Environmental stewardship: A systematic scoping review

Environmental stewardship is a term describing both the philosophy and the actions required to protect, restore, and sustainably use natural resources for the future benefit of the environment and society. In this paper, we review the environmental science literature to map the types of practical actions that are identified as 'environmental stewardship' using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines for scoping reviews. We specifically mapped: 1) the type of actions and outcomes targeting the natural environment that have been categorized as environmental stewardship, 2) the main actors, and the underlying factors influencing their environmental stewardship actions, and 3) the methods used to mobilize environmental stewardship actions once these factors are known. From the 77 selected articles, we found the term environmental stewardship encompassed a multitude of different actions, undertaken by a range of actors and addressing an array of issues that impact biodiversity on the land and in the water. These stewardship actions were conducted on both privately-owned and publicly managed lands and waterways, and across rural and urban landscapes. Despite many studies identifying characteristics and underlying behavioral factors that predicted actors' participation in stewardship actions, there were few studies formally evaluating interventions to increase stewardship. Our review highlighted the term environmental stewardship is not embraced by all and is viewed by some as being inconsistent with aspects of indigenous worldviews. A better understanding of the concept of environmental stewardship and continued practical research into its practice is fundamental to empowering people to demand and enact environmental stewardship as well as for evaluating the success of their actions.

Protecting and restoring freshwater biodiversity across urban areas in Aotearoa New Zealand: Citizens' reporting of pollution in stormwater drains and waterways

Urbanization poses numerous challenges to freshwater biodiversity. This paper describes two studies with the joint aim of demonstrating the benefits of applying a systematic behaviour change framework and providing the foundational knowledge to inform future behavior change work to protect and restore urban freshwater biodiversity. In Study 1 we used a mixed-methods research design, involving 14 key informant interviews followed by an online survey targeting 17 freshwater biodiversity experts and another targeting a representative sample of 550 urban residents, to identify and prioritize the most promising resident behaviors to target to reduce stormwater pollution and improve natural waterway habitats in urban areas. Study 2 focused on the top-ranked short-term behavior identified in Study 1, citizen reporting of pollution in stormwater drains and waterways. We surveyed a representative sample of 1901 urban residents across Aoteraoa New Zealand to identify four main determinants influencing this behavior: awareness and uncertainty about reporting, lack of opportunity to report, social motivation and personal motivation to report, and five potential target audiences: 'Supportive', 'Unaware but receptive', 'Motivated but lack support', 'Reluctant', and 'Not my problem'. We make recommendations for the most appropriate intervention designs to target each of these audience segments to promote the reporting of stormwater pollution in urban areas. This knowledge will allow for a more coordinated and effective approach for addressing the 'human element' that lies at the heart of many urban freshwater management problems.

Audience segmentation of New Zealand cat owners: Understanding the barriers and drivers of cat containment behavior

Free-roaming companion cats have a detrimental impact on the environment and are at risk of harm. Despite these negative impacts, it is the norm in New Zealand (NZ) to allow companion cats to roam freely and only a minority of cat owners practice cat containment. This study firstly sought to identify what factors act as barriers and drivers of NZ owners' participation in cat containment, and secondly whether NZ owners could be segmented into unique audiences based on the factors predicting their cat containment behavior. It was hypothesized that cat owners with greater capability, opportunity, and motivation to perform cat containment would have greater cat containment intentions and behavior. Furthermore, it was expected that at least three segments of cat owners would exist in NZ which differed significantly in the set of capability, opportunity and motivational factors predicting their cat containment behavior. A quantitative online cross-sectional survey of 395 NZ cat owners was conducted, measuring containment intentions and behavior, and capability, opportunity, and motivation to perform cat containment. Results from bivariate correlations and multiple regression demonstrated that capability, opportunity, and motivational factors predicted increased cat containment intentions and behavior. Latent profile analysis identified four distinct segments of cat owners with unique COM profiles; engaged (6%), receptive (17%), ambivalent (48%), and opposed (30%). Validation analysis demonstrated that these groups all differed significantly in their cat containment intentions and behaviors. From these findings theoretically grounded behavior change interventions can be developed to target the causes of non-participation in cat containment for each of the identified cat owner segments, thereby improving the management of free-roaming cats in NZ.

