The importance of nutrient ratios in determining elevations in geosmin synthase (geoA) and 2-MIB cyclase (mic) resulting in taste and odour events

Geosmin synthase (geoA) and 2-MIB cyclase (mic) are key biosynthetic genes responsible for the production of taste and odour (T&O) compounds, geosmin and 2-MIB. These T&O compounds are becoming an increasing global problem for drinking water supplies. It is thought that geosmin and 2-MIB may be linked to, or exacerbated by, a variety of different environmental and nutrient triggers. However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies to date have evaluated the combined effects of seasonality, temperature, and nutrient concentrations on geoA and mic copy numbers in conjunction with T&O concentrations. In this study, environmental triggers behind geosmin and 2-MIB production were investigated in nine reservoirs across Wales, U.K. between July 2019 - August 2020. The abundance of geoA and mic were quantified through quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR). Temporal changes in geoA and geosmin concentrations revealed geoA to be an indicator of monthly geosmin concentrations, although only when geosmin concentrations exceeded 100 ng L-1. Model analysis of a reservoir with elevated geosmin concentrations revealed geoA to be significantly associated with mean temperature (p < 0.001) and the nutrients dissolved reactive silicate (p < 0.001), dissolved iron (p < 0.001), total inorganic nitrogen to phosphorous ratio (TIN:TP) (p < 0.001) and ammonium to nitrate ratio (NH4+:NO3-) (p < 0.001). Sulphate also demonstrated a significant positive linear relationship with geoA (p < 0.001). For mic analysis, NH4+:NO3- was significantly associated with mic (p < 0.05) and an association with dissolved reactive silicate was also observed (p = 0.084). Within this study we also report extreme variance in gene copy numbers between the study seasons. No consistent relationship could be determined for mic copy numbers mL-1 and 2-MIB (ng L-1). The findings from this study indicate that TIN:TP and NH4+:NO3- serve as good predictors for elevated geoA and mic, along with negative linear relationships observed for mean temperature and dissolved reactive silicate. Overall, our findings demonstrate the importance of nutrient concentrations, nutrient ratios and temperature for evidence based predictive capacity of taste and odour events in drinking water reservoirs.

'Venus trapped, Mars transits': Cu and Fe redox chemistry, cellular topography and in situ ligand binding in terrestrial isopod hepatopancreas

Woodlice efficiently sequester copper (Cu) in ‘cuprosomes' within hepatopancreatic ‘S' cells. Binuclear ‘B’ cells in the hepatopancreas form iron (Fe) deposits; these cells apparently undergo an apocrine secretory diurnal cycle linked to nocturnal feeding. Synchrotron-based µ-focus X-ray spectroscopy undertaken on thin sections was used to characterize the ligands binding Cu and Fe in S and B cells of Oniscus asellus (Isopoda). Main findings were: (i) morphometry confirmed a diurnal B-cell apocrine cycle; (ii) X-ray fluorescence (XRF) mapping indicated that Cu was co-distributed with sulfur (mainly in S cells), and Fe was co-distributed with phosphate (mainly in B cells); (iii) XRF mapping revealed an intimate morphological relationship between the basal regions of adjacent S and B cells; (iv) molecular modelling and Fourier transform analyses indicated that Cu in the reduced Cu⁺ state is mainly coordinated to thiol-rich ligands (Cu–S bond length 2.3 Å) in both cell types, while Fe in the oxidized Fe³⁺ state is predominantly oxygen coordinated (estimated Fe–O bond length of approx. 2 Å), with an outer shell of Fe scatterers at approximately 3.05 Å; and (v) no significant differences occur in Cu or Fe speciation at key nodes in the apocrine cycle. Findings imply that S and B cells form integrated unit-pairs; a functional role for secretions from these cellular units in the digestion of recalcitrant dietary components is hypothesized.

Sub-lethal cadmium exposure increases phytochelatin concentrations in the aquatic snail Lymnaea stagnalis

Phytochelatins are metal-binding metabolites found in almost all plant species and some animal groups, including nematodes and annelids, where they can play an important role in detoxifying metals such as cadmium. Species from several other taxa contain a phytochelatin synthase (PCS) gene orthologue, including molluscs, indicating they may have the potential to synthesize phytochelatins. However, the presence of a gene alone does not demonstrate that it plays a functional role in metal detoxification. In the present study, we show that the aquatic snail Lymnaea stagnalis produced both penta- and heptapeptide phytochelatins (i.e. phytochelatin-2 and phytochelatin-3), and their levels increased in response to sub-lethal levels of cadmium.

Metabolites and metals in Metazoa--what role do phytochelatins play in animals?

Phytochelatins are sulfur-rich metal-binding peptides, and phytochelatin synthesis is one of the key mechanisms by which plants protect themselves against toxic soft metal ions such as cadmium. It has been known for a while now that some invertebrates also possess functional phytochelatin synthase (PCS) enzymes, and that at least one species, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, produces phytochelatins to help detoxify cadmium, and probably also other metal and metalloid ions including arsenic, zinc, selenium, silver, and copper. Here, we review recent studies on the occurrence, utilization, and regulation of phytochelatin synthesis in invertebrates. The phytochelatin synthase gene has a wide phylogenetic distribution, and can be found in species that cover almost all of the animal tree of life. The evidence to date, though, suggests that the occurrence is patchy, and even though some members of particular taxonomic groups may contain PCS genes, there are also many species without these genes. For animal species that do possess PCS genes, some of them (e.g. earthworms) do synthesize phytochelatins in response to potentially toxic elements, whereas others (e.g. Schistosoma mansoni, a parasitic helminth) do not appear to do so. Just how (and if) phytochelatins in invertebrates complement the function of metallothioneins remains to be elucidated, and the temporal, spatial, and metal specificity of the two systems is still unknown.

