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Koh AS, Bos HMW, Rothblum ED, Carone N, Gartrell NK. Donor sibling relations among adult offspring conceived via insemination by lesbian parents. Hum Reprod 2023; 38:2166-2174. [PMID: 37697711 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dead175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION How do adult offspring in planned lesbian-parent families feel about and relate to their donor (half) sibling(s) (DS)? SUMMARY ANSWER A majority of offspring had found DS and maintained good ongoing relationships, and all offspring (regardless of whether a DS had been identified) were satisfied with their knowledge of and contact level with the DS. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY The first generation of donor insemination offspring of intended lesbian-parent families is now in their 30s. Coincident with this is an increased use of DNA testing and genetic ancestry websites, facilitating the discovery of donor siblings from a common sperm donor. Few studies of offspring and their DS include sexual minority parent (SMP) families, and only sparse data separately analyze the offspring of SMP families or extend the analyses to established adult offspring. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION This cohort study included 75 adult offspring, longitudinally followed since conception in lesbian-parent families. Quantitative analyses were performed from online surveys of the offspring in the seventh wave of the 36-year study, with a 90% family retention rate. The data were collected from March 2021 to November 2022. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS Participants were 30- to 33-year-old donor insemination offspring whose lesbian parents enrolled in a US prospective longitudinal study when these offspring were conceived. Offspring who knew of a DS were asked about their numbers found, characteristics or motivations for meeting, DS terminology, relationship quality and maintenance, and impact of the DS contact on others. All offspring (with or without known DS) were asked about the importance of knowing if they have DS and their terminology, satisfaction with information about DS, and feelings about future contact. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Of offspring, 53% (n = 40) had found DS in modest numbers, via a DS or sperm bank registry in 45% of cases, and most of these offspring had made contact. The offspring had their meeting motivations fulfilled, viewed the DS as acquaintances more often than siblings or friends, and maintained good relationships via meetings, social media, and cell phone communication. They disclosed their DS meetings to most relatives with neutral impact. The offspring, whether with known or unknown DS, felt neutral about the importance of knowing if they had DS, were satisfied with what they knew (or did not know) of the DS, and were satisfied with their current level of DS contact. This study is the largest, longest-running longitudinal study of intended lesbian-parent families and their offspring, and due to its prospective nature, is not biased by over-sampling offspring who were already satisfied with their DS. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION The sample was from the USA, and mostly White, highly educated individuals, not representative of the diversity of donor insemination offspring of lesbian-parent families. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS While about half of the offspring found out about DS, the other half did not. Regardless of knowing of a DS, these adult offspring of lesbian parents were satisfied with their level of DS contact. Early disclosure and identity formation about being donor-conceived in a lesbian-parent family may distinguish these study participants from donor insemination offspring and adoptees in the general population, who may be more compelled to seek genetic relatives. The study participants who sought DS mostly found a modest number of them, in contrast to reports in studies that have found large numbers of DS. This may be because one-third of study offspring had donors known to the families since conception, who may have been less likely to participate in commercial sperm banking or internet donation sites, where quotas are difficult to enforce or nonexistent. The study results have implications for anyone considering gamete donation, gamete donors, donor-conceived offspring, and/or gamete banks, as well as the medical and public policy professionals who advise them. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) No funding was provided for this project. The authors have no competing interests. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey S Koh
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Henny M W Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Esther D Rothblum
- Department of Women's Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Nicola Carone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Koh AS, Rothblum ED, Bos HMW, Carone N, Gartrell NK. Sperm donor relations among adult offspring conceived via insemination by lesbian parents. J Reprod Infant Psychol 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37394815 DOI: 10.1080/02646838.2023.2227867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
AIM The present study examined how adult offspring of lesbian parents relate to their anonymous, open-identity, or known donors. DESIGN An online survey of 75 donor-conceived offspring of lesbian parents, aged 30-33 years, participating in Wave 7 of a U.S. 36-year longitudinal study of planned lesbian-parent families was conducted. Offspring were asked about donor type, motivations for contacting the donor, terminology for the donor, relationship quality, means of relationship maintenance, impact of donor contact on offspring's other family members, and their feelings about the donor. RESULTS Twenty offspring with anonymous donors and 15 with open-identity donors whom they had not contacted felt comfortable not knowing their donors. Forty offspring knew their donors - anonymous, contacted through an online registry (n = 7), open-identity, contacted (n = 9), or known since childhood (n = 24). Offspring who had contacted their donor since age 18 had their motivations fulfilled after contact, got along well with him, did not view him as a relative, and had told most family members about their contact, without detriment. Whether the donor was unknown or known at this stage of their lives, most offspring were satisfied with their contact level. CONCLUSION This cohort of donor-conceived offspring of lesbian parents was among the first to reach adulthood during a time of technological advances in DNA testing, giving access to anonymous donors via online registries. The results inform donors, families, mental health providers, medical providers and public policymakers, on whether, how, and to what degree donor-conceived offspring optimally make donor contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey S Koh
