Establishment of repeated liver biopsy technique in experimental mice

Biopsy is a commonly used method for determining pathological diagnoses by directly using human tissues and cells. Biopsies are widely used to determine disease progression and treatment efficacy. Although organs and tissues are usually obtained by sacrifice during animal experiments, it is theoretically possible to use the same biopsy techniques in humans. In the present study, we examined the feasibility of performing four repeated liver biopsies in a spontaneous metabolic syndrome mouse model. Even though a small number of mice died accidently, most mice were able to undergo four liver biopsies without significant adverse events. We also performed three liver biopsies in mouse liver tumor carcinogen models at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of age. In addition to the sample collected at 16 weeks of age during sacrifice, we successfully collected four liver samples from the same mice at different stages of disease progression. The application of this liver biopsy technique might make it possible for direct evaluation of pathological conditions in the same individual over time, thereby reducing the number of experimental animals.

Galaxy evolution. Evidence for mature bulges and an inside-out quenching phase 3 billion years after the Big Bang

Most present-day galaxies with stellar masses ≥10(11) solar masses show no ongoing star formation and are dense spheroids. Ten billion years ago, similarly massive galaxies were typically forming stars at rates of hundreds solar masses per year. It is debated how star formation ceased, on which time scales, and how this "quenching" relates to the emergence of dense spheroids. We measured stellar mass and star-formation rate surface density distributions in star-forming galaxies at redshift 2.2 with ~1-kiloparsec resolution. We find that, in the most massive galaxies, star formation is quenched from the inside out, on time scales less than 1 billion years in the inner regions, up to a few billion years in the outer disks. These galaxies sustain high star-formation activity at large radii, while hosting fully grown and already quenched bulges in their cores.

Control of algal production in a high rate algal pond: investigation through batch and continuous experiments

For decades, arid and semi-arid regions in Africa have faced issues related to water availability for drinking, irrigation and livestock purposes. To tackle these issues, a laboratory scale greywater treatment system based on high rate algal pond (HRAP) technology was investigated in order to guide the operation of the pilot plant implemented in the 2iE campus in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Because of the high suspended solids concentration generally found in effluents of this system, the aim of this study is to improve the performance of HRAPs in term of algal productivity and removal. To determine the selection mechanism of self-flocculated algae, three sets of sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) and three sets of continuous flow reactors (CFRs) were operated. Despite operation with the same solids retention time and the similarity of the algal growth rate found in these reactors, the algal productivity was higher in the SBRs owing to the short hydraulic retention time of 10 days in these reactors. By using a volume of CFR with twice the volume of our experimental CFRs, the algal concentration can be controlled during operation under similar physical conditions in both reactors.

20 GENERATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF TRANSGENIC-CLONED PIGS EXPRESSING THE FAR-RED FLUORESCENT PROTEIN MONOMERIC PLUM

Transgenic (Tg) pigs expressing a fluorescent protein are extremely useful for research into transplantation and regenerative medicine. This study aimed to create Tg pigs expressing monomeric Plum (mPlum), a far-red fluorescent protein with a longer wavelength than enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and humanized Kusabira Orange (huKO), the two fluorescent proteins that have been used previously for Tg pig production. A linearized CAG-mPlum transgene construct was transferred into porcine fetal fibroblasts (PFF) by electroporation. mPlum fluorescence-positive cells were collected using a cell sorter and used as nuclear donors (mPlum-PFF) for somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). In vitro-matured oocytes were obtained from porcine cumulus–oocyte complexes cultured in NCSU23-based medium and were used to obtain recipient oocytes for SCNT after enucleation. Then, SCNT was performed as reported previously (Matsunari et al., 2008). The reconstructed embryos were cultured for 7 days in porcine zygote medium-5 (PZM-5). mPlum fluorescence expression was screened during the early development of the embryos. After 5 or 6 days of culture, the SCNT embryos were surgically transferred to the uterus of a recipient gilt. We first obtained fetuses on Day 36 or 37 of gestation by Caesarean section and the PFF were retrieved from their skin. Fluorescence expression was analysed using fluorescence microscope, and the number of transgene copies in each fetus was determined by Southern blot analysis. We also analysed whether unique spectral properties of mPlum are suitable for multicolor imaging using confocal microscope and flow cytometer. The identification of mPlum-expressing PFF under the mixed culture of PFF expressing EGFP and huKO was examined. The 2 cell lines of PFF expressing EGFP and huKO were previously generated in our laboratory. Rates of normal cleavage and blastocyst formation occurred in the SCNT embryos generated with mPlum-PFF (mPlum embryos) were equivalent to those of SCNT embryos derived from nontransgenic PFF (34/42, 81.0%; 33/42, 78.6% v. 37/40, 92.5%; 30/40, 75.0%). Total cell numbers in mPlum and control blastocysts did not differ significantly (88.3 ± 6.0 v. 99.9 ± 8.8). Fluorescence expression in the mPlum embryos began at the 8-cell stage and became brighter from the morula stage. The gilt into which 103 mPlum embryos were transferred produced 3 fetuses. These fetuses expressed mPlum fluorescence systemically and had 1 to 5 copies of the transgene. Multicolor fluorescence imaging and flow cytometric analyses of a mixed culture of mPlum PFF and PFF expressing EGFP and huKO showed that clear identification and isolation of cells displaying each of the 3 fluorescence signals was possible. These observations demonstrate that the transfer of CAG-mPlum did not interfere with the development of porcine SCNT embryos and resulted in the successful generation of Tg cloned pigs that systemically expressed mPlum. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 25293279.