Characteristics of cat semi-owners

OBJECTIVES

Unowned 'stray' domestic cats threaten wildlife, as well as create a community nuisance and contribute to high rates of euthanasia in animal shelters. These cats can experience poor welfare, contribute to the pet cat population and compromise attempts to control feral cats. However, many unowned domestic cats are cared for by semi-owners who do not consider they own these cats; therefore, semi-owners are a potentially important target population for human behaviour change interventions. The present study aimed to describe the characteristics of cat semi-owners and compare these with the general population of cat owners and non-cat owners to inform future cat management interventions.

METHODS

An online questionnaire open to all residents of New South Wales, Australia was developed and advertised. Respondents were asked 'do you care for other free-roaming or stray cats (not including the cats you own)?', whether they owned cats, about characteristics of their home and their agreement with 15 capability, social opportunity and motivation (COM) items relating to cat containment.

RESULTS

Questionnaire responses were received from 8708 people, including 588 semi-owners (7%). Semi-owners were significantly more likely to be female, live in urban areas, live in lower socioeconomic areas and rent their home. Most semi-owners also owned their own cats and owned more cats than non-semi-owners.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Semi-owners of unowned 'stray' cats are a valuable potential target audience for human behaviour change interventions. Understanding that these semi-owners often have their own cats, might already be overwhelmed with cat-caring responsibilities and are disproportionately from lower socioeconomic backgrounds should guide intervention design. A nuanced approach is needed that prioritises the wellbeing of cats and semi-owners for semi-owners to 'buy in'. Any intervention should also recognise that semi-owners often face multiple, complex barriers to neutering or claiming ownership of the cats they care for, especially cost, and trust in the authorities.

Understanding the Factors Influencing Cat Containment: Identifying Opportunities for Behaviour Change

There are over 5 million pet cats in Australia managed on a spectrum from fully indoors to completely outdoor free roaming. Roaming cats threaten biodiversity, can create a nuisance and are at risk of accidents and injury. Hence, there is substantial interest in behaviour change interventions to increase cat containment. An online questionnaire collected information on cat owner demographics, the number of cats owned, current containment behaviours and an agreement with 15 capability, opportunity and motivation (COM) items. Responses were received from 4482 cat owners. More than half (65%) indicated that they currently keep their cat(s) fully contained. Another 24% practiced a night curfew. Owners' psychological capability had the greatest influence on containment behaviour. Motivation (community- and cat welfare-framed), living in an apartment and renting were also associated with a greater likelihood of containment. Cat owners not currently containing their cats could be divided into six profiles who differed on agreement with COM themes, age, future intentions, current behaviour, location and gender. Understanding differences between cat owner segments can assist with designing behaviour change interventions. Increasing cat owners' psychological capability to contain their cats and encouraging the adoption of a night curfew as a first step towards 24 h containment are recommended.

Understanding the Relationship between Intention and Cat Containment Behaviour: A Case Study of Kitten and Cat Adopters from RSPCA Queensland

In Australia, cat owners are encouraged to keep their pet cats contained on their property at all times. This study explores the relationship between the intentions and behaviours of 72 kitten and cat adopters from a RSPCA Queensland animal shelter, to provide a more in-depth understanding of the factors influencing the adoption of cat containment behaviours. At the time of adoption, 64 participants (89%) indicated they were intending to keep their cat fully contained. Eight weeks after adoption, 63 participants (87%) reported they were doing so (59 who had stated their intention at the time of adoption, and 4 who had not). We found cat owner containment behaviour was moderately correlated with containment intentions. For some of the participants when it came to enacting this behaviour, their intentions and the provided education information was not enough to overcome the more compelling capability, opportunity and motivational factors which presented themselves once they got home. We were able to identify these factors and suggest additional behaviour change strategies that would assist. Although it is important to provide cat adopters with advice about how to contain their cats properly, these results also highlight the importance of focusing attention on other behaviour change strategies that address the particular barriers faced by some cat-owners who are unsuccessful in keeping their cat contained on their property.

