Organ transplantation in Nepal: Ethical, legal, and practical issues

In Nepal, live donor organ transplantation is only 14 years old with the first successful kidney transplant made in 2008 and a successful liver and bone marrow transplant made in 2016. However, transplantation of cadaveric cornea dates back to 1998. There are still no cases of animal-to-human organ transplantation in Nepal. There are stringent laws to regulate human body organ transplantation in Nepal which are amended from time to time. However, there is a racket of human traffickers who lure rural people from this low-income country into the illegal organ trade. Furthermore, there is a substantial lack of awareness of organ donation among the general public. This article focuses on the stipulations of ethical, legal, and practical issues of obtaining organs procured from living and brain-dead donors that support the process of transplantation in Nepal. In addition, the article also explores the legal and practical issues of organ trafficking and organ donation awareness in Nepal on the basis of factual data and findings from other studies.

Dental implants and forensic identification: A systematic review

The use of dental implants has witnessed great popularity in recent years. It has been documented that dental implants are valuable aids in forensic identification. In particular, in the event of mass disasters, where distortion of body features may render the process of forensic identification challenging. The present review aims to explore the application of the use of dental implants in forensic identification. A literature search was performed on PubMed and Web of Science electronic databases. All studies addressing the application of dental implants for forensic identification published in English were eligible for inclusion in the review. This systematic review included a total of 14 articles that demonstrated the significance of dental implants in forensic identification. Three studies reported the use of dental implants in the process of identification of the deceased, one of which found the distance of the implant from the maxillary sinus was a pathognomonic feature of identity. Four studies conducted incineration experiments to assess dental implant characteristics following incineration. The studies identified the batch number and characteristic threads and grooves on dental implants despite incineration. The remaining studies evaluated the role of radiological assessment in identification. The findings of the aforementioned studies highlighted the benefits of radiologic imaging in identification. Dental implants carry extreme significance in forensic identification owing to their durability and ability to withstand extreme temperatures. This process can be further enhanced by the implementation of advanced technology in forensic cases.

The Current Regulations in Handling Autopsy of COVID-19 Corpses: A Narrative Review

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected millions of people around the world either directly or indirectly. Deaths have been attributed to COVID-19 as the underlying cause of death or as a contributing cause of death. It is estimated that millions of excess deaths were associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021. The importance of a clinical autopsy on COVID-19 corpses lies in understanding the pathogenesis of the disease better. Moreover, a forensic autopsy may be performed on a COVID-19-infected corpse when indicated for medico-legal purposes. From the autopsy perspective, handling COVID-19-infected corpses requires specific guidelines and safety measures to be followed to limit the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the causative virus. This is essential as COVID-19 is an emerging infectious disease caused by a newly discovered virus. This review narrates the safety measures that should be followed at different stages of handling COVID-19 corpses, starting from the death scene to burial and funeral. Ethical issues in handling COVID-19 corpses are also briefed in this review. As COVID-19 can be transmitted through infected bodies, it is crucial to wear recommended personal protective equipment, specifically for aerosol-generating procedures. There are specific safety measures to be considered before transporting the body to the mortuary, with particular requirements to be implemented there, such as specific engineering controls, staff training, and autopsy room precautions. After conducting the autopsy, disinfection of the tools and equipment, body bags, transport vehicles, and the autopsy room should be considered.

Incidence and Comparison of Suicide in Various Phases of the Menstrual Cycle: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Background: Suicide is a global health concern. There are reproductive health-related factors that are responsible for increasing the risk of female suicide. There are a number of studies examining the association between suicide and the menstrual cycle, but still, there are no conclusive findings. Aim: We aimed to pool data from all the studies reporting data on suicides and the menstrual cycle phase to report the following outcomes: incidence of suicidal deaths in the menstrual, secretory, and proliferative phases, and to find out whether the burden of suicide in the menstrual phase in particular, was more at a young age (18-35 years) or middle age (36-50years). Methods: The PubMed database was extensively searched from inception till 12th April 2022. The data for the number of events occurring for each outcome were pooled using random-effects model and forest plots were created. Results: Five articles were shortlisted for inclusion in our analysis. Incidence of suicide in the secretory phase was highest at 45.2% [95% CI, 0.367–0.537]. The incidence of suicide, when occurring in the menstrual phase, was reported to be 68.4% (95 CI, 0.317–1.052) and 31.6% (95 CI, -0.052.3–0.68) for young-aged and middle-aged victims, respectively. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate that the menstrual phase has a lower risk of mortality due to suicide when compared to the other two phases of the menstrual cycle. Nevertheless, when suicide occurred in the menstrual phase, the incidence of suicide among the younger age-group was higher than for those in the middle age-group.

