Relationship Between Cortical Gyrification, White Matter Connectivity, and Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition, which is accompanied by differences in gray matter neuroanatomy and white matter connectivity. However, it is unknown whether these differences are linked or reflect independent aetiologies. Using a multimodal neuroimaging approach, we therefore examined 51 male adults with ASD and 48 neurotypical controls to investigate the relationship between gray matter local gyrification (lGI) and white matter diffusivity in associated fiber tracts. First, ASD individuals had a significant increase in gyrification around the left pre- and post-central gyrus. Second, white matter fiber tracts originating and/or terminating in the cluster of increased lGI had a significant increase in axial diffusivity. This increase in diffusivity was predominantly observed in tracts in close proximity to the cortical sheet. Last, we demonstrate that the increase in lGI was significantly correlated with increased diffusivity of short tracts. This relationship was not significantly modulated by a main effect of group (i.e., ASD), which was more closely associated with gray matter gyrification than white matter diffusivity. Our findings suggest that differences in gray matter neuroanatomy and white matter connectivity are closely linked, and may reflect common rather than distinct aetiological pathways.

Lithium-pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in immature rats result in long-term deficits in spatial learning and hippocampal cell loss

Rat pups age of 14 postnatal day (P14) were subjected to lithium-pilocarpine (Li-PC) model of status epilepticus (SE). Control rats (n=6) were given an equivalent volume of saline intraperitoneally. Behavioral testing began on P60 including the Morris water maze, the radial arm maze, and the rotarod test. Brain were then analyzed with cresyl violet stain for histological lesions and evaluated for mossy fiber sprouting with the Timm stain. We observed spatial memory deficits both in the Morris water maze and radial arm maze in Li-PC-treated rat. There was no motor impairment in Li-PC-treated rat by the rotarod test. Two of six Li-PC-treated rats showed cell loss in hippocampal CA1 subfield. The Timm staining pattern was similar in both control and Li-PC-treated rats. Result of this study suggests that Li-PC-induced SE in immature rats cause long-term cognitive deficit and permanent cell loss in hippocampal CA1, but spare motor impairment.

Methanofollis aquaemaris sp. nov., a methanogen isolated from an aquaculture fish pond

A novel methanogen, designated strain N2F9704T, was isolated from an aquaculture fish pond near Wang-gong, Taiwan. The cells were irregular cocci, non-motile, 1.2-2.0 microm in diameter and stained gram-negative. Cells of strain N2F9704T lysed easily by SDS treatment (0.1 g l(-1)) and the S-layer protein had an Mr of 137000. The catabolic substrates used included formate and H2+CO2, but not acetate, methanol, trimethylamine or secondary alcohols. The optimal growth parameters for strain N2F9704T were pH 6.5, 37 degrees C with 0.5% NaCl. Trace amounts of tungstate not only promoted growth but also extended the range of growth conditions. Analysis of the 16S rDNA sequence revealed a phylogenetic relationship to Methanofollis species and the name Methanofollis aquaemaris sp. nov. is therefore proposed for strain N2F9704T (= OCM 746T = CCRC 16166T). Additionally, the strain was infected with a novel coccus-shaped, enveloped virus with a diameter of 200 nm.

Transportin-SR2 mediates nuclear import of phosphorylated SR proteins

Serine/arginine-rich proteins (SR proteins) are a family of nuclear factors that play important roles in both constitutive and regulated precursor mRNA splicing. The domain rich in arginine/serine (RS) repeats (RS domain) serves as both a nuclear and subnuclear localization signal. We previously identified an importin beta family protein, transportin-SR2 (TRN-SR2), that specifically interacts with phosphorylated RS domains. A TRN-SR2 mutant deficient in Ran binding colocalizes with SR proteins in nuclear speckles, suggesting a role of TRN-SR2 in nuclear targeting of SR proteins. Using in vitro import assays, we here show that nuclear import of SR protein fusions requires cytosolic factors, and that the RS domain becomes phosphorylated in the import reaction. Reconstitution of SR protein import by using recombinant transport factors clearly demonstrates that TRN-SR2 is capable of targeting phosphorylated, but not unphosphorylated, SR proteins to the nucleus. Therefore, RS domain phosphorylation is critical for TRN-SR2-mediated nuclear import. Interestingly, we found that the RNA-binding activity of SR proteins confers temperature sensitivity to their nuclear import. Finally, we show that TRN-SR2 interacts with a nucleoporin and is targeted not only to the nuclear envelope but also to nuclear speckles in vitro. Thus, TRN-SR2 may perhaps escort SR protein cargoes to nuclear subdomains.

Combined effect of cyclosporine and sirolimus on improving the longevity of recombinant adenovirus-mediated transgene expression in the retina

OBJECTIVES

To reevaluate the longevity and intraocular safety of recombinant adenovirus (rAd)-mediated gene delivery after subretinal injection, and to prolong transgene expression through the combination of 2 synergistic immunosuppressants.

METHODS

An rAd vector carrying green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was delivered subretinally in the rat eye. The GFP expression was monitored in real time by fundus fluorescent photography. Intraocular safety was examined by observation of changes of retinal pigmentation, cell infiltration in virus-contacted area, immunophenotyping for CD4(+) and CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and CD68(+) macrophages, histologic findings, and dark-adapted electroretinography. Two synergistic immunosuppressants, cyclosporine and sirolimus, were used alone or in combination to prolong transgene expression by temporary immunosuppression.