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Esther D Rothblum
- Department of Women's Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
- Visiting Distinguished Scholar, Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Henny M W Bos
- Child Development and Education, and Chair in Sexual and Gender Diversity in Families and Youth, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicola Carone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- Visiting Distinguished Scholar, Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Bos HMW, Carone N, Rothblum ED, Koh AS, Gartrell NK. Long-Term Effects of Family Resilience on the Subjective Well-Being of Offspring in the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:5149. [PMID: 36982058 PMCID: PMC10048869 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20065149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The current study used a family resilience approach to investigate why some offspring of sexual minority parents thrive despite homophobic stigmatization while others do not. Specifically, the study explored the role of two specific family functioning mechanisms (i.e., during adolescence, disclosure of offspring's personal life to their parents, and family compatibility) in the association between experienced homophobic stigmatization at age 17 and subjective well-being at age 25, among 71 offspring (37 females and 34 males, all cisgender) of the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS). The results showed that, overall, the offspring reported healthy subjective well-being as emerging adults. However, among NLLFS offspring with less family compatibility as adolescents, homophobic stigmatization was related to higher scores on negative affect when they were emerging adults. Psychological counseling that supports adolescent-parent communication may help prevent the negative effect of homophobic stigmatization on the subjective well-being of offspring with sexual minority parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henny M. W. Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicola Carone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Esther D. Rothblum
- Williams Institute, Los Angeles School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
- Department of Women’s Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA
| | - Audrey S. Koh
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA
| | - Nanette K. Gartrell
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1012 WX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Williams Institute, Los Angeles School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Carone N, Gartrell NK, Rothblum ED, Koh AS, Bos HMW. Helicopter parenting, emotional avoidant coping, mental health, and homophobic stigmatization among emerging adult offspring of lesbian parents. J Fam Psychol 2022; 36:1205-1215. [PMID: 35862080 DOI: 10.1037/fam0001020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Helicopter parents are highly involved parents who hover over and around their child, applying developmentally inappropriate levels of control and tangible assistance. Previous research with different-sex parent families indicates that helicopter parenting is particularly problematic in emerging adulthood as it may indirectly affect the offspring's mental health through their use of emotional avoidant coping. Knowledge is lacking, however, on the antecedents and consequences of helicopter parenting in lesbian-parent families. The present longitudinal, questionnaire-based study investigated the effect of homophobic stigmatization in adolescence on mental health via helicopter parenting and emotional avoidant coping among 76 (37 females and 39 males) National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study 25-year-old offspring of lesbian parents. All participants were cisgender, born in the USA, and conceived through donor sperm, with the majority being White, heterosexual, highly educated, and no longer living with their parents. Parents who reported that their offspring experienced homophobic stigmatization in adolescence were likely to enact higher helicopter parenting in emerging adulthood. Then, higher scores on helicopter parenting were associated with offspring's greater use of emotional avoidant coping, which in turn negatively affected the mental health of emerging adult offspring. Discussed in light of Bowen's family differentiation theory, the results suggest that clinicians should examine helicopter parenting in the context of lesbian parents' developmental history and potential tendency to project their own concerns about safety onto their child in order to reduce the distress of experienced homophobic stigmatization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Audrey S Koh
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences
| | - Henny M W Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education