Factors associated with severe effects following acute glufosinate poisoning

CONTEXT

In acute glufosinate poisoning, sudden respiratory arrest and convulsion can occur after a latent period of 4-60 h. There is still no factor that accurately predicts the occurrence of these symptoms.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the predictors of severe effects following acute glufosinate poisoning.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study is a retrospective observational case series. The subjects were 16 patients who had acute glufosinate poisoning. They were divided into a group with respiratory arrest or convulsion during hospitalization (severe group) and a group without (non-severe group). The following characteristics (or predictors) were compared between the groups: age, sex, calculated amount of glufosinate (volume of ingested poison (glufosinate-containing herbicide) × glufosinate concentration of the product), time duration from poison ingestion to arrival at our hospital, use of gastric lavage, use of whole bowel irrigation, Glasgow Coma Scale, laboratory parameters, PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio (P/F ratio), shock index, and presence or absence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) on arrival.

RESULTS

The P/F ratio was significantly lower in the severe group than in the non-severe group (median, 287.5 vs. 409.0; P = 0.049). The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted for the predictor of increasing severity based on the P/F ratio. The area under the curve was 0.714, and the optimal cutoff point for increasing severity was 374.0. The sensitivity was 75.0%, specificity of 71.4%, and accuracy of 75.0%. The shock index was significantly higher (median, 0.52 vs. 0.41; P = 0.031). Significantly more patients had SIRS in the severe group than in the non-severe group (P = 0.015). Logistic regression analysis was performed with a backward elimination procedure. SIRS was selected as the independent predictor of increasing severity (odds ratio, 29.810; 95% confidence interval, 1.011-878.952; P = 0.049).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Severe effects following acute glufosinate poisoning were associated with two positive SIRS criteria. A low P/F ratio may be useful for predicting the occurrence of respiratory complications.

Risk factors for early re-bleeding and associated hospitalization in patients with colonic diverticular bleeding

AIM

The annual incidence of colonic diverticular bleeding is increasing, but treatments are not yet well established. Here we aimed to identify the risk factors for early re-bleeding and to determine the associated duration of hospitalization.

METHOD

Records of 90 emergent patients with colonic diverticular bleeding between 1999 and May 2012 were retrospectively reviewed. They were divided into an early re-bleeding within 1 month group (n = 24) and a no re-bleeding group (n = 66) and we investigated the risk factors for early re-bleeding. In the former group, we calculated the time from the first haemostasis to early re-bleeding and the associated duration of hospitalization.

RESULTS

Univariate analysis showed that there were significantly more patients with signs of shock (P = 0.00055) and active bleeding on the first colonoscopy after admission (P = 0.020) in the early re-bleeding group. Multivariate conditional logistic regression analysis using stepwise variable selection showed that signs of shock on admission (odds ratio, 5.23; 95% confidence interval, 1.84-14.90; P = 0.0019) remained statistically significant. All patients who re-bled without signs of shock (n = 7) and 16 of 17 with signs of shock re-bled within 126 h (5.25 days) of initial hospitalization.

CONCLUSION

Shock was an independent risk factor for early re-bleeding. The associated duration of hospitalization was 6 days.

Transporters in the brain endothelial barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) not only impedes the influx of intravascular substances from blood to brain, but also promotes transport of substances from blood to brain or from brain to blood through several transport systems such as carrier-mediated transport, active efflux transport, and receptor-mediated transport systems. The multidrug resistance transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is an ATP-dependent efflux pump and contributes to efflux of undesirable substances such as amyloid-beta:(Abeta) proteins from the brain into the blood as well as many drugs such as anti-cancer drugs. The inhibition of P-gp has favorable and unfavorable effects on living bodies. P-gp deficiency at the BBB induces the increase of Abeta:deposition in the brain of an Alzheimer disease mouse model. It is also known that the Abeta:deposition is inversely correlated with P-gp expression in the brains of elderly non-demented humans. However, the transient inhibition of P-gp by antidepressants enables medicines such as anti-cancer drugs to enter the brain. Concerning Abeta:clearance in the brain, the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 (LRP1) is a major efflux transporter for Abeta, while the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a major influx transporter for Abeta:across the BBB. Dysfunction of the BBB with efflux and influx transporters may contribute to the pathogenesis of some degenerative neuronal disorders. This review will focus on several transporters and discuss how medicines pass the BBB to reach the brain parenchyma.

Prehypertension subtype with elevated C-reactive protein: risk of ischemic stroke in a general Japanese population

BACKGROUND

Prehypertension (PreHT) and low-grade inflammation are both known to be related to the incidence of cardiovascular events. This cohort study investigated whether the high-risk group for future ischemic stroke among PreHT subjects can be predicted by stratification of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP).

METHODS

A total of 22,676 subjects aged 40-80 years from the general population who had no cardiovascular history underwent baseline measurement of serum hsCRP, and were followed for the incidence of ischemic stroke.