RESULTS

The GFP expression peaked on day 4, dramatically decreased on day 10, and was not detectable on day 14. The decreased GFP expression was coincident with cell infiltration in virus-contacted area. Immunostaining showed that the infiltrating cells were CD4(+) and CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes and CD68(+) macrophages. Clumped retinal pigmentation and decreased b wave of dark-adapted electroretinogram were observed at 3 to 4 weeks after injection. Histologic examination confirmed rAd-induced retinal degeneration. Transient immunosuppression by cyclosporine and sirolimus, either alone or in combination, improved transgene expression, with the combination being the most efficient. The combined immunosuppression attenuated but did not retard the rAd-induced retinal damage.

CONCLUSIONS

Transgene expression mediated by rAd after subretinal delivery is short-term and toxic to the retina. Combination of cyclosporine and sirolimus may act as an immunosuppressive adjunct to prolong rAd-mediated gene transfer.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The intraocular safety of rAd should be carefully considered before clinical trials are performed.

Characterization of Methanococcus voltaei strain P2F9701a: a new methanogen isolated from estuarine environment

A new methanogen, designated as strain P2F9701a (= OCM 745), was isolated from a water sample of estuarine environment in Elrin Shi, Taiwan. Cells of strain P2F9701a were motile coccus (0.7 approximately 1.1 micron) with tufts of flagella. Gas vacuoles were observed, and the protein cell wall was composed of S-layer protein subunit with Mr of 74,700. Cells catabolized formate and H2+CO2 to produce methane, but not acetate, methanol, and trimethylamine. Strain P2F9701a grew in the range of 30-42 degrees C, with optimal growth temperature at 37 degrees C, but did not grow below 28 degrees C or above 42 degrees C. This estuarine isolate P2F9701a tolerated well the NaCl concentration between 0.02 and 1.03 m, and the optimal salt for growth was 0.17 m. Although phylogenetic analytic results indicated that P2F9701a belongs to the mesophilic, hydrogenotrophic marine methanogen of Methanococcus voltaei, the occurrence of gas vacuoles, tufts of flagella, eury-halotolerant and steno-thermotolerant characters of strain P2F9701a are different from mesophilic Methanococcus spp. that had been reported.

Glycine betaine transport in the obligate halophilic archaeon Methanohalophilus portucalensis

Transport of the osmoprotectant glycine betaine was investigated using the glycine betaine-synthesizing microbe Methanohalophilus portucalensis (strain FDF1), since solute uptake for this class of obligate halophilic methanogenic Archaea has not been examined. Betaine uptake followed a Michaelis-Menten relationship, with an observed K(t) of 23 microM and a V(max) of 8 nmol per min per mg of protein. The transport system was highly specific for betaine: choline, proline, and dimethylglycine did not significantly compete for [(14)C]betaine uptake. The proton-conducting uncoupler 2, 4-dinitrophenol and the ATPase inhibitor N, N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide both inhibited glycine betaine uptake. Growth of cells in the presence of 500 microM betaine resulted in faster cell growth due to the suppression of the de novo synthesis of the other compatible solutes, alpha-glutamate, beta-glutamine, and N(epsilon)-acetyl-beta-lysine. These investigations demonstrate that this model halophilic methanogen, M. portucalensis strain FDF1, possesses a high-affinity and highly specific betaine transport system that allows it to accumulate this osmoprotectant from the environment in lieu of synthesizing this or other osmoprotectants under high-salt growth conditions.

Methanosarcina mazei strain O1M9704, methanogen with novel tubule isolated from estuarine environment

A new methanogenic isolate, designated as strain O1M9704 (=OCM 667), was isolated from the sediment of the estuarine environment in Eriln Shi, Taiwan. This strain grew on trimethylamine and methanol, but it did not catabolize H2-CO2, acetate, or formate. Cells grew optimally at 37 degrees C with 0.5% NaCl in neutral pH. The cells were stained Gram-negative, nonmotile, irregular coccus 0.3-0.6 microm in diameter. A comparison of 16S rDNA sequences phylogenetically related strain O1M9704 to Methanosarcina mazei. Gas vacuoles were observed both under phase contrast microscope and in thin sections in the electron microscope. Negative stain of electron micrographs showed a novel character of strain O1M9704. with tubule structure extended out of the cells. The tubule structure and gas vacuoles may benefit the adaptation of methanoarchaea in estuarine environment.

A novel immunoassay for the evaluation of rod outer segment digestion in cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells

In this work a novel enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay quantifying residual rod outer segments in the medium of rod outer segment-challenged retinal pigment epithelial cells is described. A retinal pigment epithelial cell line (D407) that produces low level of cathepsin D, and a primary human retinal pigment epithelial cell culture (HRPE51) that has normal cathepsin D levels, were challenged with bovine rod outer segments. At 3 days post-challenge, the amount of undigested or residual bovine rod outer segments left in the culture medium was quantified by an enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay. An antibody raised against bovine rod outer segments, which had been purified and labelled with nitroiodophenyl haptens, was used in the assay. The sensitivity of the immunoassay was less than 10(2) bovine rod outer segments per mL and the signal followed a linear curve, saturating around 10(6) bovine rod outer segments per mL. HRPE51 cells had no residual bovine rod outer segments present in the medium following a challenge with 10(4) bovine rod outer segments per mL. In the medium of D407 cells, residual bovine rod outer segment levels were higher at all bovine rod outer segment concentrations when compared to the residual bovine rod outer segment levels in HRPE51 cells, suggesting that D407 cells have a lower digestive capacity. These results demonstrated that the immunoassay for detecting bovine rod outer segments is a sensitive and reliable technique that can be used to quantify the amount of residual bovine rod outer segments, following bovine rod outer segment challenge of retinal pigment epithelial cells.