Intracellular localization and induction of a dynamic RNA-editing event of macro-algal V-ATPase subunit A (VHA-A) in response to copper

A V-ATPase subunit A protein (VHA-A) transcript together with a variant (C793 to U), which introduces a stop codon truncating the subunit immediately downstream of its ATP binding site, was identified within a Fucus vesiculosus cDNA from a heavy metal contaminated site. This is intriguing because the VHA-A subunit is the crucial catalytic subunit responsible for the hydrolysis of ATP that drives ion transport underlying heavy metal detoxification pathways. We employed a chemiluminescent hybridization protection assay to quantify the proportion of both variants directly from mRNA while performing quantification of total transcript using Q-PCR. Polyclonal antisera raised against recombinant VHA-A facilitated simultaneous detection of parent and truncated VHA-A and revealed its cellular and subcellular localization. By exploiting laboratory exposures and samples from an environmental copper gradient, we showed that total VHA-A transcript and protein, together with levels of the truncated variant, were induced by copper. The absence of a genomic sequence representing the truncated variant suggests a RNA editing event causing the production of the truncated VHA-A. Based on these observations, we propose RNA editing as a novel molecular process underpinning VHA trafficking and intracellular sequestration of heavy metals under stress.

Life-history effects of arsenic toxicity in clades of the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus

Exposures of Lumbricus rubellus to a series of arsenic concentrations in soil were used to assess life-stage (juvenile, adult) and genotype specific sensitivities, to calculate population growth rate (λ) and to assess patterns of As accumulation. Significant mortality was seen in juveniles at 125 mg/kg As, while growth and maturation was affected from 36 mg/kg and above. In adults, cocoon production at the highest concentration (125 mg/kg) was significantly reduced. Phylogenetic analysis was performed by comparison of mitochondrial sequences to establish genotypic variation among juveniles. Three clades with more than 7.5% divergent were described, with 70% of earthworms belonging to a single clade. Date of and mass at maturation was significantly different between clades, but clades were not differentially As sensitive. Parameter λ was reduced at 36 mg/kg As and was negative at 125 mg/kg As, suggesting impacts and population stability and potential extinction at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Molecular genetic differentiation in earthworms inhabiting a heterogeneous Pb-polluted landscape

A Pb-mine site situated on acidic soil, but comprising of Ca-enriched islands around derelict buildings was used to study the spatial pattern of genetic diversity in Lumbricus rubellus. Two distinct genetic lineages ('A' and 'B'), differentiated at both the mitochondrial (mtDNA COII) and nuclear level (AFLPs) were revealed with a mean inter-lineage mtDNA sequence divergence of approximately 13%, indicative of a cryptic species complex. AFLP analysis indicates that lineage A individuals within one central 'ecological island' site are uniquely clustered, with little genetic overlap with lineage A individuals at the two peripheral sites. FTIR microspectroscopy of Pb-sequestering chloragocytes revealed different phosphate profiles in residents of adjacent acidic and calcareous islands. Bioinformatics found over-representation of Ca pathway genes in EST(Pb) libraries. Subsequent sequencing of a Ca-transport gene, SERCA, revealed mutations in the protein's cytosolic domain. We recommend the mandatory genotyping of all individuals prior to field-based ecotoxicological assays, particularly those using discriminating genomic technologies.

Earthworm genomes, genes and proteins: the (re)discovery of Darwin's worms

Small incremental biological change, winnowed by natural selection over geological time scales to produce large consequences, was Darwin's singular insight that revolutionized the life sciences. His publications after 1859, including the ‘earthworm book’, were all written to amplify and support the evolutionary theory presented in the Origin. Darwin was unable to provide a physical basis for the inheritance of favoured traits because of the absence of genetic knowledge that much later led to the ‘modern synthesis’. Mistaken though he was in advocating systemic ‘gemmules’ as agents of inheritance, Darwin was perceptive in seeking to underpin his core vision with concrete factors that both determine the nature of a trait in one generation and convey it to subsequent generations. This brief review evaluates the molecular genetic literature on earthworms published during the last decade, and casts light on the specific aspects of earthworm evolutionary biology that more or less engaged Darwin: (i) biogeography, (ii) species diversity, (iii) local adaptations and (iv) sensitivity. We predict that the current understanding will deepen with the announcement of a draft earthworm genome in Darwin's bicentenary year, 2009. Subsequently, the earthworm may be elevated from the status of a soil sentinel to that elusive entity, an ecologically relevant genetic model organism.

Comparative transcriptomic responses to chronic cadmium, fluoranthene, and atrazine exposure in Lumbricus rubellus

Transcriptional responses of a soil-dwelling organism (the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus) to three chemicals, cadmium (Cd), fluoranthene (FA), and atrazine (AZ), were measured following chronic exposure, with the aim of identifying the nature of any shared transcriptional response. Principal component analysis indicated full or partial separation of control and exposed samples for each compound but not for the composite set of all control and exposed samples. Partial least-squares discriminant analysis allowed separation of the control and exposed samples for each chemical and also for the composite data set, suggesting a common transcriptional response to exposure. Genes identified as changing in expression level (by the least stringent test for significance) following exposure to two chemicals indicated a substantial number of common genes (> 127). The three compound overlapping gene set, however, comprised only 25 genes. We suggest that the low commonality in transcriptional response may be linked to the chronic concentrations (approximately 10% EC50) and chronic duration (28 days) used. Annotations of the three compound overlapping gene set indicated that genes from pathways most often associated with responses to environmental stress, such as heat shock, phase I and II metabolism, antioxidant defense, and cation balance, were not represented. The strongest annotation signature was for genes important in mitochondrial function and energy metabolism.