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Carone N, Gartrell NK, Rothblum ED, Koh AS, Bos HMW. The stability of psychological adjustment among donor-conceived offspring in the U.S. National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study from childhood to adulthood: differences by donor type. Fertil Steril 2021; 115:1302-1311. [PMID: 33541691 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study differences by sperm donor type in the psychological adjustment of the U.S. National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS) offspring across three time periods from childhood to adulthood. DESIGN U.S.-based prospective cohort study. SETTING Paper-and-pencil questionnaires and protected online surveys. PATIENT(S) A cohort of 74 offspring conceived by lesbian parents using an anonymous (n = 26), a known (n = 26), or an open-identity (n = 22) sperm donor. Data were reported when offspring were ages 10 (wave 4), 17 (wave 5), and 25 (wave 6). INTERVENTION(S) None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist administered to lesbian parents when offspring were ages 10 and 17 and the Achenbach Adult Self-Report administered to offspring at age 25. RESULT(S) In both relative and absolute stability, no differences were found in internalizing, externalizing, and total problem behaviors by donor type over 15 years. However, both externalizing and total problem behaviors significantly declined from age 10 to 17 and then increased from age 17 to 25. Irrespective of donor type, among the 74 offspring, the large majority scored continuously within the normal range on internalizing (n = 62, 83.8%), externalizing (n = 62, 83.8%), and total problem behaviors (n = 60, 81.1%). CONCLUSION(S) The results reassure prospective lesbian parents and provide policy makers and reproductive medicine practitioners with empirical evidence that psychological adjustment in offspring raised by lesbian parents is unrelated to donor type in the long term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Carone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Lab on Attachment and Parenting - LAG, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- Williams Institute, School of Law, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Esther D Rothblum
- Department of Women's Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, California
| | - Audrey S Koh
- School of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, California
| | - Henny M W Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Carone N, Rothblum ED, Bos HMW, Gartrell NK, Herman JL. Demographics and health outcomes in a U.S. probability sample of transgender parents. J Fam Psychol 2021; 35:57-68. [PMID: 33001675 PMCID: PMC8329606 DOI: 10.1037/fam0000776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Nonrepresentative estimates indicate that 25%-50% of transgender people are parents. Yet very little is known about their demographic characteristics and health outcomes. The present study compared the quality of life and several mental health (i.e., psychological distress, life satisfaction, happiness, social well-being) and health (i.e., physical health, alcohol and drug use) dimensions by gender identity and parenthood status in a probability sample of 1,436 transgender and cisgender respondents to the U.S. Transgender Population Health Survey (TransPop study). An estimated 18.8% of transgender respondents were parents, with the majority (52.5%) being transgender women. After controlling for age, education, and relationship status, there were no significant differences between trans- and cisgender parents and their nonparent counterparts on any mental health or health dimensions. These findings are important to family practitioners and policymakers so that they do not mistakenly assume that any problems transgender parents may report reveal their unsuitability to parent. Rather, because differences in health outcomes were seen only across gender identities, such problems are more likely related to stigma and discrimination experiences in a cisgenderist/heterosexist society. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Carone
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, Lab on Attachment and Parenting – LAG, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Esther D. Rothblum
- Department of Women’s Studies, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Henny M. W. Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Nanette K. Gartrell
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- The Williams Institute, School of Law, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jody L. Herman
- The Williams Institute, School of Law, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Abstract
Emerging adulthood is a new, distinct life stage for 18- to 29-year-olds in the United States. In the sixth wave of data collection in a longitudinal cohort study (started in 1986), predictors of mental health were examined in the emerging adult offspring within lesbian-parent parent families. The donor-conceived offspring were 25 years old. In cross-sectional analyses, we assessed whether their mental health (life satisfaction and behavioral/emotional problems) was associated with personal characteristics, family characteristics, quality of important relationships, and experiences of homophobic stigmatization. The findings revealed that the predictors of mental health in these offspring were typical of what has been previously reported on emerging adults. However, offspring who reported stigmatization because of their parents' sexual identity had higher rates of behavioral/emotional problems than those who did not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey S Koh
- a School of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences , University of California , San Francisco , California , USA
| | - Henny M W Bos
- b Department of Child Development and Education, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- b Department of Child Development and Education, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- c Williams Institute, U.C.L.A. School of Law , Los Angeles , California , USA