A human importin-beta family protein, transportin-SR2, interacts with the phosphorylated RS domain of SR proteins

Serine/arginine-rich proteins (SR proteins) are mainly involved in the splicing of precursor mRNA. RS domains are also found in proteins that have influence on other aspects of gene expression. Proteins that contain an RS domain are often located in the speckled domains of the nucleus. Here we show that the RS domain derived from a human papillomavirus E2 transcriptional activator can target a heterologous protein to the nucleus, as it does in many other SR proteins, but insufficient for localization in speckles. By using E2 as a bait in a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified a human importin-beta family protein that is homologous to yeast Mtr10p and almost identical to human transportin-SR. This transportin-SR2 (TRN-SR2) protein can interact with several cellular SR proteins. More importantly, we demonstrated that TRN-SR2 can directly interact with phosphorylated, but not unphosphorylated, RS domains. Finally, an indirect immunofluoresence study revealed that a transiently expressed TRN-SR2 mutant lacking the N-terminal region becomes localized to the nucleus in a speckled pattern that coincides with the distribution of the SR protein SC35. Thus, our results likely reflect a role of TRN-SR2 in the cellular trafficking of phosphorylated SR proteins.

Deamidation of a model hexapeptide in poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels and xerogels

Polymeric controlled release systems have been proposed to prolong the half-lives of protein and peptide drugs in vivo and to deliver active drug at a controlled rate. These systems are ineffective, however, if the drug is not stable during storage and release. This study addresses the effect of poly(vinyl alcohol) on the stability and release of an incorporated hexapeptide, VYPNGA, which undergoes deamidation. Two types of peptide-loaded poly(vinyl alcohol) matrices were formed, a semisolid hydrogel and a lower water content 'xerogel', and stored at 50 degrees C for up to 122 days. The hexapeptide was less stable in both poly(vinyl alcohol) matrices than in aqueous buffer or lyophilized polymer-free powders. The type of poly(vinyl alcohol) matrix appeared to influence the degradation mechanism, since the product distributions differ in the hydrogel and the xerogel. The results suggest that, rather than stabilizing this peptide, incorporation in poly(vinyl alcohol) matrices reduces stability relative to solution and lyophilized controls.

The role of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in abnormal vascular changes in the adult rat eye

The aim of this project was to determine if the subretinal delivery of a recombinant adenovirus encoding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was sufficient to induce changes resembling choroidal neovascularisation (CNV) in a rat model. A recombinant adenovirus was produced encoding vegf164 cDNA (Ad.RSV.VEGF). Transduction of cultured RPE cells confirmed VEGF expression and ensured the absence of Ad.RSV.VEGF-related toxicity. Following subretinal injection into rat eyes, fluorescein angiography indicated that the in vivo delivery of Ad.RSV.VEGF was associated with vascular leakage. Histological analysis demonstrated that changes resembling the early signs of CNV development were also present in the Ad.RSV.VEGF injected eyes. These results suggest that while a transient VEGF expression in the RPE layer is able to induce CNV-related changes, it may be insufficient for the development of a full neovascular membrane. This study demonstrates that virus-mediated gene delivery, in addition to its clinical applications, is a potentially efficient research tool for investigating gene expression-related physiological changes in vitro and in vivo.

Chemical stability of peptides in polymers. 1. Effect of water on peptide deamidation in poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) matrixes

This paper examines the effect of water content, water activity, and glass transition temperature (T(g)) on the deamidation of an asparagine-containing hexapeptide (VYPNGA; Asn-hexapeptide) in lyophilized poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) at 50 degrees C. The rate of Asn-hexapeptide deamidation increases with increasing water content or water activity and, hence, decreasing T(g). The rate of deamidation is more sensitive to changes in these parameters in PVA than in PVP. Deamidation is clearly evident in the glassy state in both formulations. In the glassy state, the peptide is more stable in PVA than in PVP formulations but is less stable in the rubbery state. No single variable (water content, water activity, or T(g)) could account for the variation in deamidation rates in PVA and PVP formulations. Deamidation rates were correlated with the degree of plasticization by water (distance of T(g) from the dry intrinsic glass transition temperature); coincident curves for the two polymers were obtained with this correlation. Deamidation in PVA and PVP was closely correlated with the extent of water-induced plasticization experienced by the formulation relative to its glass transition at 50 degrees C, suggesting that the physical state of formulations could be used to predict chemical stability.

Chemical stability of peptides in polymers. 2. Discriminating between solvent and plasticizing effects of water on peptide deamidation in poly(vinylpyrrolidone)

The mechanistic role of water in the deamidation of a model asparagine-containing hexapeptide (Val-Tyr-Pro-Asn-Gly-Ala) in lyophilized formulations containing poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) and glycerol was investigated. Glycerol was used as a plasticizer to vary formulation glass transition temperature (T(g)) without significantly changing water content or activity. Increases in moisture and glycerol contents increased the rate of peptide deamidation. This increase was strongly correlated with T(g) at constant water content and activity, suggesting that increased matrix mobility facilitates deamidation. In rubbery systems (T > T(g)), deamidation rates appeared to be independent of water content and activity in formulations with similar T(g)s. However, in glassy formulations with similar T(g)s, deamidation increased with water content, suggesting a solvent/medium effect of water on reactivity in this regime. An increase in water content also affected the degradation product distribution; less of the cyclic imide intermediate and more of the hydrolytic products, isoAsp- and Asp-hexapeptides, were observed as water content increased. Thus, residual water appears to facilitate deamidation in these solid PVP formulations both by enhancing molecular mobility and by solvent/medium effects, and also participates as a chemical reactant in the subsequent breakdown of the cyclic imide.