RESULTS

During the mean follow-up period of 2.7 years, 143 subjects had a first ischemic stroke. In a Cox multivariable model after adjustment for cardiovascular risk factors, there was no significant difference in hazard ratio (HR) for incidence of ischemic stroke between the normotension (NT) and PreHT subjects (HR = 1.72, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.93-3.18, vs. NT subjects). In contrast, the HR for incidence of ischemic stroke in PreHT subjects with higher hsCRP levels (≥0.5 mg/l in men, ≥0.4 mg/l in women, more than median levels according to sex) was increased compared to NT subjects with lower hsCRP levels (HR = 2.63, 95% CI: 1.11-6.24). Moreover, the HR for incidence of ischemic stroke in PreHT subjects with lower CRP levels (HR = 0.91, 95% CI: 0.31-2.73) did not differ from that in NT subjects with lower hsCRP levels.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that, in a Japanese general population, hsCRP was a marker for relatively short-term risk of ischemic stroke in PreHT subjects.

Crucial role for Ser133-phosphorylated form of cyclic AMP-responsive element binding protein signaling in the differentiation and survival of neural progenitors under chronic cerebral hypoperfusion

Various stimuli, such as ischemia/hypoxia enhance newborn cell survival in the subventricular zone and their migration tangentially in chains toward the olfactory bulb. The present study assessed the fate of newborn neurons from subventricular zone to olfactory bulb under conditions of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, and examined the role of cAMP-responsive element binding protein signaling on the survival of these neurons by using cilostazol, a potent inhibitor of type III phosphodiesterase. Rats underwent bilateral common carotid artery ligation. They were divided into sham-operated (n=70), vehicle- (n=70), and type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor-treated (n=70) groups. Immunohistochemically-stained section for 5-bromodeoxyuridine and a series of neuronal and glial markers were analyzed at days 7, 14, 21 and 28 after hypoperfusion. The reduction of olfactory bulb size gradually progressed in the vehicle group (P<0.05), but not in the sham-operated and type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor-treated group. The subventricular zone of the vehicle-treated rats contained significantly larger numbers of newborn neuroblasts after hypoperfusion, compared with sham-operated rats (P<0.05), but significantly lower numbers in the rostral migratory stream and olfactory bulb (P<0.05). Treatment of rats with type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor increased the number of neuroblasts and enhanced the survival and differentiation of cells (P<0.05). Phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element binding protein within neuroblasts was markedly decreased in the subventricular zone, rostral migratory stream, and olfactory bulb of vehicle-treated rats (P<0.05), but treatment with type III phosphodiesterase inhibitor resulted in recovery of this expression throughout hypoperfusion, leading to enhanced neurogenesis (P<0.05). These effects were abrogated by protein kinase A and C inhibitor. Our results indicated that cAMP-responsive element binding protein signaling is a key mediator of neurogenesis after prolonged hypoperfusion and provide the basis for new regenerative therapies for ischemic brain injury.

The expression of P-glycoprotein is increased in vessels with blood-brain barrier impairment in a stroke-prone hypertensive model

AIMS

We previously reported that the blood-brain barrier (BBB) function was impaired in vessels in the hippocampus in 3-month-old stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP). In this study, we examined gene and protein expressions of P-glycoprotein, a representative efflux transporter of cerebral vessels, in the BBB-damaged hippocampal vessels of SHRSP and in the vessels of Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats as controls, to clarify roles of the efflux transporter in the BBB-damaged vessels.

METHODS

The expression of P-glycoprotein in hippocampal and cortical samples was examined by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting and immunoelectron microscopic techniques.

RESULTS

Real-time RT-PCR and Western blotting analyses revealed that the gene and protein expressions of P-glycoprotein were increased in the hippocampal samples of 3-month-old SHRSP compared with hippocampal samples of 3-month-old WKY rats or with cortical samples of SHRSP. The gene expression of P-glycoprotein was also increased in the hippocampal samples of 4-week-old SHRSP. Immunoelectron microscopic examination revealed that immunosignals of P-glycoprotein were seen in the luminal and ab-luminal cytoplasmic membranes of endothelial cells and the basal lamina, that the labelling density of P-glycoprotein in the vessel wall was higher in the hippocampus of 3-month-old SHRSP than in other groups and that the immunosignals of P-glycoprotein were occasionally co-located with those of albumin.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that the expression of P-glycoprotein is increased in BBB-damaged hippocampal vessels in hypertensive SHRSP compared with those in WKY rats.