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Bos HMW, Kuyper L, Gartrell NK. A Population-Based Comparison of Female and Male Same-Sex Parent and Different-Sex Parent Households. Fam Process 2018; 57:148-164. [PMID: 28197994 DOI: 10.1111/famp.12278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This investigation compared Dutch same-sex parent and different-sex parent households on children's psychological well-being, parenting stress, and support in child rearing. It was also assessed whether associations among children's well-being, parenting stress, and support in child rearing were different in the two household types. Data were based on a nationally representative survey (N = 25,250). Matching was used to enhance similarity in background characteristics between both types of families. Parental and child characteristics were matched for 43 female same-sex parent, 52 male same-sex parent, and 95 different-sex parent households with offspring between 5 and 18 years old. No significant differences were found on children's well-being, problems in the parent-child relationship, being worried about the child, or the use of formal and informal support between mothers in same-sex and different-sex parent households or for fathers in same-sex and different-sex parent households. Regarding perceived confidence in child rearing, fathers in same-sex parent households and mothers in different-sex parent households felt less competent than their counterparts. Neither the associations between children's well-being and the predictors (parenting stress variables) nor those between support and the predictors (parenting stress and children's well-being) differed along household type. In this population-based study, the similarity in child outcomes regardless of household type confirms the results of prior investigations based on convenience samples. These findings are pertinent to family therapists, practitioners, court officials, and policymakers who seek information on parenting experiences and child outcomes in female and male same-sex parent families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henny M W Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Lisette Kuyper
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Williams Institute, UCLA School of Law, Los Angeles, CA
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van Rijn-van Gelderen L, Bos HMW, Gartrell NK. Dutch adolescents from lesbian-parent families: how do they compare to peers with heterosexual parents and what is the impact of homophobic stigmatization? J Adolesc 2015; 40:65-73. [PMID: 25658718 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we compared internalizing and externalizing problem behavior of 67 Dutch adolescents (M(age) = 16.04) in planned lesbian families who were matched with 67 adolescents in heterosexual-parent families. We also examined whether homophobic stigmatization was associated with problem behavior in adolescents with lesbian mothers after taking into account demographic characteristics, mothers' scores on emotional involvement, and adolescents' earlier problem behavior (measured at age 4-8 years old). Standardized instruments measuring problem behavior were completed by parents and adolescent offspring, and questions about stigmatization were answered by adolescents with lesbian mothers. The results revealed no differences in internalizing and externalizing problem behavior associated with family type. Offspring in lesbian families who reported more experiences of homophobic stigmatization also demonstrated more internalizing and externalizing problem behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Henny M W Bos
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Nanette K Gartrell
- Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Williams Institute, School of Law, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Gartrell NK, Bos H, Goldberg NG, Deck A, van Rijn-van Gelderen L. Satisfaction with known, open-identity, or unknown sperm donors: reports from lesbian mothers of 17-year-old adolescents. Fertil Steril 2015; 103:242-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2014.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
Over the past several decades, lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) parenting has grown more visible. Alongside this enhanced visibility, research on the experiences of LGB parents and their children has proliferated. The current chapter addresses this research, focusing on several main content areas: family building by LGB people, the transition to parenthood for LGB parents, and functioning and experiences of LGB parents and their children. In the context of discussing what we know about LGB-parent families, we highlight gaps in our knowledge and point to key areas that future research should aim to answer, including how race, ethnicity, social class, and geographic factors shape the experiences of LGB-parent families.
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Gartrell NK, Bos HMW, Goldberg NG. Adolescents of the U.S. National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual risk exposure. Arch Sex Behav 2011; 40:1199-209. [PMID: 21057866 PMCID: PMC3210350 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-010-9692-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 08/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
This study assessed Kinsey self-ratings and lifetime sexual experiences of 17-year-olds whose lesbian mothers enrolled before these offspring were born in the longest-running, prospective study of same-sex parented families, with a 93% retention rate to date. Data for the current report were gathered through online questionnaires completed by 78 adolescent offspring (39 girls and 39 boys). The adolescents were asked if they had ever been abused and, if so, to specify by whom and the type of abuse (verbal, emotional, physical, or sexual). They were also asked to specify their sexual identity on the Kinsey scale, between exclusively heterosexual and exclusively homosexual. Lifetime sexual behavior was assessed through questions about heterosexual and same-sex contact, age of first sexual experience, contraception use, and pregnancy. The results revealed that there were no reports of physical or sexual victimization by a parent or other caregiver. Regarding sexual orientation, 18.9% of the adolescent girls and 2.7% of the adolescent boys self-rated in the bisexual spectrum, and 0% of girls and 5.4% of boys self-rated as predominantly-to-exclusively homosexual. When compared with age- and gender-matched adolescents of the National Survey of Family Growth, the study offspring were significantly older at the time of their first heterosexual contact, and the daughters of lesbian mothers were significantly more likely to have had same-sex contact. These findings suggest that adolescents reared in lesbian families are less likely than their peers to be victimized by a parent or other caregiver, and that daughters of lesbian mothers are more likely to engage in same-sex behavior and to identify as bisexual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanette K Gartrell
- Department of Psychiatry and Center of Excellence in Women's Health, University of California, 3570 Clay St., San Francisco, CA 94118, USA.