Synthesis and antitumor activity of bithienyl-pyrimidine derivatives with electrostatic binding side chains

A series of bithienyl-pyrimidines having cationic side chain have been developed as antitumor agents. This work illustrates the overwhelming importance of the bithienyl unit for efficient DNA binding. The X-ray structure of 4-(2',2"-thien-5-yl)2-chloropyrimidine was obtained for postulating the conformation of the bithienyl-pyrimidine moiety.

Characterization of Methanosarcina mazei N2M9705 isolated from an aquaculture fishpond

A new methanogenic isolate, designated as strain N2M9705 (=OCM 668), was isolated from an aquaculture fishpond near Wang-gong, Taiwan. This strain grew on trimethylamine and methanol, but it did not catabolize H2-CO2, acetate, or formate. The cells were stained Gram-negative, nonmotile, irregular coccus 0.6-0.8 micrometer in diameter. Gas vacuoles were observed and cell aggregated to form various sizes of granules. Cells grew optimally at 32 degrees -37 degrees C with 1% NaCl. The pH range of growth was 6.2-7.4, and higher pH inhibited the cell growth. The cells grew well in minimal medium, but growth was greatly stimulated by yeast extract and peptone. A comparison of 16S rDNA sequences of this organism phylogenetically related to Methanosarcina mazei. This is the first report of methyltrophic methanogenic isolated from an aquaculture fishpond.

Generation and characterization of a recombinant adenovirus expressing vascular endothelial growth factor for studies of neovascularization in the eye

There is accumulating evidence that an increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor from retinal pigment epithelial cells may be important in choroidal neovascularization. In vivo studies have demonstrated that subretinal injection of recombinant adenovirus vectors produces long-term transgene expression specifically within retinal pigment epithelial cells. A recombinant adenovirus encoding of vascular endothelial growth factor (Ad.RSV.VEGF) was therefore produced and characterized in order to determine whether an upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression is sufficient to induce choroidal neovascularization. Ad.RSV.VEGF was produced by homologous recombination and its identity confirmed by restriction enzyme analysis. Ad.RSV.VEGF was characterized in vitro by the transduction of cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells. The in vitro characterization confirmed vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA and protein expression from Ad.RSV.VEGF and demonstrated the biological activity of the vascular endothelial growth factor protein. A preliminary in vivo study suggested that the subretinal injection of Ad.RSV.VEGF induced vascular leakage.

Solid-state chemical stability of proteins and peptides

Peptide and protein drugs are often formulated in the solid-state to provide stabilization during storage. However, reactions can occur in the solid-state, leading to degradation and inactivation of these agents. This review summarizes the major chemical reactions affecting proteins and peptides in the solid-state: deamidation, peptide bond cleavage, oxidation, the Maillard reaction, beta-elimination, and dimerization/aggregation. Physical and chemical factors influencing these reactions are also discussed. These include temperature, moisture content, excipients, and the physical state of the formulation (amorphous vs crystalline). The review is intended to serve as an aid for those involved in formulation, and to stimulate further research on the determinants of peptide and protein reactivity in the solid-state.

A human papillomavirus E2 transcriptional activator. The interactions with cellular splicing factors and potential function in pre-mRNA processing

The human papillomavirus (HPV) E2 protein plays an important role in transcriptional regulation of viral genes as well as in viral DNA replication. Unlike most types of HPV, the E2 protein of epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV)-associated HPVs harbors a relatively long hinged region between the terminal, conserved transactivation and DNA binding/dimerization domains. The sequence of EV-HPV E2 hinge contains multiple arginine/serine (RS) dipeptide repeats which are characteristic of a family of pre-messenger RNA splicing factors, called SR proteins. Here we show that the HPV-5 (an EV-HPV) E2 protein can specifically interact with cellular splicing factors including a set of prototypical SR proteins and two snRNP-associated proteins. Transiently expressed HPV-5 E2 protein colocalizes with a nuclear matrix associated-splicing coactivator in nuclear speckled domains. The RS-rich hinge is essential for E2 transactivator interaction with splicing factors and for its subnuclear localization. Moreover, we present functional evidence for the HPV-5 E2 transactivator, which shows that the RS-rich hinge domain of the E2 protein can facilitate the splicing of precursor messenger RNA made via transactivation by E2 itself. Our results, therefore, suggest that a DNA binding transactivator containing an RS-rich sequence can play a dual role in gene expression.

Regulatory factors associated with synthesis of the osmolyte glycine betaine in the halophilic methanoarchaeon Methanohalophilus portucalensis

The halophilic methanoarchaeon Methanohalophilus portucalensis can synthesize de novo and accumulate beta-glutamine, Nepsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine, and glycine betaine (betaine) as compatible solutes (osmolytes) when grown at elevated salt concentrations. Both in vivo and in vitro betaine formation assays in this study confirmed previous nuclear magnetic resonance 13C-labelling studies showing that the de novo synthesis of betaine proceeded from glycine, sarcosine, and dimethylglycine to form betaine through threefold methylation. Exogenous sarcosine (1 mM) effectively suppressed the intracellular accumulation of betaine, and a higher level of sarcosine accumulation was accompanied by a lower level of betaine synthesis. Exogenous dimethylglycine has an effect similar to that of betaine addition, which increased the intracellular pool of betaine and suppressed the levels of Nepsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine and beta-glutamine. Both in vivo and in vitro betaine formation assays with glycine as the substrate showed only sarcosine and betaine, but no dimethylglycine. Dimethylglycine was detected only when it was added as a substrate in in vitro assays. A high level of potassium (400 mM and above) was necessary for betaine formation in vitro. Interestingly, no methylamines were detected without the addition of KCl. Also, high levels of NaCl and LiCl (800 mM) favored sarcosine accumulation, while a lower level (400 mM) favored betaine synthesis. The above observations indicate that a high sarcosine level suppressed multiple methylation while dimethylglycine was rapidly converted to betaine. Also, high levels of potassium led to greater amounts of betaine, while lower levels of potassium led to greater amounts of sarcosine. This finding suggests that the intracellular levels of both sarcosine and potassium are associated with the regulation of betaine synthesis in M. portucalensis.