305 TRANSGENIC CLONED PIGS EXPRESSING ORANGE FLUORESCENT PROTEIN KUSABIRA-ORANGE

Transgenic (Tg)-cloned pigs expressing fluorescent proteins are very useful in research such as cell or tissue transplantation studies. In this study, we produced Tg-cloned pigs with an orange fluorescent protein, humanized Kusabira-Orange (huKO), and analyzed the characteristics of these pigs. Fetal fibroblast cells transduced with huKO gene by a gene silencing-resistant retroviral vector, pDΔNhuKO (Suzuki et al. 2002 J. Neurochem. 82, 953–960) were used as nuclear donors. Recipient cytoplasts were prepared using oocytes matured in vitro in NCSU23. The nuclear transfer (NT) embryos were transferred into oviducts of estrus-synchronized recipient gilts after culture in PZM-5 for 1 or 2 days. Cloned pigs obtained were analyzed by Southern blotting for the transgene integration. A total of 23 organs and tissues, including brain, eye, internal and reproductive organs, skin, skeletal muscle, and cartilage were examined by fluorescence stereomicroscopy. Cryo- and paraffin-embedded tissue sections were also prepared to examine fluorescence expression. Immunofluorescent staining of brain cryosection and flow cytometry analysis of peripheral blood cells were performed to identify huKO-expressing cells. Transfer of 429 NT embryos into 4 recipients resulted in 18 (4.2%) cloned offspring. Southern blotting analysis of the cloned pigs confirmed transduction of 2 to 17 copies of the huKO gene in each pig. Autopsy was performed in 6 pigs, and orange fluorescence was confirmed in all the tissues and organs examined in each pig. In addition, prominent orange fluorescence was detected in pancreatic islets and renal glomeruli, indicating that these transgenic pigs are ideal for islet cell transplantation studies. Expression of huKO was also detected in neurons, microglia, and astrocytes in the brain, and granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, and platelets in the peripheral blood cells, whereas the expression level in red blood cells was lower. Re-cloning was performed using primary culture fibroblast cells established from 2 Tg-cloned pigs. Transfer of 300 re-cloned embryos into 4 recipients resulted in 3 pregnancies. A re-cloned fetus at Day 44 of gestation showed systemic fluorescence. These results demonstrate that the retroviral vector pD?NhuKO is resistant to gene silencing in pigs, that transduction and expression of the huKO gene had no lethal effects on fetal development, and that a Tg-cloned pig expressing orange fluorescence can be produced by NT of fetal fibroblast cells transduced with the huKO gene. This study was supported by PROBRAIN.

64 PRODUCTION OF TRANSGENIC CLONED PIGS BY MEANS OF SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER USING KUSABIRA-ORANGE GENE-TRANSFECTED CELLS

Cloned pigs that express cell markers such as fluorescent proteins (Vintersten et al. 2004 Genesis 40, 241–246) are useful in biomedical research in areas such as cell/tissue transplantation and regenerative medicine. In this study, we attempted to produce transgenic cloned pigs from porcine fetal fibroblasts which carry the gene of red fluorescent protein, humanized Kusabira-Orange (huKO). We examined whether huKO-transfected cells are suitable as nuclear donors for somatic cell cloning, and whether red fluorescence can be detected in the cloned embryos. We used porcine fetal fibroblasts transfected with the huKO gene and a retroviral vector as the nuclear donor cells. Non-transfected cells were used as the control. Cumulus–oocyte complexes collected from slaughterhouse ovaries were in vitro-matured in NCSU23 medium to produce recipient oocytes. Nuclear transfer was conducted using a previously reported method (Kurome et al. 2003 Cloning Stem Cells 5, 367–377); the following parameters which determine the overall efficiency of nuclear transfer were investigated: (1) fusion rate between the donor cells and recipient oocytes, (2) rates of normal cleavage and blastocyst formation of the NT embryos, and (3) cell numbers in each blastocyst. A DC pulse (190 V mm-1) was used for electric fusion, and NCSU23 or PZM-5 medium was used for culturing the cloned embryos. The NT embryos on Day 7 were examined under a fluorescence microscope (G excitation) in order to evaluate the expression of red fluorescence. Some cloned embryos at the 1- to 8-cell stage (Day 1 or 2) were transferred into oviducts of estrus-synchronized recipient gilts. There was no significant difference (chi-square test) between the huKO and the control groups in the rate of fusion (132/151, 87.4% vs. 134/147, 91.2%, respectively) and cleavage rate (78/132, 59.1% vs. 86/134, 64.2%, respectively). A significantly greater percentage of huKO cell-derived embryos developed into blastocysts than did control cell-derived embryos (37/132, 28.0% vs. 20/134, 14.9%, respectively; P &lt; 0.05). However, there was no significant difference in the blastocyst cell numbers (Student&apos;s t-test: 48.6 &plusmn; 4.8 vs. 42.3 &plusmn; 4.9, respectively). Of the 132 NT embryos, 116 (87.9&percnt;) expressed red fluorescence. The percentage of blastocysts expressing red fluorescence was 94.6&percnt; (35/37). These results demonstrate that it is possible to obtain cloned blastocysts at a high rate by nuclear transfer of cells that have been transfected with huKO using a retroviral vector, and that it is possible to observe the expression of red fluorescence in cloned embryos. With respect to the cloned embryos that did not show expression of red fluorescence, we hypothesize that this was the result of a small proportion (&lt;1&percnt;) of donor cells which also lacked red fluorescence expression. An ultrasonic echo examination has confirmed that all 3 of the recipients which had received 93 to 119 embryos became pregnant. This study was supported by PROBRAIN.

Oxidative damage in cerebral vessels of diabetic db/db mice

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus has recently received increasing attention as it has been proven to be associated with the development of diabetic vascular complications. Our aim was to examine whether microvascular changes, including oxidative damage, were induced in the brains of diabetic animals.

METHODS

The expression of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), a marker of oxidative DNA damage, the binding of cationized ferritin, a marker for evaluating endothelial glycocalyx, to the endothelial cells of capillaries and vascular permeability of intravenously injected horseradish peroxidase were examined in the cortices of 12- and 20-week-old db/db and db/+m mice.

RESULTS

Immunostaining for 8-OHdG was clearly seen in the vessels of the cortex of 20-week-old db/db mice, but was hardly seen in those of mice in the other groups. The immunopositive area of 8-OHdG was significantly increased in the cortex of 20-week-old db/db mice compared with that of 20-week-old db/+m mice. No extravasated leakage of horseradish peroxidase was seen in any groups of mice, while the numbers of cationized ferritin particles binding to the endothelial cells was significantly decreased in 12- and 20-week-old db/db mice compared with that of db/+m mice at the same age, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that changes in endothelial glycocalyx are induced in db/db mice and, in addition, the long-term diabetic condition of these mice induces oxidative DNA damage to the cerebral vessels.