Road Traffic Injuries among Patients Visiting the Emergency Department in a Tertiary Care Centre: A Descriptive Cross-sectional Study

Introduction

Road traffic injuries are preventable yet one of the most neglected public health issues. Road traffic injuries not only impact the health of the victim but also cause financial burden to the entire family. This study aimed to find out the prevalence of road traffic injuries in patients visiting the Emergency Department in a tertiary care centre.

Methods

A descriptive study was conducted among patients visiting the Emergency Department in a tertiary care centre from 1 January 2021 to 30 June 2021 after receiving ethical approval from the Institutional Review Committee (Reference number: IRC-LMC 07-J/020). Demographic information of the patients, accident profile and type of intervention at the hospital, and outcome were studied. Point estimate and 95% Confidence Interval were calculated.

Results

Among 8,765 patients visiting the emergency department, road traffic injuries were seen in 112 (1.28%) (1.04-1.52, 95% Confidence Interval).

Conclusions

The prevalence of road traffic injuries was found to be similar to other studies conducted in a similar setting.

Keywords

automobiles; demography; Nepal; soft tissue injuries; traffic accidents.

Predictability of Sex from Frontal Sinus in Nepalese Population

Background Various methods had been used for personal identification. Scientific basis of identification was initiated and progressed after 19th century which may be attributed to various scientists. With the invention of X-ray the field of identification further progressed. Modern radiological diagnostic equipments have greatly assisted in the field of forensic. Frontal sinuses are paired lobulated air cavities located posterior to superciliary arches in the frontal bone. Computed Tomography is best used to study frontal sinuses. Objective To evaluate bilateral Frontal sinus for sexual dimorphism using Computed Tomography. Method Anterior posterior length, transverse width and height of the bilateral Frontal sinus were directly measured on CT DICOM image, using Electronic Caliper in DICOM viewer software. A total 100 CT scans, 50 of each sex were collected was analysed using SPSS-20 in present study. Result The mean age distribution for male is 34.74±8.66, and for females 35.34±8.88. The mean of all the measurements take was larger in males in comparison to females with p < 0.00. The paired t test showed left side is larger than right. The discriminant function showed high significance for each measurement and also when all the measurements were combined. Conclusion Though the study being unique for Nepalese population, caution should be taken when frontal sinus is used as the only parameter. However in combination with other morphometric data is advised.

Homicidal Pesticide Poisoning - An Overview

Pesticides are chemical or biological agents used to repel or kill pests. Pesticides are potent and lethal toxic substances that are also being infamously used for homicidal purposes due to their easy availability and rapid action. In this review, we look at 21 articles related to homicidal pesticide poisoning in the literature with an emphasis on fatal doses, routes of administration, and profiles of victims and perpetrators. Organophosphates and rodenticides were the most commonly used classes of pesticides, and ingestion was the most common route of administration; however, other modes of administration, such as through intraperitoneal injection, were also reported. Interestingly, we have noticed that victims involved in homicidal poisoning were mostly in close relationships with perpetrators. Most perpetrators were either spouses or other immediate family members. Abiding by the regulations that govern the production, sale, and use of pesticides and proper documentation of the related trail can help control the prevalence of homicidal pesticide poisoning. Recognition of the distinct morbid anatomy of the poisoning cases, alongside a high index of suspicion in cases that fit the profile, is essential for forensic analysis.