Expression of cathepsin S antisense transcripts by adenovirus in retinal pigment epithelial cells

PURPOSE

To show the production of sense or antisense transcripts by recombinant adenoviruses, to investigate whether the transcripts produced were suitable for downregulating the expression of the targeted gene, cathepsin S (CatS), and to examine the effect of antisense transcript production on the biologic function of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells, including the regulation of endogenous aspartic protease expression.

METHODS

Ad.MLP.CatSAS, Ad.RSV.CatSAS, and Ad.MLP.CatSS recombinant viruses were produced by homologous recombination. The recombinant viruses were tested by restriction enzyme digestion to confirm the orientation of the inserts. The expression of antisense transcripts was tested by northern blot analysis. Western blot analysis was used to study the regulation of the endogenous CatS protein in ARPE19 cells. The biologic effect of CatS downregulation in ARPE19 cells was tested by proliferation and phagocytosis assays, de novo cathepsin D (CatD) synthesis, and measurement of aspartic protease activity.

RESULTS

After characterization of the recombinant adenovirus constructs, the production of antisense and sense CatS transcripts was shown in ARPE19 cells. The transcripts appeared at approximately 1.9 kb 48 hours after transduction, and the expression of the antisense transcripts was similar in constructs carrying either the MLP or the RSV promoter. Western blot analysis showed that ARPE19 cells transduced with Ad.MLP.CatSAS and Ad.RSV.CatSAS had no detectable CatS. In contrast, there was a strong signal appearing at 24 kDa in ARPE19 cells transduced with Ad.MLP.CatSS. ARPE19 cells were transduced to a high level. The transduction of ARPE19 cells with the recombinant adenoviruses did not affect the morphologic appearance of the cells, their proliferation, or their phagocytosing ability. However, ARPE19 cells transduced by Ad.MLP.CatSAS recombinant adenovirus showed a significant downregulation of de novo CatD synthesis and a twofold decrease in aspartic protease activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Recombinant adenoviruses were shown to be suitable for producing antisense CatS transcripts to modulate endogenous CatS expression in RPE cells. It is proposed that CatS may play an important role, directly or indirectly, in the lysosomal digestion of outer segments through the regulation of other lysosomal enzyme activity, such as the expression of CatD.

The genome of Moloney murine leukemia virus can be integrated by the integrase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 expressed alone in vivo

An in vivo integration assay using the expressed human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integrase (IN) protein and plasmids carrying a copy of the infectious Moloney murine leukemia virus (MuLV) provirus genome as substrates is presented. The HIV-1 IN gene was taken from vector pINSD and cloned into vector pXT1 to give pXT1-IN. Two and three nucleotides from the circle junction on one pair of U3 and U5 attachment (att) sequences on an infectious MuLV provirus vector pMLV-K were changed by means of site-directed mutagenesis to that of the corresponding HIV-1 att sequences to generate vector pMLV*(U3U5). The MuLV IN sequence was partially deleted for vectors pMLV-K and pMLV*(U3U5) to generate vectors pMLV delta IN and pMLV*(U3U5) delta IN. Integration of these wild type and MuLV IN partially deleted or att mutated MuLV provirus vectors in the transfected cells by the expressed HIV-1 IN was monitored by means of a non-radioactive reverse transcriptase (RT) assay for released and collected virions. No RT activity was detected for the NIH/3T3 cell singly transfected with vector pMLV delta IN. However some RT activities were observed for the HIV-1 IN expressing cell transfected either with vectors pMLV delta IN or pMLV*(U3U5) delta IN. This indicated that in the absence of other HIV-1 proteins expressed the MuLV provirus genome was integrated by the expressed HIV-1 IN protein. The integration of these MuLV provirus genomes was further confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis on the genomic DNA extracted from the transfected cells using the MuLV IN sequence remained from partial deletion as a target.

Initiation of impaired outer segment degradation in vivo using an antisense oligonucleotide

This paper describes the first successful in vivo application of antisense DNA technology to induce the accumulation of photoreceptor outer segment derived debris in the retina. An antisense oligonucleotide (CatSC), which was previously demonstrated to be an effective tool to induce debris accumulation in vitro, was injected into the vitreous of pigmented and non-pigmented rats. The animals were euthanased 7 days after the injections. The number of inclusions significantly increased in the RPE layer of Long Evans and RCS-rdy + rats injected with 66 ug of CatSC to 96.2 +/- 13.6 (SD) (p < 0.0003) and 204.2 +/- 39.3 (SD) (p < 0.0001), respectively. The difference between the number of phagosome-like inclusions present in control saline, 6.6 ug of CatSC or 66 ug of sense oligonucleotide (S1) injected animals was not statistically significant. There were no abnormalities observed in the inner layers of the retina but the accumulation of phagosome-like inclusions was accompanied by disorganisation in the apices of outer segments. The large number of inclusions found in CatSC treated animals showed the characteristics of phagosomes containing stacks of undigested photoreceptor outer segment membranes which suggest that the lysosomal digestion process was halted or at least slowed down by the antisense oligonucleotide.