Molecular basis of sex and reproductive status in breeding zebrafish

The zebrafish ( Danio rerio) is used extensively as a model species for studies on vertebrate development and for assessing chemical effects on reproduction. Despite this, the molecular mechanisms controlling zebrafish reproduction are poorly understood. We analyzed the transcriptomic profiles of the gonads of individual zebrafish, using a 17k oligonucleotide microarray, to define the molecular basis of sex and reproductive status in sexually mature fish. The gonadal transcriptome differed substantially between sexes. Among the genes overexpressed in females, 11 biological processes were overrepresented including mitochondrion organization and biogenesis, and cell growth and/or maintenance. Among the genes overexpressed in males, six biological processes were overrepresented including protein biosynthesis and protein metabolism. Analysis of the expression of gene families known to be involved in reproduction identified a number of genes differentially expressed between ovaries and testes including a number of sox genes and genes belonging to the insulin-like growth factor and the activin-inhibin pathways. Real-time quantitative PCR confirmed the expression profiles for nine of the most differentially expressed genes and indicated that many transcripts are likely to be switched off in one of the sexes in the gonads of adult fish. Significant differences were seen between the gonad transcriptomes of individual reproductively active females reflecting their stage of maturation, whereas the testis transcriptomes were remarkably similar between individuals. In summary, we have identified molecular processes associated with (gonadal) sex specificity in breeding zebrafish and established a strong relationship between individual ovarian transcriptomes and reproductive status in females.

Microfluidic chip-based synthesis of alginate microspheres for encapsulation of immortalized human cells

Cellular transplantation is a promising technology with great clinical potential in regenerative medicine and disease management. However, effective control over patient immunological response is essential. The encapsulation of cells within hydrogel microspheres is an increasingly prevalent method for the protection of cellular grafts from immune rejection. Microfluidic "chip" reactors present elegant solutions to several capsule generation issues, including the requirement for intercapsule uniformity, high reproducibility, and sterile, good manufacturing practice compliance. This study presents a novel method for the on-chip production of stable, highly monodisperse alginate microspheres and demonstrates its utility in the encapsulation of an immortalized human-derived cell line. Four populations of immortalized human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293) were encapsulated on chip within monodisperse alginate capsules. Cell viability measurements were recorded for each of the four encapsulated populations for 90 days.

Responses of earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) to copper and cadmium as determined by measurement of juvenile traits in a specifically designed test system

In this study, the effects of two metals, copper and cadmium, on the growth and development of juvenile Lumbricus rubellus were measured in a toxicity test in which individuals were grown in isolation. This design had a number of advantages over traditional test systems for earthworms. Importantly, the test is specifically designed to measure two juvenile traits (survival over and length of the juvenile period) that have been shown to have a high sensitivity for determining population growth rate. The test system also maximizes replication, while allowing time-series-based monitoring of individual growth. For both metals, significant exposure-dependent effects on survival, growth, development time, and (less certainly) maturation weight were observed. Comparisons of the relative toxicity of the two metals indicated different concentration-response relationships. For copper, hormesis was found at low levels, while only at the highest soil concentration tested (10.07 micromol g(-1)) were (severe) toxic effects present. For cadmium, hormesis was also evident at the lowest concentration tested; however, at soil levels above this, a graded concentration-dependent toxic effect was apparent. These differences in the exposure response patterns can be (tentatively) explained in terms of the mechanisms for handling copper (an essential metal for earthworms) and cadmium (a putative nonessential element). The applicability of the test for routine measurement of chemical effects on ecologically relevant juvenile traits is also outlined and future developments are discussed.

Measurement of annetocin gene expression: a new reproductive biomarker in earthworm ecotoxicology

The emergence of new technologies from the genomics revolution will transform the potential application of biomarkers to assess how pollutants impact people, animals, and ecosystems. Genetic databases provide a huge resource from which candidate molecular biomarkers can be identified and, subsequently, exploited to address these issues. However, a major challenge is to link these novel molecular indices to ecologically relevant whole-organism life-cycle traits (such as reproduction and growth). Such a functional link is provided by annetocin, previously characterized as a member of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily of neuropeptides. It is expressed in annelid worms within the neurons of the central nervous system and has been shown to be involved in the induction of egg-laying behavior. This paper outlines the validation of annetocin as a novel biomarker of reproductive fitness in the earthworm Eisenia fetida. The design of primer pairs targeted toward oligochaete annetocin has facilitated the isolation of a full-length annetocin cDNA from this species. Optimization of a real-time quantitative PCR procedure exploiting the fluorescent DNA-binding molecule, Sybr Green, has allowed the measurement of annetocin transcript levels over a range covering six orders of magnitude. Using this approach, gene expression was measured in earthworms exposed to soils polluted with high concentrations of zinc and lead. Traditional growth and reproductive indices, including cocoon production, were also recorded and related to the molecular parameter. The future use of annetocin as a molecular genetic biomarker in terrestrial ecotoxicology is discussed.