Landmark publications on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: A bibliometrics analysis

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a poorly understood disorder, and its pathophysiology and risk factors remain unclear. Research in the area is the key to combating the pervasive prevalence of this fatal disorder. We sought to identify the top 50 articles concerning SIDS and study their bibliometric characteristics to gain an insight into the research trends in this area. Using the Scopus database, two independent reviewers conducted a literature search using a prespecified search string. Results were arranged according to the citation count, and the top 50 relevant articles were selected. No time restrictions were set, and all types of articles were included. A detailed analysis was carried out to identify the trends and characteristics of the top 50 articles. The top 50 articles were published between 1972 and 2011, with the most productive 5-year interval being 1991-1995. These 50 papers accumulated a total of 13,703 citations (median = 236 citations per paper). Among these, about 9% were self-citations. The citations received by these core papers seemed to decline post-2009. The top 50 articles were published in 21 different journals, with Pediatrics contributing the most (n = 15). US authors were listed for 60% of the articles (n = 30). None of the articles originated from Asian authors. Our manuscript highlights the characteristics of impactful articles on SIDS - and this can act as a directive for researchers aiming to publish on this topic. Bibliometric parameters suggest a decreasing research interest in the fi eld of SIDS, which is concerning, and efforts should be made to promote research. Furthermore, the lack of influential research from Asian authors is also troubling. Funding should preferably be directed toward Asian researchers to bridge the gap in knowledge.

Determination of Sex from the Foramen Magnum using 3DCT: A Nepalese Study

Background Identification is of utmost importance in any medicolegal investigation with sex determination being one of the principle indicators of identity. Sexing of bones becomes easy when the skeletal remains are complete. However, the problem arises when the bones are fragmented. Many researchers have undertaken several studies in different populations to determine the sex with reasonable accuracy using numerous measurements of the skull including those of the foramen magnum. Objective The present study was aimed to find the sexual dimorphism of the foramen magnum in the Nepalese population by analyzing the antero-posterior length, transverse diameter and area of the foramen magnum. Method The antero-posterior length and transverse diameter of the foramen magnum were measured using three-dimensional computed tomography (3DCT) images of the head in a cohort of 100 Nepalese subjects. Radinsky's and Teixeria's formulae were used to calculate the area of the foramen magnum. Discriminate function analysis was used to analyze sex differences. Result Mean values of antero-posterior length and transverse diameter of the foramen magnum in males were higher than in females. The mean of the area calculated using Radinsky's formula was smaller than that calculated by Teixeira's formula and the areas calculated were higher in males. The measurements of the foramen magnum and the areas calculated showed significant difference (p<0.001) between males and females. Discriminate function analysis for the measurements of the foramen magnum and the areas calculated showed high predictability for both the sexes. Discriminate function analysis showed a maximum predictability of 75%. Conclusion Considering the percent of predictability of sex from the various variables related to the foramen magnum in the Nepalese population, it can be concluded that its restricted applicability in forensic investigations should be constrained to cases of fragmentary skull bases.

Lobed spleen: an autopsy case report with emphasis on surgical anatomy

During the medico-legal autopsy of a male aged 45 years, a bilobed morphology of the spleen was observed. An oblique fissure was located longitudinally at the mid-region of the diaphragmatic surface of the spleen. The fissure was partially deep and observed throughout the diaphragmatic surface. The clinician should be aware of the developmental anomalies of the spleen; as such anomalies may cause confusion during the procedures like splenic biopsy and splenectomy. We believe that, the present case report is important to the radiologists and clinicians involved in the diagnosis and management of splenic pathology. The knowledge is also enlightening to the morphologists and embryologists. The radiologist and clinician should make sure that the fissure in a spleen is not misinterpreted as a laceration or rupture.

Sex Determination From the Bicondylar Width of the Femur: A Nepalese Study Using Digital X-ray Images

Background One of the important components of forensic identification is sex determination. The prediction of sex becomes easy with a complete skeleton. The problem arises with mutilated and incomplete skeletal remains. The skull and pelvis are preferred for sex prediction, but not uncommonly, long bones are brought for forensic examination. The femur out stands as the most dimorphic long bone. The literature on sex determination from the femur in different population groups is in abundance. The forensic anthropology literature suggests that longitudinal dimensions are often less discriminating than the breadth and circumference of long bones. Many researchers have suggested that the bicondylar width of the femur is the most dimorphic dimension. Objective To evaluate the sexing potential of the bicondylar width of the femur in the Nepalese population using digital X-ray images. Method A sample of 200 digital X-ray images of the knee belonging to 100 males and 100 females was used to measure the bicondylar width of the right femur. These digital X-ray images were those of Nepalese patients who visited the Department of Radiology at the affiliate hospital of Kathmandu University School of Medical Sciences, Dhulikhel, Nepal for diagnostic and treatment purposes. Result The resent study reveals a statistically significant difference for the bicondylar width of the femur between males and females. A regression equation was derived with sectioning point 77.84. Using the regression equation the prediction of sex was 68% with an overlapping of 32%. Having a low prediction in comparison to other studies in different populations, 95% confidence interval for the mean was used to get a range of measurements of the bicondylar width for males and females. The range stated in the present study is 79.47 mm to 82.20 mm for males and 73.75 mm to 75.93 mm for females. Conclusion The bicondylar width of the femur cannot be individually recommended for sex determination in the Nepalese population, but could be considered if analyzed along with the other morphometric traits for sex determination.