Responses induced by arginine-vasopressin injection in the plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol, growth hormone and metabolites around weaning time in goats

In order to assess the biological significance of weaning and water deprivation on the control of plasma concentrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, growth hormone (GH) and metabolites in response to stimulation with arginine-vasopressin (AVP) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), we carried out three experiments in which male goats before and after weaning were intravenously injected with AVP or CRH alone, or in combination with each other. In experiment 1, 17-week-old (post-weaning) goats were intravenously injected with AVP or CRH alone at the doses of 0.1, 0.3 and 1.0 nmol/kg body weight (BW). The AVP injection significantly and dose dependently increased plasma levels of ACTH, cortisol, GH and metabolites, whereas the injection with CRH did not cause significant increases in the levels of these parameters. In experiment 2, 4-week-old (pre-weaning) and 13-week-old (post-weaning) goats were injected with either AVP or CRH alone, followed by a combined injection of both secretagogues at a dose of 0.3 nmol/kg BW. Although the basal levels of the hormones and metabolites, with the exception of glucose, were greater in the 4-week-old goats, the hormone responses induced by stimulation with AVP were weaker than those induced in 13-week-old goats. Additionally, there were no responses in any hormone patterns to CRH stimulation in 4-week-old goats. In experiment 3, 13-week-old goats were injected with CRH alone followed by injection with AVP for two consecutive days of water deprivation. The animals were subjected to withdrawal of up to 20% of the total blood volume and water deprivation for up to 28 h. However, no significant differences in plasma ACTH, cortisol or GH levels were observed between days 1 and 2. Based on these results, we concluded that: (1) AVP is a more potent stimulant than CRH in terms of its ability to induce increases in plasma levels of ACTH, cortisol and GH; (2) the role of AVP as a secretagogue of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal hormones is strengthened, whereas the ineffective role of CRH remains unaltered, by weaning; (3) acute stress such as massive withdrawal of blood volume and subjection to water deprivation may not be sufficient burdens to alter stress-related hormone levels in young goats.

Induction of cyclooxygenase-1 in cultured synovial cells isolated from rheumatoid arthritis patients

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

The aim of this study was to confirm the involvement of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

MATERIALS AND SUBJECTS

Synovial cells isolated from arthritic patients were cultured primarily and consecutively for 8 passages.

TREATMENT

The cultured synovial cells were incubated with 10 ng/ml of interleukin-1alpha (IL-1alpha) for 6 h.

METHODS

The effects of either COX-1 or COX-2 selective inhibitor on prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production was estimated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and the expression of COX-1 and COX-2 were determined by Western blotting and immunocytochemistry.

RESULTS

IL-1alpha-induced PGE2 production in synovial cells isolated from RA in primary culture was inhibited by mofezolac, a selective inhibitor of COX-1, as well as NS-398, a specific inhibitor of COX-2. The similar inhibitory patterns were obtained in the RA-derived synovial cells within 3 passages. However, COX activity in the RA-derived synovial cells after 5 passages was inhibited by NS-398, but not by mofezolac. In contrast, COX activity in primary and consecutively cultured synovial cells isolated from osteoarthritis (OA) or normal arthritis was inhibited by NS-398, but not by mofezolac. Western blot and immunocytochemical analyses of COX-1 and COX-2 in the synovial cells isolated from RA patients within 3 passages showed an induction in both COX-1 and COX-2 expression by IL-1alpha. The induction of both COX-1 and COX-2 was inhibited by dexamethasone.

CONCLUSIONS

These experiments demonstrate COX-1 induction in synovial cells isolated from RA patients, suggesting that COX-1 is involved in the progression of RA.

Neurogenesis in olfactory bulb identified by retroviral labeling in normal and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-treated adult mice

Neurogenesis occurs during development and in the normal adult brain. Recent studies identified areas exhibiting postlesional selective neurogenesis and neuronal repair. In the olfactory bulb (OB), one of the most studied regions of the brain for neurogenesis, seizures and strong odor exposure are known to enhance neurogenesis. Here, we report enhanced neurogenesis in OB after dopaminergic neuronal loss induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), a selective toxin for dopaminergic neurons. The neurogenesis has been previously confirmed mainly by the uptake of 5-bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), a marker of proliferating cells, but methodological problems related to BrdU labeling might result in inaccurate findings with respect to specificity, toxicity and incorporation into normal/lesioned brain. For a better identification of neurogenesis, we used a retroviral vector. First, we investigated the population dynamics of newly formed neurons in different regions of OB including the glomerular layer, the most superficial layer of OB. Quantification of neurogenesis in OB revealed by our retroviral vector was substantially similar to that by BrdU-based method. One week after MPTP application and dopaminergic neuronal loss in OB, neurogenesis of dopaminergic neurons in OB increased by three-fold, but no such process was noted in non-dopaminergic neurons. Our results indicate selective dopaminergic neurogenesis in OB in response to neuronal damage/loss.

Effect of hypoxia on monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) gene expression induced by Interleukin-1? in human synovial fibroblasts

OBJECTIVE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) synovial membrane is characterized by leucocyte infiltration and secretion of chemotactic and proinflammatory factors. Since hypoxia is an important pathogenic factor in inflamed synovium, we examined the effects of hypoxia on monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) expression in human rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASF) under IL-1beta-stimulated and -unstimulated conditions.