Targeted delivery of an antisense oligonucleotide in the retina: uptake, distribution, stability, and effect

In this article, we describe the preliminary results of the development of an animal model that will enable us to study the effect of photoreceptor-derived debris accumulation on the normal function of the retina in vivo. An antisense oligonucleotide (Cat 5), saline, and two control oligonucleotides were injected into the vitreous of 7-week-old RCS-rdy+ rats. The uptake, distribution, and persistence of the antisense oligonucleotide in the retina was demonstrated by fluorescent confocal microscopy, and the stability of the oligonucleotide was shown by GeneScan analysis using a fluorescein-labeled derivative of Cat 5 (Cat 5F). The accumulation of photoreceptor-derived debris was monitored by the number of undigested phagosomes in the RPE layer by light microscopy. Following intravitreal injection of Cat 5F, penetration of the oligonucleotide was observed in the ganglion cell layer in 2 hours and in the photoreceptor and pigment epithelial layers 3 days later. However, at 7, 28, and 56 days postinjection, only the RPE layer had significant amounts of Cat 5F present. Using GeneScan analysis, it was demonstrated that the fluorescein-labeled oligonucleotide present in the RPE layer was not degraded and it retained its original 19-mer length. There was no statistically significant difference in the number of phagosomes found in the RPE layer of control uninjected, saline-injected, and two sense and two antisense oligonucleotides-injected animals at 7 and 28 days postinjection. In contrast, the number of phagosomes was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in the RPE layer of Cat 5 antisense oligonucleotide-injected animals at 7 and 28 days postinjection. This difference, however, disappeared by 56 days postinjection. The inner nuclear layers of the retina of control and experimental animals were not affected by the injections.

Molecular dynamics simulation of a leucine zipper motif predicted for the integrase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1

We have used the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation package AMBER4 to search the conformation of a peptide predicted as a leucine zipper motif for the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 integrase protein (HIV IN-LZM). The peptide is composed of 22 amino acid residues and its location is from Val 151 to Leu 172. The searching procedure also includes two known alpha-helices that served as positive controls--namely, a 22-residue GCN4-p1 (LZM) and a 20-residue poly (L-alanine) (PLA). A 21-residue peptide extracted from a cytochrome C crystal (CCC-t) with determined conformation as a beta-turn is also included as a negative control. At the beginning of the search, two starting conformations--namely, the standard right-handed alpha-helix and the fully stretched conformations--are generated for each peptide. Structures generated as standard alpha-helix are equilibrated at room temperature for 90 ps while structures generated as a fully stretched one are equilibrated at 600 K for 120 ps. The CCC-t and PLA helices are nearly destroyed from the beginning of equilibration. However, for both the HIV IN-LZM and the GCN4-p1 LZM structures, there is substantial helicity being retained throughout the entire course of equilibration. Although helix propagation profiles calculated indicate that both peptides possess about the same propensity to form an alpha-helix, the HIV IN-LZM helix appears to be more stable than the GCN4-p1 one as judged by a variety of analyses on both structures generated during the equilibration course. The fact that predicted HIV IN-LZM can exist as an alpha-helix is also supported by the results of high temperature equilibration run on the fully stretched structures generated. In this run, the RMS deviations between the backbone atoms of the structures with the lowest potential energy (PE) identified within every 2 ps and the structure with the lowest PE searched in the same course of simulation are calculated. For both the HIV IN-LZM and the GCN4-p1 LZM, these rms values decrease with the decrease of PE, which indicates that both structures are closer in conformations as their PEs are moved deeper into the PE well.

Differential expression patterns of type I interferon subtypes in mouse embryo fibroblasts: influence of genotype and viral inducer

Primary mouse embryo fibroblasts from 4 strains of mice (BALB/c, C57Bl/6, B6.C-H-28c and CBA) were infected with either Newcastle disease virus or murine cytomegalovirus. The time course of the total type I interferon response was assessed and the presence of individual subtypes determined. The total type I interferon produced was titrated using the cytopathic effect reduction assay and the relative levels of type I interferon subtypes expressed (alpha 1, alpha 4, alpha 5, alpha 6 and beta) were evaluated using a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction-based technique. In general, the patterns of type I interferon subtypes expressed appeared to be determined by the strain of mouse cells used rather than the inducing virus. However, the overall titre of type I interferons produced in response to a given virus was quite uniform across the strains of mice from which the mouse embryo fibroblasts were derived regardless of the subtype expression pattern. The latter observation fits the proposition that "cross-talk" or feedback between the type I interferon genes and their products is is occurring and that the inducer determines the level of response.

Molecular detection and identification of type I interferon mRNAs

The development of a technique for identifying murine type I interferon messenger RNAs is described that involves the following essential steps: (a) the reverse transcription of total RNA extracts using oligo(dT)12-18 as a primer, (b) the amplification of any type I interferon cDNAs produced by polymerase chain reaction, and (c) the identification of interferon subtypes by hybridization of the polymerase chain reaction products to specific oligonucleotides. The technique was used to characterize the expression of the mouse interferon subtypes alpha 1, alpha 4, alpha 5, alpha 6, and beta in murine L929 cells that had been infected with Newcastle disease virus. The data derived from this study are in excellent agreement with earlier RNA protection experiments performed in the same system to characterize expression of the same genes. The present technique has advantages over those used previously, including superior sensitivity, speed, and far smaller input RNA requirements. The technique is not only applicable to other in vitro systems, but is appropriate for use in vivo.