Survival following accidental scarf strangulation

Injury or death by strangulation, unless otherwise explained, is almost always homicidal. Accidental strangulation may occur but only very rarely. We present such a case of accidental strangulation and survival in a motorbike pillion rider. A long scarf (dupatta) clad woman, sitting at the back of a two wheeler motorbike, fell after her long scarf got caught in the back wheel. The lady was first taken to a local clinic and then later was referred to a hospital for a suspected spine injury where she made an uneventful recovery. This case report exposes the precarious position of women pillion riders wearing a long scarf and emphasizes the need for extra caution and the need for wheel guards on spoked wheels in particular.

Awareness of breast cancer warning signs and screening methods among female residents of Pokhara valley, Nepal

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is the second most common cancer in the world and by far the most frequent cancer among women.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was undertaken to assess the awareness of breast cancer warning signs and screening methods among the women of Pokhara valley, Nepal.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was carried out in a community setting with the female population. The questionnaire was administered in face-to-face interviews by trained research assistants.

RESULTS

Nepalese women demonstrated poor awareness of warning signs like a breast lump, lump under the armpit, bleeding or discharge from the nipple, pulling of the nipple, changes in the position of the nipple, nipple rash, redness of the breast skin, changes in the size of the breast or nipple, changes in the shape of the breast or nipple, pain in the breast or armpit, and dimpling of the breast skin. While 100% of nurses were aware about breast self- examination (BSE), mammography and warning signs of breast cancer. Levels of knowledge were significantly poorer in women with other occupations. Graduates were more aware about BSE, mammogram and warning signs of breast cancer compared to those with other educational levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated that the level of awareness of breast cancer, including knowledge of warning signs and BSE, is sub-optimal among Nepalese women.

Forensic medicine experts' opinion on medico-legal autopsies in hospital deaths: a questionnaire survey

OBJECTIVE

Medico-legal autopsy is conducted routinely in some countries and selectively in others in hospital deaths. This study was conducted to evaluate the views of the forensic medicine experts regarding this matter.

METHODS

A questionnaire pro forma was sent to sixty-five forensic medicine experts practicing in different medical institutions all around India. Designations and experiences of the participants were noted by requests in the same questionnaire. Their specific experience in conducting medico-legal autopsy in hospital deaths was also requested for. Responses were charted in frequency distribution tables and analyzed using SPSS, version 17.0.

RESULTS

One-third of the participants felt that a medico-legal autopsy was necessary in all the hospital death cases as defined in the present study. Ten percent of the participants opined that a medico-legal autopsy was unnecessary in hospital deaths. The majority of the experts mentioned finding the cause of death, followed by finding the manner of death and collecting the evidentiary materials, as the reasons for medico-legal autopsy in hospital deaths. Twenty percent of the participants felt that internal findings at autopsy poorly matched with the case records. All the experts agreed that external autopsy findings matched with the hospital case records. Nearly two-third of the participants felt that it was difficult in some cases to interpret the autopsy findings without case records from the hospital where the deceased was treated.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the exercise of carrying out medico-legal autopsy routinely in every hospital death as evident in the Indian framework is often unnecessary as per the experts' opinion. Autopsy findings in hospital deaths often correlate with hospital case records.

