Neuroscience Center, AbbVie, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Eloise Hudry
- Department of Neurology, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Sudeshna Das
- Department of Neurology, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Takaomi Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako-shi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Eric Karran
- Foundational Neuroscience Center, AbbVie, Inc., Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bradley Hyman
- Department of Neurology, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - V Hugh Perry
- UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, UK; Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Mark Fiers
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB Centre for Brain Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; University of Leuven, Department of Neurosciences and Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven, Belgium; UK Dementia Research Institute, University College London, London, UK.
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12
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Huang Y, Skwarek-Maruszewska A, Horré K, Vandewyer E, Wolfs L, Snellinx A, Saito T, Radaelli E, Corthout N, Colombelli J, Lo AC, Van Aerschot L, Callaerts-Vegh Z, Trabzuni D, Bossers K, Verhaagen J, Ryten M, Munck S, D'Hooge R, Swaab DF, Hardy J, Saido TC, De Strooper B, Thathiah A. Loss of GPR3 reduces the amyloid plaque burden and improves memory in Alzheimer's disease mouse models. Sci Transl Med 2016; 7:309ra164. [PMID: 26468326 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aab3492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The orphan G protein (heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding protein)-coupled receptor (GPCR) GPR3 regulates activity of the γ-secretase complex in the absence of an effect on Notch proteolysis, providing a potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, given the vast resources required to develop and evaluate any new therapy for AD and the multiple failures involved in translational research, demonstration of the pathophysiological relevance of research findings in multiple disease-relevant models is necessary before initiating costly drug development programs. We evaluated the physiological consequences of loss of Gpr3 in four AD transgenic mouse models, including two that contain the humanized murine Aβ sequence and express similar amyloid precursor protein (APP) levels as wild-type mice, thereby reducing potential artificial phenotypes. Our findings reveal that genetic deletion of Gpr3 reduced amyloid pathology in all of the AD mouse models and alleviated cognitive deficits in APP/PS1 mice. Additional three-dimensional visualization and analysis of the amyloid plaque burden provided accurate information on the amyloid load, distribution, and volume in the structurally intact adult mouse brain. Analysis of 10 different regions in healthy human postmortem brain tissue indicated that GPR3 expression was stable during aging. However, two cohorts of human AD postmortem brain tissue samples showed a correlation between elevated GPR3 and AD progression. Collectively, these studies provide evidence that GPR3 mediates the amyloidogenic proteolysis of APP in four AD transgenic mouse models as well as the physiological processing of APP in wild-type mice, suggesting that GPR3 may be a potential therapeutic target for AD drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunhong Huang
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Aneta Skwarek-Maruszewska
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katrien Horré
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elke Vandewyer
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Wolfs
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - An Snellinx
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako-shi, 351-0198 Saitama, Japan. Japan Science and Technology Agency, 332-0012 Saitama, Japan
| | - Enrico Radaelli
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nikky Corthout
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Julien Colombelli
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Adrian C Lo
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Leen Van Aerschot
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Zsuzsanna Callaerts-Vegh
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Daniah Trabzuni
- Departments of Molecular Neuroscience and Clinical Neuroscience, Reta Lila Weston Research Laboratories, Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK. Department of Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, 11211 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Koen Bossers
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Joost Verhaagen
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Mina Ryten
- Departments of Molecular Neuroscience and Clinical Neuroscience, Reta Lila Weston Research Laboratories, Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK
| | - Sebastian Munck
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rudi D'Hooge
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Biological Psychology, University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dick F Swaab
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1105 BA Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - John Hardy
- Departments of Molecular Neuroscience and Clinical Neuroscience, Reta Lila Weston Research Laboratories, Institute of Neurology, University College London, WC1N 3BG London, UK
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, Wako-shi, 351-0198 Saitama, Japan
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Amantha Thathiah
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. KU Leuven Center for Human Genetics and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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