Glycine betaine and potassium ion are the major compatible solutes in the extremely halophilic methanogen Methanohalophilus strain Z7302

Methanohalophilus strain Z7302 was previously isolated from a hypersaline environment and grows over a range of NaCl concentrations from 1.7 to 4.4 M. We examined the relationships between cell growth rate, cell volume, and intracellular solute concentrations with increasing salinity. This extremely halophilic methanogen synthesized three zwitterionic compounds, beta-glutamine, N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine, and glycine betaine, and also accumulated potassium ion as compatible solutes to balance the external and internal osmotic pressures. Potassium and glycine betaine were the predominant compatible solutes when Methanohalophilus strain Z7302 was grown at high external NaCl concentrations and approached intracellular levels of 3 and 4 M, respectively.

Biosynthetic pathways of the osmolytes N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine, beta-glutamine, and betaine in Methanohalophilus strain FDF1 suggested by nuclear magnetic resonance analyses

Methanohalophilus strain FDF1 synthesizes beta-glutamine, betaine, and N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine as osmoprotective agents when the cells are grown in high external concentrations of NaCl. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic analyses of 13CH3OH-12CO2 label incorporation by the cells provide information on the biosynthetic pathways of these organic osmolytes. The labeling studies indicate that Methanohalophilus strain FDF1 produces glutamate and beta-glutamine via a partial oxidative Krebs pathway. 13C labeling of betaine is consistent with methylation of glycine generated from serine (via serine hydroxymethyltransferase). The labeling pattern for N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine is consistent with the synthesis of its precursor alpha-lysine occurring by the diaminopimelate pathway in these cells.

Composition, Variation, and Dynamics of Major Osmotic Solutes in Methanohalophilus Strain FDF1

Methanohalophilus strain FDF1, a member of the halophilic genus of methanogens, can grow over a range of external NaCl concentrations from 1.2 to 2.9 M and utilize methanol, trimethylamine, and dimethyl sulfide as substrates for methanogenesis. It produces the osmolytes glycine betaine, β-glutamine, and N ε -acetyl-β-lysine with increasing external NaCl, but the relative ratio of these zwitterions depends primarily on the methanogenic substrate and less on the external osmolarity. When the cells are grown on methanol in defined medium, accumulation of glycine betaine predominates over the other zwitterionic solutes. The cells also synthesized a carbohydrate which was not detected in cells grown on trimethylamine. This negatively charged compound, identified as α-glucosylglycerate from the 13 C and 1 H chemical shifts, does not act as an osmoregulatory solute in the salt range 1.4 to 2.7 M in this methanogen as evidenced by its invariant intracellular concentration. 13 CH 3 OH-pulse/ 12 CH 3 OH-chase experiments were used to determine half-lifes for these organic solute pools in the cells. l -α-Glutamate showed a rapid loss of heavy isotope, indicating that l -α-glutamate functions as a biosynthetic intermediate in these cells. Measurable turnover rates for both β-glutamine, which acts as an osmolyte, and α-glucosylglycerate suggest that they function as metabolic intermediates as well. Molecules which function solely as osmolytes (glycine betaine and N ε -acetyl-β-lysine) showed a slower turnover consistent with their roles as osmotic solutes in Methanohalophilus strain FDF1.

Structure/function studies of murine interferon-alpha 1 using site-directed mutagenesis followed by in vitro synthesis

Site-directed in vitro mutagenesis followed by in vitro transcription and translation has been used to study structure/function relationships for murine interferon-alpha 1 (MuIFN-alpha 1). The mature form of the MuIFN-alpha 1 protein was expressed as well as analogue forms with amino acid substitutions at positions 33, 71, 72, 123 and 133. These positions were chosen on the basis of known human interferon-alpha structure/function relationships. Biological assays for antiviral activity on murine cells and natural killer cell activation have been performed for each of the proteins produced. The data obtained have been interpreted in the light of previous human and murine interferon-alpha structure/function work and the recently published three-dimensional structure of murine type I interferon.

Identification of skeletal muscle precursor cells in vivo by use of MyoD1 and myogenin probes

The activation of mononuclear muscle precursor cells after crush injury to mouse tibialis anterior muscles was monitored in vivo by in situ hybridization with MyoD1 and myogenin probes. These genes are early markers of skeletal muscle differentiation and have been extensively studied in vitro. The role in vivo of these regulatory proteins during myogenesis of mature muscle has not been studied previously. MyoD1 and myogenin mRNA were present in occasional mononuclear cells of uninjured muscle. Increased MyoD1 and myogenin mRNA sequences in mononuclear cells were detected as early as 6 h after injury, peaked between 24 and 48 h, and thereafter declined to pre-injury levels at about 8 days. The mRNAs were detected in mononuclear cells throughout the muscle, with the majority of cells located some distance from the site of crush injury. The presence of MyoD1 and myogenin mRNA at 6 to 48 h indicates that transcription of these genes is occurring at the same time as replication of muscle precursor cells in vivo. At no time were significant levels of mRNA for these genes detected in myotubes. MyoD1 and myogenin provide precise markers for the very early identification and study of mononuclear skeletal muscle precursor cells in muscle regenerating in vivo.

Distribution of compatible solutes in the halophilic methanogenic archaebacteria

Accumulation of compatible solutes, by uptake or de novo synthesis, enables bacteria to reduce the difference between osmotic potentials of the cell cytoplasm and the extracellular environment. To examine this process in the halophilic and halotolerant methanogenic archaebacteria, 14 strains were tested for the accumulation of compatible solutes in response to growth in various extracellular concentrations of NaCl. In external NaCl concentrations of 0.7 to 3.4 M, the halophilic methanogens accumulated K+ ion and low-molecular-weight organic compounds. beta-Glutamate was detected in two halotolerant strains that grew below 1.5 M NaCl. Two unusual beta-amino acids, N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine and beta-glutamine (3-aminoglutaramic acid), as well as L-alpha-glutamate were compatible solutes among all of these strains. De novo synthesis of glycine betaine was also detected in several strains of moderately and extremely halophilic methanogens. The zwitterionic compounds (beta-glutamine, N epsilon-acetyl-beta-lysine, and glycine betaine) and potassium were the predominant compatible solutes among the moderately and extremely halophilic methanogens. This is the first report of beta-glutamine as a compatible solute and de novo biosynthesis of glycine betaine in the methanogenic archaebacteria.