Differential metallothionein expression in earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus) tissues

This article describes the immunoperoxidase localization of metallothionein (MT) in the major organs and tissues of the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus sampled from a mine soil heavily polluted with Pb, Zn, and Cd. The polyclonal antiserum used was raised against the MT isoform (wMT2), the molecular characteristics and focal subcellular distribution of which indicate a primary role for it in the sequestration of certain nonessential metals, such as Cd. Intense MT immunostaining was detectable in chloragogenous tissue throughout the body: around the intestine, in the typhlosolar infolding, around blood vessels anterior and posterior to the crop/gizzard, and around the calciferous gland. Electron probe X-ray microanalysis of neutral red-labeled vesicular structures in the chloragogenous tissue indicated that this acidic compartment, probably lysosomal, yielded the strong Cd and S signals associated with Cd-MT. MT expression was also detected in the apical cytoplasm of intestinal epithelial cells; in coelomocytes contiguous with chloragocytes attached to the gut; within the narrow tubular region of nephridia, in the secretory epithelia of the calciferous gland, but not anywhere in the body wall. We concluded that (a) the main route of Cd uptake is probably via absorptive alimentary surfaces, and not across the external epidermal layer; (b) nephridia are involved with Cd excretion and/or are a major target of Cd-induced pathological damage; (c) tentatively, a combination of immunohistochemistry and proton-induced X-ray emission analysis indicated that the calciferous gland is probably not a major "heavy metal" excretory route.

Developing a new method for soil pollution monitoring using molecular genetic biomarkers

Physiological responses to environmental stressors may induce changes in gene expression as part of an organism's homeostatic mechanisms. Thus molecular genetic biomarkers have the potential to be used for monitoring sublethal chemical exposure in ecosystems. This paper describes a methodological assessment of the suitability of a protocol to monitor selected biomarkers. The TaqMan real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to measure gene transcription in earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) maintained on control or cadmium- or copper-spiked soil. Changes in the expression of two target genes, that encoding metallothionein isoform 2 (MT-2) and that encoding the mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit (MLRS), were quantified against the internal control gene beta-actin. The protocol used produced reliable and reproducible results. Transcript levels displayed qualitative and quantitative differences in the responses to the two metal ions. MLRS gene levels were unaffected by exposure to cadmium but displayed a response to high levels of copper. Conversely, cadmium greatly induced MT-2 gene expression, but copper only altered transcription of this gene at high exposure concentrations. This study demonstrates that it is now technically feasible to use gene expression as an index of pollution exposure in environmentally relevant organisms.

Control genes in quantitative molecular biological techniques: the variability of invariance

The measurement of transcript levels constitutes the foundation of today's molecular genetics. Independent of the techniques used, quantifications are generally normalised using invariant control genes to account for sample handling, loading and experimental variation. All of the widely used control genes are evaluated, dissecting different methodological approaches and issues regarding the experimental context (e.g. development and tissue type). Furthermore, the major sources of error are highlighted when applying these techniques. Finally, different approaches undertaken to assess the invariance of control genes are critically analysed to generate a procedure that will help to discern the best control for novel experiments.

Metal ion trafficking in earthworms. Identification of a cadmium-specific metallothionein

Exposure to cadmium poses a considerable risk to human health and environmental safety. Earthworms reside in the most contaminated sites on earth, displaying a phenomenal tolerance to toxic heavy metals. They exhibit a distinct metabolic pathway that allows the bio-accumulation of cadmium to yield body burdens in excess of 1/1000th of total dry body weight, a most impressive figure by any standard. However, the precise molecular mechanism underlying this phenomenon remains to be unraveled. This study meets this challenge by fully characterizing the major metal-binding protein in earthworms, namely the two isoforms of metallothionein. Chemical analysis of recombinant protein showed that although both isoforms bind equimolar amounts of cadmium (6 mol), wMT-2 is more stable during proton competition. Furthermore, isoform-specific transcript analysis demonstrated that only wMT-2 is responsive to cadmium in a dose and temporal manner. The specific sequestration of cadmium to wMT-2 protein was confirmed in situ using polyclonal antisera. The latter also provided the means for mapping the cellular and intracellular distribution of metallothionein, thus yielding a holistic insight into its involvement in cadmium transit during absorption, storage, and excretion. The structure-function relationship of wMT-2 and its role in cadmium detoxification through sequestration and compartmentalization is discussed.

Earthworm pre-procarboxypeptidase: a copper responsive enzyme

This paper describes the identification and molecular cloning of the earthworm metalloenzyme preprocarboxypeptidase. It was possible to approximate the putative pre-pro cleavage sites, which after removal activates a 35.7 kDa mature peptide with a length of 317 amino acids. The primary, secondary and predicted tertiary structure of the mature chain is highly homologous to other carboxypeptidases from diverse phylogenetic origin. Using a fully quantitative PCR, we were able to assess relative expression of this gene in earthworms exposed to different heavy metal contaminated substrates. In summary, cadmium on its own or in combination with lead and zinc, did not trigger transcriptional up-regulation of carboxypeptidase. In contrast, copper exposed earthworms were assessed to have a 4-fold increase in carboxypeptidase transcript numbers. A hypothetical model is presented to explain how the exposure to heavy metals may influence transcriptional control and/or function of this enzyme. Finally, the significance of these observations in terms of risk assessment and biomonitoring of contaminated soils is discussed.

Morphological and metabolic changes in transgenic wheat with altered glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase or acyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) thioesterase activities

We have transformed varieties of wheat with a Pisum sativum glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase gene, and also with an Arabidopsis thaliana acyl-ACP thioesterase gene. Morphological (growth, organelle development) and metabolic changes (fatty acid labelling of chloroplast and non-chloroplast lipids) have been observed in transgenics with altered gene expression for either enzyme.

Characterisation and quantification of earthworm cyclophilins: identification of invariant and heavy metal responsive isoforms

We report the identification of two earthworm cyclophilin genes, which resemble the cytosolic cyclophilin-A and the signal sequence containing cyclophilin-B. Using fully quantitative PCR we were able to assess the transcript regulation of both cyclophilin isoforms, as well as a further independent control gene (actin), during exposure to heavy metals. Whilst the expression of cyclophilin-B and actin remained exceptionally constant, cyclophilin-A was up-regulated 38-fold. This intriguing observation has profound implications regarding cyclophilin's use as an invariant control and highlights the fact that it is essential to treat cyclophilin isoforms as separate entities, rather than one functional unit.

