How the COVID-19 pandemic highlights the necessity of animal research

Recently, a petition was offered to the European Commission calling for an immediate ban on animal testing. Although a Europe-wide moratorium on the use of animals in science is not yet possible, there has been a push by the non-scientific community and politicians for a rapid transition to animal-free innovations. Although there are benefits for both animal welfare and researchers, advances on alternative methods have not progressed enough to be able to replace animal research in the foreseeable future. This trend has led first and foremost to a substantial increase in the administrative burden and hurdles required to make timely advances in research and treatments for human and animal diseases. The current COVID-19 pandemic clearly highlights how much we actually rely on animal research. COVID-19 affects several organs and systems, and the various animal-free alternatives currently available do not come close to this complexity. In this Essay, we therefore argue that the use of animals is essential for the advancement of human and veterinary health.

Calcium transport in membrane vesicles of Bacillus subtilis

Right-side-out membrane vesicles of Bacillus subtilis W23 grown on tryptone-citrate medium accumulated Ca2+ under aerobic conditions in the presence of a suitable electron donor. Ca2+ uptake was an electrogenic process which was completely inhibited by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone or valinomycin and not by nigericin. This electrogenic uptake of calcium was strongly dependent on the presence of phosphate and magnesium ions. The system had a low affinity for Ca2+. The kinetic constants in membrane vesicles were Km = 310 microM Ca2+ and Vmax = 16 nmol/mg of protein per min. B. subtilis also possesses a Ca2+ extrusion system. Right-side-out-oriented membrane vesicles accumulated Ca2+ upon the artificial imposition of a pH-gradient, inside acid. This system had a high affinity for Ca2+; Km = 17 microM Ca2+ and Vmax = 3.3 nmol/mg of protein per min. Also, a membrane potential, inside positive, drove Ca2+ transport via this Ca2+ extrusion system. Evidence for a Ca2+ extrusion system was also supplied by studies of inside-out-oriented membrane vesicles in which Ca2+ uptake was energized by respiratory chain-linked oxidation of NADH or ascorbate-phenazine methosulfate. Both components of the proton motive force, the pH gradient and the membrane potential, drove Ca2+ transport via the Ca2+ extrusion system, indicating a proton-calcium antiport system with a H+ to Ca2+ stoichiometry larger than 2. The kinetic parameters of this Ca2+ extrusion system in inside-out-oriented membranes were Km = 25 microM and Vmax = 0.7 nmol/mg of protein per min.

Cimetidine and the cost of peptic ulcer in the Netherlands

In the autumn of 1977 the first histamine H2 receptor antagonist, cimetidine, was introduced into the Netherlands. Histamine H2 receptor antagonists are powerful suppressors of the stomach's production of hydrochloric acid, which is believed to play a major role in the development of peptic ulcers. Controlled clinical trials and interview with medical experts prior to the introduction suggested that the new drug might make treatment of peptic ulcer less costly. In particular, savings in hospital treatment, the major component of medical care cost (i.e., direct cost) seemed possible. The manufacturer of cimetidine, Smith, Kline and French Laboratories SA, commissioned the Netherlands Economic Institute to estimate the impact of cimetidine on the direct (medical care) cost of peptic ulcer in the Netherlands in 1980, with special reference to hospital costs. In this study the term 'cost' refers to aggregate expenditure by sick funds, insurance companies and private individuals. It was found that hospital treatment cost at constant (1980) prices declined by 61.6 million Dutch guilders, or 49%, over the chosen reference period, 1972-1980. Multiple regression analysis showed that a linear trend factor and other factors appearing to operate from the mid-seventies (possibly including the introduction of diagnostic endoscopy and government cost containment policies) together accounted for about three quarters of the reduction of costs. The remaining one quarter, Dfl. 15.7 million, was specifically attributable, with acceptable confidence, to the availability of cimetidine. In particular, the number of vagotomy and partial gastrectomy operations significantly dropped in the three years following its introduction. The saving more than compensated for a substantial increase in the drug bill, leaving a net benefit of Dfl. 3.2 million in 1980. This is likely to be an underestimate of net benefit since the cost of cimetidine prescribed for those not at risk of hospital admission was included while any benefits from cimetidine use in general practice had to be excluded for lack of data. The decline of hospital costs, the increase of drug costs and the growth of diagnosis/consultation costs, the latter largely attributable to the introduction of endoscopy, led to a dramatic change in the cost structure of peptic ulcer treatment between 1972 and 1980.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)