Difluoromethylornithine prevents the down-regulation of type I interferon receptors: a possible mechanism for a synergistic antiproliferative effect

Type I interferon and difluoromethylornithine have been shown to exert an antiproliferative effect, both alone and in combination, in several tumor cell lines. Using B16 melanoma cells, we have shown that these two drugs inhibit growth over 72 hr in vitro. The estimated ED50 values for difluoromethylornithine and type I interferon were 31.1 +/- 1.1 microM and 22.3 +/- 2.7 IU/ml, respectively. When used in combination, a marked synergism was observed, as detected by isobologram analysis. Type I interferon, at concentrations that exhibited synergistic activity with difluoromethylornithine, did not affect ornithine decarboxylase activity or intracellular polyamine concentrations. These data suggest that the synergistic antiproliferative effect of murine type I interferon in combination with difluoromethylornithine is not mediated via polyamine depletion. When we examined the type I interferon receptor numbers on the B16 cells exposed to 5 IU/ml murine type I interferon for 72 hr, a 40% decrease was observed, compared with that seen in control cells. Difluoromethylornithine, at 10 microM, did not affect type I interferon receptor numbers. However, when added to the cells in the presence of murine type I interferon, difluoromethylornithine completely inhibited down-regulation, suggesting that down-regulation of the type I interferon receptor is a polyamine-dependent process. These observations may provide a basis for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of interferon treatment through control of interferon receptor down-regulation.

Relationship between cell membrane potential and natural killer cell cytolysis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

One of the body's natural defense mechanisms against tumor cells is lysis of the invading cell by cytotoxic T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Five human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines were found to have different sensitivities to killing by peripheral blood monocytes in a 51Cr release assay. This killing was demonstrated to be due to NK cell lysis. Electrical recording measurements of the membrane potentials of these five cell lines showed different values for each line, all below values reported for normal hepatocytes. Correlation between mean cell membrane potential, and sensitivity to NK lysis, revealed an inverse relationship. In this study we demonstrate that the lower the mean membrane potential of a human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, the more sensitive it is to NK cell cytolysis. Cell surface positive potential did not correlate with NK cytolysis and only a weak correlation was found between cell membrane negative potential and cell surface positive potential between cell lines.

Is anti-HBc IgM a useful clinical test in patients with HBsAg-positive chronic hepatitis or primary hepatocellular carcinoma?

Seventy HBsAg-positive patients, including 24 with primary hepatocellular carcinoma, 34 with chronic active hepatitis, 12 with chronic persistent hepatitis and 30 asymptomatic healthy hepatitis B virus carriers were tested for anti-HBc IgM using the Corzyme-M test. Anti-HBc IgM was detected in 50% of the primary hepatocellular carcinoma patients, 26.5% of the chronic active hepatitis patients, 25% of the chronic persistent hepatitis patients, but in none of the healthy hepatitis B virus carriers. There was no correlation between the presence of anti-HBc IgM and HBeAg, hepatitis B virus DNA, ALT or alpha-fetoprotein levels in either the chronic active hepatitis or chronic persistent hepatitis patients. However, a significantly higher positive rate of anti-HBc IgM was noted in the HBeAg-positive or HBV DNA-positive primary hepatocellular carcinoma patients than in those with negative markers of viral replication, but no correlation was noted between the presence of anti-HBc IgM and serum ALT or alpha-fetoprotein levels in these primary hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Also, no differences in positivity for HBeAg, HBV DNA or levels of serum ALT were noted when patients with high titers of anti-HBc IgM were compared to those with low titers. Thus, anti-HBc IgM cannot distinguish between HBsAg-positive patients with chronic active hepatitis, chronic persistent hepatitis or primary hepatocellular carcinoma, does not correlate with serum ALT or alpha-fetoprotein levels and is only associated with markers for viral replication in primary hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Based on this, anti-HBc IgM appears to have a limited usefulness for diagnosis of either chronic hepatitis B or primary hepatocellular carcinoma.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Scanning and transmission electron microscopy of normal chicken tracheal epithelia

The ultrastructure of normal chicken tracheal epithelia was studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy revealed only two cell types on the surface of the tracheal epithelium; ciliated and nonciliated with microvilli. Three cell types were observed with the transmission electron microscope: ciliated, goblet, and basal cells. The ciliated cells were the most numerous.

Scanning electron microscopy of tracheal epithelium of chickens infected with velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease virus

Ultrastructural changes in the tracheal epithelium of chickens infected intranasally with velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease virus were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Hypertrophy of the mucus-secreting, or goblet, cells was the first sign of change, followed by disoriented and deformed cilia, hemorrhage, and hyperplasia of goblet cells accompanied by an increase in mucus. By day 7 postinfection, there was a marked decrease in the number of ciliated cells. Submucosal glands and some collagen fibers were exposed to the surface, an indication of loss of the epithelial cells. Macrophages and cell debris were abundant, and hyperplasia of the basal cells was evident in the later stages of infection, probably in an attempt to regenerate the lost epithelium. However, all chickens died 10 days postinfection, before any further work could be done.

Double heterozygosity for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

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