Structural and functional analysis of the rat metallothionein III genomic locus

Metallothionein III (MT III) has been reported to suppress neuronal growth in a rat in vitro model system. The protein and its specific mRNA are detected predominantly in the brain, differentiating MT III from the well-characterised archetypal metallothioneins. Isolation, sequencing and functional analysis of the rat MT III genomic locus indicated that, although the organisation of the gene was conserved between MT III and the more conventional metallothioneins, the 5' flanking region of the MT III gene was distinct. Within this region, a number of putative regulatory elements were identified, including the metal regulatory elements (MREs) characteristic of metallothionein promoters. However, despite their conservation in sequence with active elements, the MREs of MT III were unresponsive to zinc. A 'silencing element' was revealed within a 250 bp section of the MT III promoter which suppressed gene expression in two brain cell lines. The operation of this silencing region in conjunction with the inactive MREs may explain the distinct expression profile observed for MT III within the central nervous system and during neuronal development.

Cathepsin D from the liver of the antarctic icefish Chionodraco hamatus exhibits unusual activity and stability at high temperatures1

Cathepsin D was purified to homogeneity from the liver of Antarctic icefish by anion-exchange chromatography followed by affinity chromatography on concanavalin-A Sepharose. The purified enzyme showed a molecular mass of 40 kDa and displayed optimal activity at pH 3.0 with a synthetic chromogenic substrate. The N-terminal sequence of this proteinase was determined by automated Edman degradation and was used to design a primer for use in reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. The open reading frame of the cloned cDNA encoded an aspartic proteinase, which contained the experimentally determined N-terminal sequence. The predicted sequence (396 residues) had a high similarity with those of cathepsin D from various vertebrate sources, but was considerably different from that of nothepsin, a distinct aspartic proteinase described previously from Antarctic fish [1]. Determination of kinetic parameters for substrate hydrolysis showed that, at temperatures between 8 and 50 degrees C, the icefish cathepsin D had a higher specificity constant (kcat/Km) than human cathepsin D. The stability of both enzymes was measured at 50 degrees C and half-lives of 55 and 3 min were derived for icefish and human cathepsin D, respectively.

Identification and characterization of a recombinant metallothionein protein from a marine alga, Fucus vesiculosus

A cDNA library was constructed from macroalgae adapted to prolonged elevated environmental copper levels. To investigate the possible existence of a metallothionein (MT) gene, the library was screened with degenerate probes designed using plant MT cysteine-rich motifs. A gene was identified (1229 bp) with a putative open reading frame (204 bp) encoding a 67-amino-acid protein exhibiting several characteristic features of MT proteins, including 16 cysteine residues (24%) and only one aromatic residue. Although the protein sequence showed high identity with plant and invertebrate MTs, it contained a unique 'linker' region (14 amino acid residues) between the two putative metal-binding domains which contained no cysteine residues. This extended linker is larger than the tripeptide found in archetypal vertebrate MTs, but does not conform either with the 40-amino-acid linkers commonly found in plant MT sequences. An S-peptide Fucus MT fusion protein expressed in Escherichia coli exhibited a relative molecular mass of approximately 14 kDa. The recombinant fusion bound seven Cd ions, of which 50% were dissociated at pH 4.1. Under anaerobic conditions, the Cd ions were displaced by Cu(I), which associated with the protein at a ratio of 13:1. Laboratory exposure of F. vesiculosus to elevated copper resulted in induction of the MT gene. Thus this paper describes, for the first time, an MT gene identified from macroalgae which is induced by copper exposure and whose encoded protein product binds cadmium and copper.

Isolation, characterization and molecular cloning of cathepsin D from lizard ovary: changes in enzyme activity and mRNA expression throughout ovarian cycle

During vitellogenesis, the oocytes of oviparous species accumulate in the cytoplasm a large amount of proteic nutrients synthetized in the liver. Once incorporated into the oocytes, these nutrients, especially represented by vitellogenin (VTG) and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), are cleaved into a characteristic set of polypeptides forming yolk platelets. We have studied the molecular mechanisms involved in yolk formation in a reptilian species Podarcis sicula, a lizard characterized by a seasonal reproductive cycle. Our results demonstrate the existence in the lizard ovary of an aspartic proteinase having a maximal activity at acidic pH and a molecular mass of 40 kDa. The full-length aspartic proteinase cDNA produced from total RNA by RT-PCR is 1,442 base pairs long and encodes a protein of 403 amino acids. A comparison of the proteic sequence with aspartic proteinases from various sources demonstrates that the lizard enzyme is a cathepsin D. Lizard ovarian cathepsin D activity is maximal in June, in coincidence with vitellogenesis and ovulation, and is especially abundant in vitellogenic follicles and in eggs. Ovarian cathepsin D activity can be enhanced during the resting period by treatment with FSH in vivo. Northern blot analysis shows that cathepsin D mRNA is exceedingly abundant during the reproductive period, and accumulates preferentially in previtellogenic oocytes.

Molecular cloning and sequence determination of a novel aspartic proteinase from Antarctic fish

In the present report, we describe a novel aspartic proteinase from the liver of two Antarctic fish species. The nucleotide sequences of the cDNA obtained from the two fishes show 90% identity with each other but only 58% identity with aspartic proteinases from other sources. Sequence analysis shows features for the Antarctic enzymes which are not present in related enzymes of other organisms.