Dumb bell shaped morphology of liver: an autopsy case report

Medicolegal autopsy on the dead body of an elderly female revealed that the liver was having some unusual shape. The left lobe of liver was bifid, having dumb bell type morphology. Also there were some furrows which were observed over the anterior surface of the liver. This type of morphological variant has not been reported hitherto. The clinicians should be aware of developmental morphological anomalies like in this case, as they might cause confusion during the procedures like biopsy, transplantation and lobectomies. We believe that this case report is important for the clinicians who are involved in the diagnosis and management of hepatic diseases. The knowledge is also enlightening for morphologists and embryologists.

Clinico-epidemiological features of viper bite envenomation: a study from Manipal, South India

INTRODUCTION

Snakebite is an important and preventable health hazard. Viper bites are more common than other poisonous snakebites in human beings. The present study aimed to collate the victim profile of viper bite cases in the region and to determine the pattern, manifestations, complications and the associated risk factors of these bites.

METHODS

This was a prospective study of viper bite cases admitted to Kasturba Hospital, Manipal, India between August 2003 and November 2005. The demographic and clinical details of each case were obtained from the patients, their relatives and the patients' hospital records, and analysed.

RESULTS

A total of 31 viper bite cases were reported during the study period. The victims were predominantly male and aged 25-55 years. The highest number of cases occurred during daytime in the months of September and October, which coincided with the harvesting season, and involved the lower limbs. 94% of the snakebite victims were farmers, suggesting that this was an occupational hazard. Envenomation was observed in patients with scratch marks, suggesting the importance of keeping the victim under observation in all alleged snakebite cases, even in the absence of clear fang marks. The mortality rate in our study was 6.5%.

CONCLUSION

Immobilising and transporting snakebite victims to the hospital and prompt administration of anti-snake venom remain the best way to reduce morbidity and mortality. It is also important to practise correct first aid measures, as otherwise they may cause more harm than good.

Tobacco Chewing and Associated Factors Among Youth of Western Nepal: A Cross-sectional Study

Background:

Smokeless tobacco is found to be as addictive and harmful as smoking but have not been explored into, especially among youth.

Objectives:

This study was conducted to find the prevalence of tobacco chewing among college students in Nepal and the factors that have influence over their use.

Study design:

A cross-sectional study with a self-administered questionnaire.

Materials and Methods:

Five colleges of different streams in Pokhara city were selected for the study. A total of 816 students participated. The study was conducted during the period of May 2006–February 2007, using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire.

Results:

Overall prevalence of ever tobacco chewing was 21.3% (males 30.2% and females 10.9%) among the youth with average age of initiation 15.7 years. Pan masala and gutka were used by 63.6% and frequency of use varied widely and only 5.7% said they were daily users. Reasons cited for chewing were most commonly ‘just like it’ or ‘friends chew’. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed age, ever smoking status, being ever alcoholic, and having friends or family members who chewed were significantly associated with students’ tobacco chewing. Almost one-tenth of the students believed they were addicted to chewing tobacco and 42.5% of them had tried to quit the habit.

Conclusion:

The study shows a high prevalence of tobacco chewing by Nepali youth. Important factors that influenced the habit were having chewer friends, their own smoking and alcohol status and having family members who chewed. It is pertinent to consider these when formulating cessation and prevention programs

An anthropometric study of facial height among four endogamous communities in the Sunsari district of Nepal

INTRODUCTION

Facial anthropometry has well-known implications in health-related fields and has been utilised for forensic purposes in the past. It provides an indication of the variations in facial shape in a population. The facial anthropometric profile of a population can characterise the distinctive features of a likely face in that population. The present study aimed to examine the differences in facial height proportions and facial growth patterns in different communities in the Sunsari district of Nepal.

METHODS

The upper facial height (UFH) and lower facial height (LFH) proportions of 857 subjects (429 male and 428 female) aged between three and 18 years old from four communities (Brahmin, Chhetri, Rai and Limbu) in the Sunsari district of Nepal were calculated, and comparisons were made.

RESULTS

Significant differences (p is less than 0.05) in the UFH and LFH percentages were observed between the Brahmin and Rai, Brahmin and Limbu, Chhetri and Rai, and Chhetri and Limbu communities.

CONCLUSION

The study concluded that there is evidence of statistically significant differences of the upper and lower face height proportions among the different racial groups. A change in the facial height proportions of the various age groups was evident. However, differences in facial height proportions between male and female were found to be insignificant.