Change the Humans First: Principles for Improving the Management of Free-Roaming Cats

Simple Summary

For free-roaming cat management to be effective, people—including land managers, conservationists, cat lovers and the general public—need to be sufficiently empowered and motivated to accept and implement management actions. Research in the social and behavioural sciences has shown that engaging everyone and gaining consensus can be incredibly challenging. This paper describes an integrative framework based on the behavioural literature to design better, equitable and ethically acceptable interventions for free-roaming cat management.

Abstract

In Australia, free-roaming cats can be found in urban and rural areas across the country. They are inherently difficult to manage but it is frequently human behaviour that demands the most attention and is in most need of change. To the frustration of policy makers and practitioners, scientific knowledge, technological developments, and legal and institutional innovations, often run afoul of insufficient public capacity, opportunity and motivation to act. This paper demonstrates how the behavioural science literature can provide important insights into maximising the impact of free-roaming cat control activities within an ethical framework that prioritises acting “with” all stakeholders, rather than “on” stakeholders. By better understanding how human values, attitudes and beliefs are shaped, practitioners can more effectively and respectfully interact with how people interpret the world around them, make choices and behave. This literature also has much to say about why certain types of media and marketing messages elicit behaviour change and why other types fall flat. Finally, in addition to explaining the behavioural science and its implications, this review provides researchers, policy makers and engagement specialists with an inclusive, practical framework for conceptualising behaviour change and working to ensure land managers, cat owners and the general public can agree on and adopt best practices for managing free-roaming cats.

Using Audience Segmentation to Understand Nonparticipation in Invasive Mammal Management in Australia

Invasive mammals threaten agriculture, biodiversity, and community health. Yet many landholders fail to engage in control activities recommended by experts. We surveyed a representative sample of 731 Western Australian rural landholders. The survey assessed landholders' participation in a range of activities to control invasive mammals, as well as their capabilities, opportunities, and motivation for engaging in such activities. We found that over half of our respondents had not participated in any individual or group activities to control invasive mammals during the previous 12 months. Using latent profile analysis, we identified six homogeneous subgroups of nonparticipating landholders, each with their distinct psycho-graphic profiles: Unaware, Unskilled, and Unmotivated, Aware but Unskilled and Doubtful, Unskilled and Time Poor, Disinterested, Skilled but Dismissive, and Capable but Unmotivated. Our results indicate that engagement specialists should not treat nonparticipating landholders as a single homogeneous group. Nonparticipators differ considerably in terms of their capabilities, opportunities, and motivations, and require targeted engagement strategies informed by these differences.

Born to roam? Surveying cat owners in Tasmania, Australia, to identify the drivers and barriers to cat containment

Free-roaming domestic cats, Felis catus, are a major public nuisance in neighbourhoods across the world, and have been linked to biodiversity loss and a host of community health problems. Owners who let their cats roam, also place their cats at risk of serious injury. One management strategy that is gaining considerable support involves encouraging cat owners to contain their pets within their property. Contemporary behaviour change models highlight the importance of identifying drivers and barriers that encourage and discourage target behaviours such as cat containment. Results from a random dial phone survey of 356 cat owners in northern Tasmania identified four distinct cat containment profiles: owners who contained their cat all the time, owners who only contained their cat at night, owners who sporadically contained their cat with no set routine, and owners who made no attempt to contain their pet. Our results indicated that cat-owners' decisions to contain or not contain their cats were guided by a range of factors including owners' beliefs about their ability to implement an effective containment strategy and their views about the physical and psychological needs of their cats. The results are discussed in terms of improving the behavioural effectiveness of cat containment interventions by selecting appropriate behavioural change tools for the identified drivers and barriers, and developing targeted engagement strategies and messaging.

Applying behavioral theories to invasive animal management: Towards an integrated framework

Invasive species wreak an estimated $1.4 trillion in damages globally, each year. To have any hope of reducing this damage, best-practice control strategies must incorporate behavior change interventions. Traditional interventions, based on the knowledge-transfer model, assume that if land managers are properly educated about risks and strategies, they will develop supportive attitudes and implement appropriate control strategies. However, the social sciences have produced a large number of behavioral models and frameworks that demonstrate that knowledge transfer, by itself, fails to change behavior. The challenge then lies in knowing which behavioral model to choose, and when, from a potentially overwhelming 'universe'. In this paper, we review nine behavior theories relevant to invasive species management. We then introduce the Behavior Change Wheel as a tool for integrating these theories into a single practical framework. This framework links drivers of and barriers to behavior change with intervention strategies and policies, in what we consider, from an applied perspective, to be an important advance.