Cu-Cd interactions in earthworms maintained in laboratory microcosms: the examination of a putative copper paradox

Earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus) from Ecton (predominantly Cu-contaminated), Shipham (Cd-contaminated) and Dinas Powys (uncontaminated, reference) were maintained in the laboratory on soil from the sampling sites. Two principle exposure protocols were used: (1) a 4-week 'no pre-exposure experiment', where batches of earthworms were maintained on soils from each habitat and (2) a 'pre-exposure experiment' where uncontaminated control worms were maintained on Shipham soil for 4 weeks (the pre-exposure period), and then transferred to Ecton soil for a further 4 weeks, and vice versa. In summary, there were two primary findings. Firstly, exposure of worms to Cd-rich soil (Shipham) before exposure to Cu-rich soil (Ecton) increased the Cu burden and secondly, biochemical analysis of metal binding proteins in analogous earthworm populations indicated that Cu and Cd, but not Zn, are bound to a metallothionein homologue. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that Cu does not induce thionein synthesis efficiently in earthworm tissues, but may bind avidly to Cd-induced thionein by substituting for Cd in the molecule because Cu-thionein is a more stable complex.

The identification, cloning and characterization of earthworm metallothionein

Combining standard gel chromatographic techniques and novel molecular methodologies (Directed Differential Display and quantitative PCR), it has been possible to isolate and sequence two isoforms of the first true earthworm metallothionein. Both proteins are characteristically high in cysteine residues and possess no significant aromatic residues. Metal responsiveness was confirmed by determining metallothionein specific expression profiles in earthworms exposed to soils of differing heavy metal concentrations. Analysis of the derived amino acid sequence of isoform 2 identified two putative N-glycosylation signal sequences, suggesting that the two isoforms may have different subcellular distributions and functions. Possible implications for intracellular metal trafficking are discussed.

Identification of heavy metal induced changes in the expression patterns of the translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) in the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus1

Heavy metal contaminated soils are assessed for specific human health and ecological risk by governmental regulatory agencies utilizing the abundant soil invertebrate, the earthworm, in a biomonitoring process. Fingerprinting the molecular genetic responses resulting from heavy metal exposure facilitates the identification of biomarkers for assessing the impact of such pollution on individual organisms. This paper reports the identification of a novel translationally controlled tumour protein (TCTP) in the earthworm Lumbricus rubellus. In addition to the standard molecular biological technique of differential Southern blotting, a fully quantitative approach (fluorescent microvolume PCR) was performed to assess the specific expression profiles of TCTP in earthworms exposed to different heavy metal regimes. After normalizing with actin as an invariant control, the results showed that TCTP was upregulated by at least a factor of 4 in the population originating from a Pb/Zn/Cd polluted mine, compared to an unpolluted control population. An even more pronounced increase was identified in earthworms native to a Cu polluted mine, where TCTP increased 335-fold. TCTP copies in earthworms exposed to artificial soil with a single stressor (Cd) were 14 times higher than in the appropriate control earthworms (maintained on artificial soil without Cd). The data presented are novel in two ways: first, they provide evidence for an upregulation that is induced by heavy metals (especially copper); second, they show that TCTP can also be under transcriptional control, therefore upregulation is not limited to translational modifications as TCTP's nomenclature suggests.

Cadmium-induced differential accumulation of metallothionein isoforms in the Antarctic icefish, which exhibits no basal metallothionein protein but high endogenous mRNA levels

Reverse transcriptase-mediated PCR has been used to isolate two distinct metallothionein (MT) cDNA species from RNA extracted from icefish liver, namely MT-I and MT-II. Northern blot analysis with these cDNA species revealed that significant endogenous levels of MT mRNA were present in liver tissues of normal animals despite the fact that no MT protein could be found accumulating in the same tissue. However, multiple injections of CdCl2 induced high levels of both MT mRNA and MT protein. Sequence analysis of the cDNA species that were present after cadmium injection revealed the presence of both isoforms. Quantification of the MT-I and MT-II transcripts from normal and heavy-metal-treated fish showed an alteration in the ratio of the MT isoform transcripts. Endogenous transcripts consisted mostly of MT-II, whereas the MT-I transcript was preferentially accumulated only in response to the cadmium salt. The protein encoded by each cDNA isoform was isolated from the heavy-metal-treated fish and the availability of the specific MT mRNA for translation was demonstrated by translation in vitro. These results show that: (1) there is a discrepancy between the significant endogenous levels of MT mRNA and the absence of MT protein; (2) the accumulation of MT in icefish liver can be triggered by heavy metals; (3) genes encoding distinct MT isoforms are differentially regulated by heavy metals.

Cloning and sequencing of a full-length sea bream (Sparus aurata) beta-actin cDNA

A full-length cDNA clone encoding beta-actin (beta-actin) was isolated from a sea bream (Sparus aurata) liver cDNA library. Sequencing of this clone reveals an open reading frame encoding a 375 amino acid protein that shares a high degree of conservation to other known actins. The sea bream beta-actin sequence showed 98% identity to carp and human beta-actin and 95% and 94% identity to sea squirt and Dictyostelium cytoplasmic actins, respectively.