METHODS

Synovial fibroblasts were isolated from RA, osteoarthritis (OA) and healthy knee joints and subjected to hypoxia or/and IL-1beta treatment. MCP-1 expression and protein secretion were measured by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively.

RESULTS

Hypoxia reduces MCP-1 expression and protein secretion in RASF. The same response to hypoxia was found in OA and healthy SF cultures. Treatment with actinomycin D showed that hypoxic down-regulation of MCP-1 expression was due to a decrease in transcription, since the half-life of MCP-1 mRNA was unchanged. A cycloheximide study demonstrated that de novo protein synthesis was not required for the hypoxic effect. The decrease in MCP-1 expression by hypoxia was mimicked by cobalt chloride in unstimulated RASF with no effect on IL-1beta-activated MCP-1, suggesting differences in the signaling mechanisms. The analysis of IkappaB degradation and NF-kappaB translocation revealed that hypoxia did not affect IL-1beta activation of NF-kappaB.

CONCLUSION

Hypoxia regulates MCP-1 expression under both basal and cytokine-stimulated conditions, suggesting that reduced oxygen supply is an important factor that mediates chemotaxis of monocytes to the area of inflammation.

Three dimensional architecture of lymphatic vessels in the tongue

We have three-dimensionally reconstructed the lymphatic architecture of the rabbit tongue using a computer graphic three-dimensional reconstruction method together with histochemically stained serial cryo-sections. Three collecting lymphatic vessels lying in an anteroposterior orientation were identified in the tongue body. A superior longitudinal muscle accompanying collecting lymphatic (SLCL) that lies in the border between superior longitudinal muscle and transverse muscle was identified in this study, in addition to collecting lymphatics in the lingual septum (LSCL) and deep lingual artery accompanying collecting lymphatics (DLCL) that we reported previously. The vertical muscle accompanying collecting lymphatics (VCL) and the transverse muscle accompanying collecting lymphatics (TCL) were also identified as collecting lymphatics that joined the above three collecting lymphatics. Specific regional lymph flow was identified for each collecting lymphatic. A transverse right/left cross flow was identified for the LSCL, while the SLCL served the upper 1/3 of the tongue and the DLCL served the lower 2/3 of the tongue. Each collecting lymphatic that accompanied the internal lingual muscles joined to the SLCL, DLCL and LSCL, and were derived from blind-ended lymphatic capillaries that ran in the endomysium. Internal lingual muscle accompanying collecting lymphatics joined each other in the endomysium, and their blind-ended lymphatic capillaries had no branches.

Feasibility of ex vivo gene therapy for neurological disorders using the new retroviral vector GCDNsap packaged in the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein

Neuronal progenitor cells (NPC) are particularly suited as the target population for genetic and cellular therapy of neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease or stroke. However, genetic modification of these cells using retroviral vectors remains a great challenge because of the low transduction rate and the need for fetal calf serum (FCS) during the transduction process that induces the cell differentiation to mature neurons. To overcome these problems, we developed a new retrovirus production system in which the simplified retroviral vector GCDNsap engineered to be resistant to denovo methylation was packaged in the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein (VSV-G), concentrated by centrifugation, and resuspended in serum-free medium (StemPro-34 SFM). In transduction experiments using enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) as a marker, the concentrated FCS-free virus supernatant infected NPC at a high rate, while maintaining the ability of these cells to self-renew and differentiate in vitro. When such cells were grafted into mouse brains, EGFP-expressing NPC were detected in the region around the injection site at 8 weeks post transplantation. These findings suggest that the gene transfer system described here may provide a useful tool to genetically modify NPC for treatments of neurological disorders.

Novel mechanism for age-related macular degeneration: an equilibrium shift between the angiogenesis factors VEGF and PEDF

We investigated gene expression profiles of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in differentiated and non-differentiated retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells during oxidative stress. Human RPE cells were grown in culture on laminin-coated flasks to obtain differentiated features. Cells cultured on plastic were used as non-differentiated controls. After confluence, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was added for 48 h, then, total RNA was extracted and used for RT-PCR and Northern blot analysis. Medium conditioned by RPE was used for ELISA, Western blotting, and in vitro angiogenesis assay. As a result, differentiated RPE cells expressed significantly higher levels of VEGF protein, as compared to their non-differentiated counterparts. The expression pattern remained consistent even after cellular exposure to H2O2. Conversely, while elevated levels of PEDF transcript and protein were seen in differentiated RPE cells, compared to non-differentiated cells, a marked decrease at both PEDF mRNA and protein levels was seen after treatment with H2O2. Moreover, this decrease in PEDF expression was dosage dependent. In in vitro angiogenesis assay, conditioned medium from differentiated human RPE cells after exposure to H2O2 showed a dramatic increase in tubular formation and migratory activity of microvascular endothelial cells. These data suggest that, in physiological conditions, a critical balance between PEDF and VEGF exists, and PEDF may counteract the angiogenic potential of VEGF. Under oxidative stress, PEDF decreases disrupting this balance. This equilibrium shift may be significant in promoting a pathological condition of RPE cells and contributing to choroidal neovascularization in age-related macular degeneration.