Patient responses to an integrated service, initiated by community pharmacists, for the prevention of osteoporosis

Objective

This study aimed to develop, implement and evaluate an integrated service provided by pharmacists to consumers based on the results of a risk-assessment survey carried out by the pharmacist and testing of bone mineral density (BMD) by a radiographer. It also investigated whether measurement of BMD in the pharmacy increased the effectiveness of the service and pharmacist referral in terms of adherence to advice and uptake of referral compared with the same service offered without BMD testing.

Setting

Community pharmacists in urban and rural settings in New South Wales, Australia, delivered the service.

Method

The adherence to advice or referral given by 12 community pharmacists during 2003 to 217 participants about the prevention of osteoporosis following screening with either a BMD test plus risk-assessment questionnaire or a risk-assessment questionnaire only was compared.

Key findings

No significant between-group differences in adherence to advice or referral were found. However, participants valued the BMD service significantly more highly than the non-BMD service as measured by satisfaction scores.

Conclusions

Consumers were interested in receiving information about osteoporosis and their own risk of it and even greater interest in BMD testing in the pharmacy. There was no difference in uptake of referral or advice following either questionnaire only or questionnaire plus BMD testing. Low uptake of referral and advice overall by those deemed to be at high risk is of concern. Far greater education and encouragement for consumers to follow through is required.

The potential for participatory landscape management to reduce the impact of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) on lamb production

ContextRed fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation has an impact on populations of many species throughout its range worldwide, and as such, the red fox is the target of control programs. AimsWe investigated the potential for participatory landscape management to reduce the impact of fox predation on a major prey species, lambs. MethodsThe present study monitored fox-management programs already operating across 4.5 million hectares of regional New South Wales to compare the impact of varying (frequency and spatial coverage) control effort on lamb survival. Key resultsThe frequency and timing of fox control was correlated with lamb survival. Lamb survival was higher in areas where fox baiting was carried out twice a year, in autumn and late winter/spring. Spatial coverage of the control program was also positively correlated with lamb survival. Properties that had near neighbours (up to 2.5 km away) participating in group fox-control programs had higher survival of lambs than properties that did not. ConclusionsThese results support the development of a high level of group participation in fox-control programs that considers both spatial extent and frequency of baiting programs. They also support a movement away from the reactionary, short-term practice of baiting small areas to protect vulnerable prey. ImplicationsCoordinated group-baiting programs are likely to deliver improved lamb survival and should be promoted in areas where ongoing control programs for foxes are necessary.

Propofol attenuates the myogenic response of vascular smooth muscle

The myogenic response is the tendency of certain vessels, most notably small arteries and arterioles, to constrict in response to an increase in intravascular pressure. The effects of propofol on the myogenic response of the isolated pressurized rabbit ear artery were studied in segments preconstricted either with norepinephrine or 5-hydroxytryptamine and subjected to pressure increases from 60 to 100 mm Hg applied either rapidly (jumps over 500 ms) or slowly (ramps over 120 s). In the control experiments the preconstricted vessels initially dilated, then rapidly returned toward their initial diameter. In response to pressure ramps, vessels slowly dilated, but closely retained their resting diameter. Administration of propofol (1.6 x 10(-4) to 1.6 x 10(-3) M) resulted in dilation of the constricted vessels. With pressure jumps vessels had a reduced capacity to recover their initial diameters, and with pressure ramps vessels dilated to greater diameters. When the concentration of vasoconstrictor was increased to antagonize the propofol-induced dilation the myogenicity was not restored. This attenuation of myogenicity, distinct from the drug's vasodilator effect may represent a further mechanism by which anesthetic agents can affect cardiovascular function.