Functional comparison of the metal-regulated transcriptional control regions of metallothionein genes from cadmium-sensitive and tolerant fish species

The promoter region of teleost metallothioneins (MTs) contains multiple metal-responsive elements (MREs) organized in proximal and distal clusters which together mediate gene induction by heavy metals. This arrangement of MREs is found both in cadmium-sensitive species, such as the rainbow trout, and in cadmium-tolerant species such as the pike and the stone loach. On comparison of the putative regulatory elements identified within the 5'-flanking region of these genes the major differences are that the number of MREs differ between the different species and that, while both the stone loach and rainbow trout MT genes contain TATA boxes, the pike MT gene has a TTTA box. In order to investigate if the metal sensitivity of a species is correlated to the regulatory potential of the putative MT detoxification system the promoter regions of MT genes from all three species were assessed for their ability to enhance transcription in response to the heavy metals Zn, Cd and Cu. The polymerase chain reaction was used to produce nested deletion sets of each promoter region and these were cloned into the mammalian expression vector pGL-2 upstream of the firefly luciferase gene. The inducibility of the different constructs in response to heavy metal challenge was tested in two cell lines, one fish cell line (homologous to rainbow trout and heterologous to the two other species), the rainbow trout hepatoma, RTH-149, cell line and one cell line that was heterologous to all studied species, the human hepatoblastoma; HepG2, cell line. Maximum inducibility of each gene was achieved with constructs containing both the proximal and the distal MRE clusters. Both the rainbow trout and the stone loach MT genes showed inducibility of comparable amplitude whilst the pike MT gene on the other hand was less inducible, partly due to fewer MREs and partly due to the TTTA box. These data indicate that more than one mechanism is responsible for the differences in cadmium sensitivity of these three teleost species. Although MT is the main heavy-metal detoxifying system in most vertebrates and appears to be contributing to the differences seen between rainbow trout and pike, the present study shows that the relative sensitivity of these species is not primarily due to MT.

Difference in hepatic metallothionein content in Antarctic red-blooded and haemoglobinless fish: undetectable metallothionein levels in haemoglobinless fish is accompanied by accumulation of untranslated metallothionein mRNA

Icefish (family Channichthyidae, suborder Nothothenioidei) are a group of Antarctic fish that have evolved unique phenotypes in order to adapt to the environment in which they live. Besides the lack of haemoglobin and the drastic reduction in the number of erythrocyte-like cells, another striking feature of the icefish is that their liver is devoid of metallothionein. These cysteine-rich heavy-metal-binding proteins are usually present in large amounts in a large variety of organisms, from bacteria to mammals. Despite the failure to detect appreciable levels of metallothionein in icefish liver, a cDNA encoding metallothionein was produced from total RNA by reverse transcriptase PCR. The icefish metallothionein showed high percentage identity with metallothionein from Trematomus bernachii, a red-blooded Antarctic fish in which a normal content of hepatic metallothionein was found. Steady-state mRNA levels were assessed in fish liver by high-stringency hybridization of the metallothionein probe with total RNA. The results showed that icefish livers retain large amounts of untranslated metallothionein mRNA. The stability of the icefish transcript might be correlated with the lack of specific motifs in the untranslated 3' ends of mRNA.

Effect of stress on mouse and rat brain metallothionein I and III mRNA levels

The effect of immobilization stress on brain and liver metallothionein (MT) mRNA levels has been studied in mice and rats. Stress increased brain and liver MT-I mRNA levels in mice in a time-dependent manner, in agreement with the MT-I+II protein levels, suggesting an increased gene transcription during stress. In contrast, the brain-specific isoform, MT-III, tended to decrease during stress. In selected brain areas of rats, the overall tendency for both MT-I and MT-III mRNA levels was to be transiently decreased by stress in hippocampus, and increased in hypothalamus, cerebellum and the remaining brain tissues; adrenalectomy significantly affected MT mRNA levels either in basal conditions or during stress, with very different temporal patterns of response depending on the brain area studied. These results suggest that glucocorticoids could be involved in MT-I but also MT-III regulation. In both rats and mice, the subtle response to stress observed in the brain contrasts with the robust response in the liver, suggesting that the factors involved in MT regulation in both tissues differ substantially. In primary cultures enriched in astrocytes or neurons, MT-III mRNA was clearly detected by Northern blotting in both cases, suggesting that it is expressed in both types of cells. Dexamethasone appeared to decrease MT-III mRNA levels in cultured neurons and to increase them in astrocytes, which indicates that glucocorticoids have a different role in MT-III regulation in both cell types.

Cloning and sequencing a novel metallothionein I isoform expressed in human reticulocytes

Total RNA from human reticulocytes was purified and reverse-transcribed into cDNA using an oligo-dT primer. This cDNA was used as a template for a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with a primer specific for the N-terminal sequence of mammalian metallothioneins (MT) and a universal primer. A single amplified fragment was thus generated which when cloned and sequenced revealed two distinct MT cDNAs of almost identical molecular weights. One sequence was identical to that previously reported for human MT II and the other encoded a novel MT I isoform (MT IR). The DNA sequence of MT 1R is distinct from those documented for other MT I isoforms.

Structural and functional analysis of the rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) metallothionein-A gene

In the present study, the distal part of the 5'-flanking region of the rainbow trout metallothionein-A promoter was sequenced in order to identify cis-acting regulatory elements. Analysis of this sequence combined with that previously reported for the 5'-flanking region directly proximal to the start of transcription revealed several putative regulatory sequences. In total, six metal-responsive elements (MREs) were identified; these sequences were organised into two clusters, one containing two copies of MRE and located close to the predicted TATA box sequence, and a second consisting of four MREs and lying 500-700 bp upstream from the start of transcription. In addition, the 5'-flanking region contained sequences sharing high similarity with the activator protein 1 consensus sequence as well as one nuclear-factor-interleukin-6-responsive element. Functional analysis of the promoter was performed by introducing deletion mutants of the 5'-flanking region into the vector pGL-2, directly upstream from the luciferase reporter gene. Both MRE clusters were needed for maximal metal inducibility in both rainbow trout hepatoma (RTH-149) and human hepatoblastoma (Hep G2) cell lines. Furthermore, the distal region was found to be functional in promoting gene transcription following exposure of RTH-149 cells to hydrogen peroxide.