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Abstract
Although studies show that adolescents with same-sex parents experience homophobic discrimination, little is known about associations between stigmatization and substance use in this population. The 17-year-old offspring of lesbian parents from the largest, longest-running, longitudinal study of same-sex parented families were surveyed about substance use, experiences of homophobic stigmatization, and overall life satisfaction. Compared to matched adolescents from a national probability sample, adolescents with same-sex parents were more likely to report occasional substance use but not more likely to report heavy use. No associations were found between substance use and homophobic stigmatization or life satisfaction.
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Bos HMW, Gartrell NK. Adolescents of the US National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study: the impact of having a known or an unknown donor on the stability of psychological adjustment. Hum Reprod 2010; 26:630-7. [PMID: 21169339 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/deq359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- H M W Bos
- Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Research Institute of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Bos HMW, Gartrell NK, van Balen F, Peyser H, Sandfort TGM. Children in planned lesbian families: a cross-cultural comparison between the United States and the Netherlands. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2008; 78:211-219. [PMID: 18954184 DOI: 10.1037/a0012711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A total of 78 planned lesbian families in the United States were compared with 74 planned lesbian families in the Netherlands. Children were interviewed about disclosure to peers about living in a lesbian family and about their experiences of homophobia; mothers filled out the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Results showed that Dutch children were more open about growing up in a lesbian family, experienced less homophobia, and demonstrated fewer emotional and behavioral problems than American children. Homophobia was found to account for part of the difference in psychosocial adjustment between the Dutch and the American children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henny M W Bos
- Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Department od Education, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Bos HMW, Gartrell NK, Peyser H, van Balen F. The USA National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS): homophobia, psychological adjustment, and protective factors. J Lesbian Stud 2008; 12:455-71. [PMID: 19042752 DOI: 10.1080/10894160802278630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The study assessed the influence of protective factors on the psychological adjustment of children who had experienced homophobia and whose mothers were participants in a longitudinal study of planned lesbian families. Data were collected as part of the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study by interviewing the children and having the mothers complete questionnaires. No significant differences were found in the psychological adjustment of children in the present study and their age-matched peers in a U.S.-population sample. Homophobia had a negative impact on the well-being of children who experienced it. Attending schools with LGBT curricula and their mothers' participation in the lesbian community were found to protect children against the negative influences of homophobia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henny M W Bos
- Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Education, University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94208, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Gartrell NK, Koh AS, Becker C, LaVoy A, Rosen S, Thiemann S. Prevalence of hormone replacement therapy and antidepressant use in peri- and postmenopausal women. J Gend Specif Med 2001; 4:60-3. [PMID: 11324242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the prevalence of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and antidepressant use in peri- and postmenopausal women. DESIGN Prevalence survey. SUBJECTS Peri- and postmenopausal outpatients (N = 253) at five medical clinics. METHODS Participants completed a 47-item questionnaire requesting information on mood changes associated with menstruation, childbirth, oral contraceptive use, and menopause. Peri- and postmenopausal participants were asked to rate the severity of dysphoric symptoms experienced during the menopausal transition and to specify whether HRT, antianxiety medication, or antidepressant medication relieved the symptoms. RESULTS Forty percent of respondents experienced more severe depression than anticipated during menopause, but only 8% were treated with antidepressants. Forty-six percent of respondents were treated with HRT. CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that antidepressant and antianxiety medications are more helpful than HRT in relieving peri- and postmenopausal depression or anxiety. However, most women managed the mood changes associated with menopause without psychopharmacologic intervention. This is consistent with other reports on the transitory nature of peri- and postmenopausal depression for most women.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Gartrell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Navratilova M, Gartrell NK. Rainbow philanthropy. J Lesbian Stud 2001; 5:137-140. [PMID: 24802833 DOI: 10.1300/j155v05n03_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Martina Navratilova was the first professional athlete to proclaim her lesbianism. After retiring from a stunning tennis career, Martina Navratilova has emerged as a prominent author, television commentator, and public speaker. She is an influential advocate of lesbigay causes, and a major contributor to the lesbigay community. This article describes Martina's "passion [and] #1 cause"-the Rainbow Endowment.