Intraarterial propofol is not directly toxic to vascular endothelium

To determine if accidental intraarterial injection of propofol results in vascular damage, the effect of bolus administration of propofol on vascular smooth muscle and the endothelium was investigated using the isolated rabbit ear artery. Ear artery segments, removed from urethane anesthetized rabbits, were perfused with Krebs solution (1 ml.min-1) and pressurized to 60 mmHg before being constricted with extraluminal norepinephrine (1.8-4.2 x 10(-6) M). The external diameter of the vessel was measured by an array of light-dependent diodes. Functional responsiveness was determined by the degree of constriction to norepinephrine and the subsequent dilatation of the artery to intraluminal acetylcholine (2 x 10(-6) M) and glyceryl trinitrate (2 x 10(-6) M), and by the myogenic reactivity to a pressure increase from 60 to 100 mmHg. These responses were measured before and after perfusion with 1% propofol for 120 s. Administration of propofol did not result in any vasoactivity nor did it increase the sensitivity to norepinephrine. Vessels maintained their capacity to dilate to both agents, while the myogenic activity was unaffected. Histologic examination of the propofol exposed vessels showed no changes to smooth muscle structure, and the endothelial layer remained intact.

Intra-arterial thiopentone is directly toxic to vascular endothelium

Ear artery segments removed from urethane-anaesthetized rabbits were mounted, perfused with Krebs solution, and pressurized before constriction with extraluminal noradrenaline. Vessel diameter was measured using a diode array mounted above the artery. After the degree of dilatation in response to intraluminal acetylcholine and glyceryl trinitrate was measured, vessels were perfused for 120 s with solutions of either 2.5-10% thiopentone or isotonic sodium carbonate in saline of matched pH. Administration of thiopentone solutions in all concentrations resulted in destruction of endothelial cells. The dilatation of vessels to glyceryl trinitrate and their myogenic reactivity was unaltered. Isotonic solutions of sodium carbonate (pH 10.6) had no effect on either endothelial cell function or direct vasodilatation. These data show that administration of thiopentone removes arterial endothelial cells, while vascular smooth muscle function is essentially unaltered.

Myogenic response of isolated pressurized rabbit ear artery is independent of endothelium

Central ear artery segments, removed from urethan-anesthetized rabbits, were used to assess whether distention activation was dependent on intact and functional endothelium (ENDO). Changes in external arterial diameter were measured with light-dependent diode array mounted above the vessel. After constriction with norepinephrine, slow increases in pressure from 60 to 80 or 100 mmHg performed over 120 s (pressure ramps) failed to initiate distention, but initial diameter was maintained. Rapidly applied (500 ms) pressure increases (pressure jumps) across same pressure ranges gave rise to initial distention and a myogenic response resulting in a return to almost initial diameter while new pressure was maintained for 120 s. Myogenic activity was measured from extent of recovery of vessel to its initial diameter during maintenance of pressure jumps or ramps. Rapid jumps and slow ramps were performed in presence of an intact ENDO and again after ENDO was removed by passage of intraluminal gas. With pressure jumps 60 to 80 mmHg, degree of recovery in ENDO-denuded vessels was 91.9% compared with 89.5% in ENDO intact vessels. For pressure jumps 60 to 100 mmHg, extent of recovery was 87.4 and 89.6%. During application of pressure ramps of 20 or 40 mmHg, vessel diameter did not increase by greater than 5%. There are no significant differences in these data, and we conclude that myogenic response in rabbit ear artery is mediated independently of endothelial-derived factors, irrespective of whether myogenic activation is induced by pressure jumps or ramps.

Selective inhibition of platelet cyclooxygenase with controlled release, low-dose aspirin

The hypothesis that slow administration of low doses of aspirin may selectively inhibit platelet cyclooxygenase and thromboxane A2 formation was evaluated using controlled release aspirin formulations. In the first study, doses of either 50, 100, 325 and 1,300 mg of these formulations and 300 mg soluble aspirin were ingested daily by healthy volunteers for one week. In the second study, doses of 5, 10, 25 and 50 mg controlled release aspirin, 50 mg soluble aspirin and 100 mg aspirin and glycine formulation were ingested daily for ten days. Platelet function and urinary prostaglandin production were assessed immediately before and on the seventh day of dosing in both studies and in the second study, repeated on the tenth day of dosing. Platelet function and serum thromboxane B2 production were fully inhibited by all formulations of 50 mg aspirin and above, but not by doses of controlled release aspirin below 50 mg doses. The excretion of urinary 6-keto-PGF1 alpha (a major metabolite of prostacyclin) was significantly reduced at controlled release aspirin doses above 100 mg and at all doses of rapidly absorbed aspirin tested. As no significant reduction in the urinary 6-keto-PGF1 alpha production was observed at doses of controlled release aspirin of 50 and 100 mg and below, it appeared that these doses did not inhibit the systemic vascular cyclooxygenase. These data are consistent with a selective inhibition of platelet function by daily doses of 50 and 100 mg of the controlled release formulation of aspirin.