Induction of therapeutic antitumor antiangiogenesis by intratumoral injection of genetically engineered endostatin-producing Semliki Forest virus

Antiangiogenic therapy using Semliki Forest virus (SFV) carrying Endostatin gene for malignant brain tumor was investigated to improve the therapeutic efficacy. The efficiency of SFV-mediated gene delivery was first evaluated for B 16 cells and compared with the efficiency in cells of endothelial origin (HMVECs). HMVECs are more susceptible to SFV infection than B 16 cells. For the in vivo treatment model, phosphate-buffered saline, SFV-LacZ, retrovirus vector GCsap-Endostatin, and SFV-Endostatin were injected to mice bearing B 16 brain tumors. A very significant inhibition of tumor growth was observed in the group that had been treated with SFV-Endostatin. A marked reduction of intratumoral vascularization was seen in the tumor sections from the SFV-Endostatin group compared with tumor sections from the SFV-LacZ or GCsap-Endostatin groups. Moreover, at day 7 after intravenous administration of SFV-Endostatin, the serum level of endostatin was augmented more than 3-fold compared to that after intravenous administration of GCsap-Endostatin. The results indicated that treatment with SFV-Endostatin inhibited the angiogenesis with established tumors. Gene therapy with Endostatin delivered via SFV may be a candidate for the development of new therapy for brain tumors.

E2A and HEB activate the pre-TCR alpha promoter during immature T cell development

The pre-TCRalpha (pTalpha) is exclusively expressed in immature thymocytes and constitutes the pre-TCR complex with TCRbeta, which regulates early T cell differentiation. Despite the recent identification of the pTalpha enhancer, the contribution of the promoter region, the direct DNA-protein interaction, and the regulation of such interaction along with T cell development have not been investigated. We analyzed the pTalpha promoter region and identified the critical elements for transcription of the pTalpha gene. The pTalpha promoter was found to contain two consecutive E-box elements that are critical for pTalpha transcription. The E-box elements in the promoter region formed the specific DNA-protein complex that was exclusively observed in immature thymocytes, not in mature thymocytes and T cells. The E proteins in this complex were identified as E2A and HeLa E-box binding protein (HEB), and overexpression of E2A and HEB resulted in activation of the pTalpha promoter. The binding complex in the consecutive E-boxes in the pTalpha promoter changed along with T cell development, as a distinct DNA-binding complex was observed in mature T cells. Comparing the E-box regions in the enhancer and the promoter, those in the promoter appear to make a greater contribution to pTalpha gene transcription.

Ultrastructural and permeability features of microvessels in the hippocampus, cerebellum and pons of senescence-accelerated mice (SAM)

We previously reported that the accumulation of blood-borne radiolabelled serum albumin in brain parenchyma increased with aging, especially in senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP8), which showed age-related deficits in learning and memory. In this study, in order to examine morphological events related to the age-related increase of the brain accumulation of serum albumin, the transvascular passage of blood-borne horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and ultrastructural features of microvessels were examined in the hippocampus, cerebellum and pons of SAMP8 and SAMR1 (control) mice. Ultrastructural examination of the hippocampus showed that the staining for HRP was occasionally spreading throughout the parajunctional cytoplasm of the endothelial cell of aged SAMP8 mice, but not in young SAMP8 mice nor in SAMR1 mice. The number of vessels showing the staining reaction for HRP in the parajunctional cytoplasm of the endothelial cells in aged SAMP8 mice increased significantly compared with that in the others. Electron microscopic morphometry showed that there were no significant differences among the number of HRP-positive vesicles per unit area of the endothelial cell cytoplasm in young and old mice of both strains. The staining reaction for HRP was not seen in the basal lamina of microvessels and the perivascular neuropil in all mice examined. Perivascular lipofuscin-like granules and collagen deposits, swelling of astroglial perivascular endfeet and perivascular cells containing foamy, lipid-like droplets were frequently found in several brain regions of aged SAMP8 mice. The perivascular cells with a few lipid-like droplets and more electron-homogeneous lysosomes were occasionally seen in SAMR1 and young SAMP8, while the other findings were scarcely observed in SAMR1 and young SAMP8 mice. These findings suggest that the blood-brain barrier to HRP was preserved in microvessels in three brain regions of SAM mice but the blood microvessels showed some age-related ultrastructural alterations in SAMP8 brains. Uncontrolled passage of HRP through the parajunctional cytoplasm of the endothelial cells may partly contribute to the age-related increase of accumulation of serum albumin in SAMP8 brains.

Ultrastructural and permeability features of microvessels in the periventricular area of senescence-accelerated mice (SAM)

Brain transfer of intravenously injected horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and the ultrastructural features of the vessels were examined in periventricular areas in senescence-accelerated mice (SAMP8), which show age-related deficits in learning and memory, and senescence-accelerated resistant mice (SAMR1), which do not show age-related deficits. In all mice examined with light microscopy, staining reaction for HRP was seen in the periventricular area adjacent to the medial side of the lateral ventricle. Electron microscopic examination in the periventricular area of young and old mice of both strains showed that the staining reaction for HRP appeared in the vesicular profiles of the endothelial cytoplasm, the cytoplasm of the perivascular cells, the basal lamina, and the adjoining extracellular spaces of the white matter, suggesting an incomplete blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the periventricular white matter. In addition, irregularly thickened endothelial cell cytoplasm, membranous inclusions within the basal lamina, and electron-dense endothelial cell cytoplasm were occasionally seen in aged SAMP8 mice. These findings were not observed in 3-month-old SAMP8 mice and 3- and 13-month-old SAMR1 mice. Perivascular collagen deposits were also frequently seen in aged SAMP8 mice. These findings indicate that the endothelial cells and pericytes in the periventricular white matter in aged SAMP8 mice have an ultrastructure with damaged BBB function. Intravascular substances can easily penetrate the periventricular white matter and the BBB of the vessels in the area can be deteriorated with aging in SAMP8 mice.