Memories of metallothionein

Metallothionein (MT) has provided nature with a small molecule which exhibits multiple facets. The distinct arrangement of cysteine residues which occurs within the two domains of MT confers predisposed metal specificity upon each domain. Furthermore, subtle changes in primary sequence may be built onto the metal cluster scaffold. These not only bestow immunodistinction but may also potentially allow specific members of this family such as MT-III to fulfill unique biological roles. An understanding of how the structures of MT molecules predetermine their biochemical characteristics may allow the design of novel metal-binding molecules specific for the metal ion of choice. Already, using nature as a blueprint, a semi-specific cadmium-binding molecule has been constructed from a polymer of mammalian C-terminal domains. This novel protein has been used to protect tobacco plants from cadmium toxicity. In addition, modeling of biologically active determinants which are located on the external face of MT-III may facilitate the design of small synthetic molecules which mimic the biological activity of MT-III and prevent the distressing effects of memory and speech loss associated with Alzheimer's disease. Memories of metallothionein may yet be something worth remembering!

Analysis of regulatory elements flanking metallothionein genes in Cd-tolerant fish (pike and stone loach)

From genomic libraries constructed for both pike and stone loach, clones were isolated containing the metallothionein genes from these two species of cadmium-tolerant fish. A single copy metallothionein gene was identified in each species by Southern blot analysis. Sequencing revealed that each gene consisted of three exons followed by polyadenylation signals at the 3' end. In the 5' flanking region, putative metal responsive elements were identified both close to the transcription start site and clustered distally approx. 500 bp upstream. Neither gene locus showed any homology with the glucocorticoid or interferon responsive elements that have been identified in mammalian species. The significance of the absence of such responsive elements and their replacement by additional metal responsive elements in the same location of the 5'-flanking region of the MT genes is discussed in relation to the organisation of the MT gene loci in (the Cd-sensitive) rainbow trout and higher mammalian species.

Cloning and sequencing of a full length cDNA encoding ovine lipoprotein lipase

A cDNA clone encoding lipoprotein lipase has been isolated from an ovine adipocyte library. Sequencing of this clone has revealed a single open reading frame encoding a 450 amino acid protein. Comparison with known LPL sequences from other species shows a high degree of conservation in the sequence of the protein and in the 5' untranslated region of the DNA sequence.

Sequestration of cadmium and copper by recombinant rainbow trout and human metallothioneins and by chimeric (mermaid and fishman) proteins with interchanged domains

A family of synthetic genes was constructed encoding a rainbow trout metallothionein (MT), a human MT, and two chimeric molecules which contained respectively (i) the N-terminal (or head) domain of human MT followed by the C-terminal (or tail) domain of a fish MT (termed mermaid MT) and (ii) the head domain of fish MT fused with the tail domain of human MT (denoted fishman MT). These were expressed in Escherichia coli and the four recombinant proteins were purified to homogeneity therefrom. All four were found to bind 7 g atoms of Cd(II) per mol; at pH 7.0, but not at pH 8.6, four Cd(II) ions were sequestered preferentially in the tail (or alpha) domain. Reciprocally, copper was found to bind preferentially in the head (or beta) domain. The human and fishman MTs displayed a stoichiometry of 12 g atoms of Cu(I) per mol, while rainbow trout and mermaid MTs bound only 10. The significance of these findings is discussed in relation to the different positional organization of cysteine residues close to the N and C termini of mammalian and piscine metallothioneins.

A plant metallothionein produced in E. coli

A metallothionein cDNA was generated from pea (Pisum sativum L.) roots, amplified by PCR and inserted into a plasmid for expression in E. coli. Purification of the resultant product generated 3 pools of cadmium-containing material after DEAE-cellulose chromatography. The amino acid composition of each was in excellent agreement with that predicted for pea metallothionein. A cadmium content of approximately 6 g.atoms per mole of protein was estimated. N-terminal sequence analysis revealed that the recombinant molecule had been proteolysed within the extended region linking the 2 cysteine-rich (putative) metal-binding regions. The significance of these findings in terms of the protein folding/targeting of the molecule are considered.

Elucidation of cDNA sequences for metallothioneins from rainbow trout, stone loach and pike liver using the polymerase chain reaction

Metallothionein cDNAs were generated from the livers of three fish species and amplified by PCR. Two distinct coding sequences (A and B) were elucidated for rainbow trout metallothioneins but single isoforms were encoded by genes isolated from the stone loach and pike. Different sized transcripts were observed both with stone loach and pike but these were accounted for by altered lengths of 3' untranslated regions.

The expression of a synthetic rainbow trout metallothionein gene in E. coli

A synthetic gene for rainbow trout metallothionein was constructed and inserted into a dual origin plasmid where expression was induced by a temperature shift in a proteinase-deficient strain of Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein was purified to homogeneity, and a partial amino acid sequence was determined to confirm its identity. Its immunochemical characteristics were similar to those of native metallothionein from rainbow trout. The amounts of recombinant metallothionein produced were quantified in soluble cell extracts by ELISA. Low concentrations were detected when growth was performed either in L-broth or defined (GMM-II) medium. Supplementation of the medium with zinc or copper had no effect on the amount of metallothionein produced. By contrast, when cadmium was included in either L-broth or GMM-II medium, much higher concentrations of the protein within the cells (approx. 13 micrograms/mg soluble cell protein) were detected. This stabilisation of the protein by metal reconstitution in vivo is considered in relation to the selective uptake/exclusion of metals by the cells and its significance for the scavenging of certain precious or toxic heavy metals is discussed.