Trapping sheep blowflies using bait-bins

A bait-bin designed to attract and kill sheep blowflies is described. It is composed of a garbage bin plus lid, attractant and insecticide-treated offal. Fly entry holes are covered with differentiator wire to increase selectivity of kill. Placing bait-bins in preferred habitats of blowflies to optimise kill is outlined and temporal insecticide strategies to increase effectiveness of kill and reduce blowfly resistance are suggested. Preliminary data supporting the effectiveness of bait-bins in reducing blowfly numbers and flystrike in combination with good management practices to reduce sheep susceptibility to flystrike in the arid zone of New South Wales are presented and cost-effectiveness of bait-bins is analysed.

The effects of different doses of some acetylsalicylic acid formulations on platelet function and bleeding times in healthy subjects

In an attempt to find the most appropriate dose and formulation(s) of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for thrombosis prophylaxis, healthy volunteers were given doses of ASA for 1 wk daily ranging from 50 to 3900 mg as either Aspro-Clear (soluble), Astrix (enteric coated pellets) or Ecotrin (enteric coated tablets). Platelet function and bleeding times were monitored. All doses of ASA significantly inhibited platelet function (p less than 0.05) and increased bleeding times (p less than 0.05) relative to control values. Irrespective of the formulation, maximum increases in bleeding time and platelet dysfunction were obtained with daily doses of about 100 mg, and no further changes were observed with higher doses.

The actions of leukotrienes C4 and D4 in the porcine renal vascular bed

The kidney of anaesthetised pigs was perfused in situ with carotid arterial blood. Renal blood flow and perfusion pressure were recorded. Close intra-arterial injection of leukotriene (LT) C4, D4 or noradrenaline (NA) caused a dose-related increase in vascular resistance. Both LTs were more active than NA by one to two orders of magnitude. Systemically-administered indomethacin potentiated the effect of all three agonists. Incubation of renal artery tissue with calcium ionophore A23187 in the presence of indomethacin resulted in the generation of LT-like material which, when assayed on guinea-pig ileum, was indistinguishable from LTD4. The results show that pig renal vessels produce LT-like material and suggest that the potent vasoconstriction induced by exogenous NA and LTs is modulated in vivo by a vasodilator cyclo-oxygenase product.

Some studies on cytisine and its methylated derivatives

1. In mice cytisine hydrochloride is less toxic intravenously than nicotine hydrogen tartrate, but more toxic by intraperitoneal or oral administration. Compared with cytisine, caulophylline hydrogen iodide is one-fifth to one-tenth as toxic and caulophylline methiodide is less than one-thirtieth as toxic.2. The surprising low oral toxicity of cytisine and nicotine may be ascribed to the method of administration; if the drug is placed directly in the stomach there is no possibility of absorption through buccal mucous membranes.3. The peripheral effects of nicotine, cytisine and caulophylline are similar, though on some preparations those of nicotine last longer. In most tests cytisine is active in doses from a quarter to three-quarters of those of nicotine, caulophylline in doses from 10 to 20 times those of cytisine. Caulophylline methiodide is virtually inactive.4. Cytisine and caulophylline may differ from nicotine in their central effects.5. Cytisine and caulophylline are active as the cations. The pKa of cytisine is 7.92 and that of caulophylline is 7.04; the difference accounts, in part, for the weaker activity of caulophylline. The caulophylline ion is generally one-sixth to one-third as active as the cytisine ion.6. The introduction of the second methyl group to form the quaternary salt does not appear to cause a dramatic change in the conformation of the molecule. Caulophylline methiodide appears to be feebly active because it has feeble affinity.