Smoking among Nepali youth--prevalence and predictors

Tobacco is the single largest risk factor for various diseases and its presence in the young heralds more serious problems as they may be exposed for longer periods. Prevalence and predictors of smoking among youth will aid in formulating effective preventive and control measures. A cross-sectional study was therefore conducted among 816 students selected from five colleges of Western Nepal using a self-administered questionnaire. Prevalence of ever smoking was 34.2% (males 47.6% and females 18.4%) and for current smoking was 17%. It was higher among youth belonging to 21 years or older as compared to younger age groups. Mean age of initiation was 16.8 years (standard deviation 2.8 years) and the most common reasons cited for smoking were; like it, to feel more relaxed, out of boredom and to look more mature. Proportion of youth who said they felt they were addicted was 43.1% and 64.7% said that they had tried to quit the habit. Most important predictors having independent effects on youth being ever smokers were having three or more smoker friends (OR=18), their own chewing (OR=4.8) or alcohol use (OR=4.2), male gender (OR=3.7) and the type of course they were pursuing, with professional course students having higher risk. With almost one fifth of college-going youth smoking and a higher prevalence in older age groups within them, smoking is a serious concern for young people in Western Nepal.

Tubercular granuloma in the myocardium: an autopsy report

Granulomatous myocarditis is a rare disorder of the myocardium, and is usually associated with various inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. We report granulomatous myocarditis in an apparently healthy 58-year-old Indian man, who developed sudden chest pain and died while being escorted to the hospital. At the autopsy, no gross distinct cardiac lesions were observed. The histopathological sections from the left ventricular apex revealed a granuloma comprising a central area of caseous necrosis surrounded by lymphocytes, and epithelioid, plasma and Langhans giant cells. Myocardial tuberculosis was suspected as the underlying aetiology based on the histological features of the granuloma.

Lumbosacral transitional vertebra: clinical and forensic implications

The identification of skeletal remains is one of the classic problems faced by forensic experts. Congenital and acquired malformations can prove to be an important tool for identification, provided antemortem records are available. A lumbosacral transitional vertebra is one such rare congenital anomaly that has clinical and medicolegal implications. We report a case of unilateral lumbosacral transitional vertebra, detected during medicolegal examination of skeletal remains that were recovered from a forested area in coastal Karnataka, India. The congenital anomaly of the transitional vertebra helped in the forensic identification of the deceased.

Phylogenetic variation in flexor digitorum brevis: a Nepalese cadaveric study

Understanding muscle architecture of the foot may assist in the design of surgical procedures such as tendon transfer, biomechanical modeling of the foot, prosthesis design, and analysis of foot function. Flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) is the most superficial intrinsic muscle of the sole of the foot. When compared to the little finger, the little toe has less function and opposition is absent in humans. Hence, the muscles acting on the little toe are undergoing evolutionary changes. The objective of this study was to review the phylogenetic variation occurring in FDB in the Nepalese cadavers. Sixty soles in 20 male and 10 female adult embalmed cadavers were dissected and attachments of FDB observed. It was noted that the tendon for the fifth toe was missing in all sixty soles. The action of FDB can be compensated by other long flexors of the foot. This could have resulted due to gradual reduction in the usage of the little toe as the bipedal posture evolved. Variations of FDB are clinically important because FDB musculocutanous flap is used in the reconstruction of the heel pad.

Ectopic partial intrahepatic gall bladder with cholelithiasis--a rare anomaly

The study was aimed to view the developmental anomalies of gall bladder (GB) in Nepalese cadavers. Forty GBs were studied for any anomalies during routine cadaveric dissection at the Department of Anatomy, Manipal College of Medical Sciences, Nepal. The study found that the congenital anomalies of GB are very rare. Only one case of ectopic partial intrahepatic GB with cholelithiasis was observed, which to our knowledge is the first reported case in Nepal. Awareness of GB anomalies is important to surgeons, radiologists, and clinicians in general. An ectopic partial intrahepatic GB can make cholecystectomy hazardous, when indicated.

Biotechnology in forensic science: the revolution continues

Molecular biology has become one of the most fascinating fields of biology in recent years. Molecular methods have been applied in various fields of biology including Medical/Health Science. In this paper, light has been shed on the application of different molecular methods (DNA analysis) in the field of Forensic Medicine.