Simplified retroviral vector gcsap with murine stem cell virus long terminal repeat allows high and continued expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein by human hematopoietic progenitors engrafted in nonobese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient mice

Despite efforts toward improvements in retrovirus-mediated gene transfer, stable high-level expression of a therapeutic gene in human hematopoietic stem cells remains a great challenge. We have evaluated the efficiency of different viral long terminal repeats (LTRs) in long-term expression of a transgene in vivo, using severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)-repopulating cell assays. Vectors used were variants of the simplified retroviral vector GCsap with the different LTRs of Moloney murine leukemia virus (MLV), myeloproliferative sarcoma virus (MPSV), and murine stem cell virus (MSCV). The enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) gene was used as a marker to assess levels of transduction efficiency. CD34+ cells isolated from human cord blood were transduced by exposure to virus-containing supernatants on fibronectin fragments and in the presence of stem cell factor, interleukin 6, Flt-3 ligand, and thrombopoietin, and then transplanted into nonobese diabetic/SCID mice. Engraftment of human cells highly expressing EGFP, with differentiation along multiple cell lineages, was demonstrated for up to 18 weeks posttransplant, although the three different vectors showed different transduction frequencies (MLV, <0.1-33.2%; MPSV, <0.1-22.8%; MSCV, 0.3-51.7%). Of importance is that high-level transduction frequencies in human progenitor cells were also confirmed by colony-forming cell assays using bone marrow from transplanted mice, in which EGFP-expressing, highly proliferative potential colonies were observed by fluorescence microscopy. In these mice the vector carrying the MSCV LTR generated more EGFP-expressing human cells than did either of the other two constructs, indicating that GCsap carrying the MSCV LTR may be an efficient tool for stem cell gene therapy.

The quantity of TCR signal determines positive selection and lineage commitment of T cells

It is generally accepted that the avidity of TCR for self Ag/MHC determines the fate of immature thymocytes. However, the contribution of the quantity of TCR signal to T cell selection has not been well established, particularly in vivo. To address this issue, we analyzed DO-TCR transgenic CD3zeta-deficient (DO-Tg/zetaKO) mice in which T cells have a reduced TCR on the cell surface. In DO-Tg/zetaKO mice, very few CD4 single positive (SP) thymocytes developed, indicating that the decrease in TCR signaling resulted in a failure of positive selection of DO-Tg thymocytes. Administration of the peptide Ag to DO-Tg/zetaKO mice resulted in the generation of functional CD4 SP mature thymocytes in a dose-dependent manner, and, unexpectedly, DO-Tg CD8 SP cells emerged at lower doses of Ag. TCR signal-dependent, sequential commitment from CD8(+) SP to CD4(+) SP was also shown in a class I-restricted TCR-Tg system. These in vivo analyses demonstrate that the quantity of TCR signal directly determines positive and negative selection, and further suggest that weak signal directs positively selected T cells to CD8 lineage and stronger signal to CD4 lineage.

Dendritic cell-like immunoreactivity in the glomerulus of the olfactory bulb and olfactory nerves of mice

Dendritic cell-like immunoreactivity was examined in the mouse brain. The glomerulus of the olfactory bulb and the olfactory nerves were stained by antibodies against the dendritic cells, NLDC-145 and MIDC-8, while these structures were not stained by antibodies against microglia or macrophages, F4/80, Mac1 or CD45. Immunoelectron microscopy showed that the immunoreaction for NLDC-145 was localized to the sheath and presynaptic terminals of the olfactory nerves. These findings suggest that the sheath and presynaptic terminals of the primary olfactory nerves have some degree of the antigenicity in common with dendritic cells.

Gene therapy for severe combined immunodeficiency caused by adenosine deaminase deficiency: improved retroviral vectors for clinical trials

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) caused by adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA-) is the first genetic disorder to be treated with gene therapy. Since 1990 when the first trial started for 2 patients with ADA- SCID, five clinical trials enrolling 11 patients have been conducted with different clinical approaches and the results obtained from these trials have recently been reported. According to these reports, T cell-directed gene transfer was useful in the treatment of ADA- SCID whereas the retroviral-mediated gene transfer to hematopoietic stem cells was insufficient for achievement of clinical benefits. This chapter reviews several crucial problems inherent in the current retroviral technology based on the clinical data observed in these pioneering ADA gene therapy trials and presents our new retroviral vector system for the next stem cell gene therapy.

Retroviral-mediated transfer and expression of the common gamma chain into human hematopoietic progenitors

The common gamma chain (gammac) of cytokine receptors is mutated in X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency, a lethal disorder characterized by the absence of both humoral and cellular immune defenses. Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation from HLA-identical siblings usually results in complete reconstitution of the immune system and is the current treatment of choice. Genetic correction and reinfusion of autologous hematopoietic stem cells represents an alternative therapeutic approach for those patients who lack suitable marrow donors. In this study, we show that retroviral-mediated transfer of the gammac gene results in efficient expression in CD34+ cells and high transduction rate of colony-forming progenitors.