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Gartrell NK. Shoestring science. J Lesbian Stud 2001; 5:71-78. [PMID: 24802825 DOI: 10.1300/j155v05n03_08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Nanette K. Gartrell, MD, is a psychiatrist, teacher and researcher who has served on the faculties of Harvard Medical School and the University of California, San Francisco. For the past thirty years, without relying on major grants, she has been gathering data to depathologize lesbianism. Her earliest investigations contributed to the effort to remove "homosexuality" from the list of mental disorders. More recently, Dr. Gartrell has been conducting a national, longitudinal study of lesbian families. In this overview of her research career, Dr. Gartrell discusses the strategies that she has used successfully for pursuing scientific investigations on a shoestring budget.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Gartrell
- a University of California , San Francisco , USA
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Abstract
SUMMARY The author discusses the evolution of non-monogamy in a 24-year lesbian relationship. The couple's initial agreement stipulated that outside liasions be concealed as much as possible. More recently, the couple has established a complex system for incorporating other paramours into their lives.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Gartrell
- a University of California , San Francisco , USA
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Abstract
This paper critically reviews the studies which explore a possible causal relationship between sex hormones and the development of sexual orientation. Early studies focused on hormone measurements in adult men and women. While definitive interpretations are hindered by methodological problems, the studies as a whole do not support a causal relationship between postnatal hormone levels and sexual orientation. More recently, a theory that prenatal hormone levels produce varying degrees of brain androgenization and subsequent dimorphic sex role behavior has consistently been supported by studies in lower mammals. Attempts to generalize the causes of sexual orientation from animals to humans have been controversial. Efforts to measure the estrogen feedback as an indication of brain androgenization have produced inconsistent results. Studies of men and women who experienced defect in hormone metabolism (i.e., CAH and testicular feminization) have not found a concurrent increase in homosexual behavior. Overall, the data do not support a causal connection between hormones and human sexual orientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Banks
- Harvard Medical School, MA, USA
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Gartrell NK, Milliken N, Goodson WH, Thiemann S, Lo B. Physician-patient sexual contact. Prevalence and problems. West J Med 1992; 157:139-43. [PMID: 1441462 PMCID: PMC1011231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
To document the current prevalence of physician-patient sexual contact and to estimate its effect on involved patients, 10,000 family practitioners, internists, obstetrician-gynecologists, and surgeons were surveyed. Of the 1,891 respondents, 9% acknowledged sexual contact with 1 or more patients. Even in the unlikely case that none of the nonrespondents had sexual contact with patients, its prevalence among all 10,000 physicians surveyed would still be 2%. Of respondents, 23% had at least 1 patient who reported sexual contact with another physician; 63% thought this contact was "always harmful" to the patients. Almost all (94%) responding physicians opposed sexual contact with current patients; 37% also opposed sexual contact with former patients. More than half of respondents (56%) indicated that physician-patient sexual contact had never been addressed in their training; only 3% had participated in a continuing education course focusing on this issue. Clear and enforceable medical ethics codes concerning physician-patient sexual contact are needed, as well as preventive educational programs for medical schools and residency programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Gartrell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco
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Brown LS, Borys DS, Brodsky AM, Gartrell NK, Bouhoutsos JC, Davidson VM, Feldman-Summers S, Gabbard GO, Herman JL, Olarte S. Psychotherapist-patient sexual contact after termination of treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149:979-80, author reply 987-9. [PMID: 1472195 DOI: 10.1176/ajp.149.7.979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Abstract
The authors studied first-year medical students to assess sex differences in psychological functioning. No initial sex differences in adjustment were found on any self-report measures. By mid-year, however, women students had developed more psychiatric symptoms and tended to report less satisfaction with life. By the year's end the women remained somewhat more symptomatic but to a lesser extent than had been apparent at mid-year. Women also reported more role conflict and described their families as less supportive of their career choice. The authors suggest that these findings point to the potentially negative impact of current medical training on women.
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Abstract
The authors measured plasma testosterone levels in 21 homosexual women and 19 age-matched heterosexual women. Although values for the two groups overlapped considerably, testosterone concentrations averaged 38% higher in homosexual than in heterosexual subjects. A statistically significant inverse correlation between age and testosterone level was found for heterosexual but not for homosexual women.
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