Asymptomatic primary Epstein-Barr virus infection occurs in the absence of blood T-cell repertoire perturbations despite high levels of systemic viral load

Primary infection with the human herpesvirus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), may result in subclinical seroconversion or may appear as infectious mononucleosis (IM), a lymphoproliferative disease of variable severity. Why primary infection manifests differently between patients is unknown, and, given the difficulties in identifying donors undergoing silent seroconversion, little information has been reported. However, a longstanding assumption has been held that IM represents an exaggerated form of the virologic and immunologic events of asymptomatic infection. T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoires of a unique cohort of subclinically infected patients undergoing silent infection were studied, and the results highlight a fundamental difference between the 2 forms of infection. In contrast to the massive T-cell expansions mobilized during the acute symptomatic phase of IM, asymptomatic donors largely maintain homeostatic T-cell control and peripheral blood repertoire diversity. This disparity cannot simply be linked to severity or spread of the infection because high levels of EBV DNA were found in the blood from both types of acute infection. The results suggest that large expansions of T cells within the blood during IM may not always be associated with the control of primary EBV infection and that they may represent an overreaction that exacerbates disease.

The immunology of Epstein-Barr virus infection

Epstein-Barr virus is a classic example of a persistent human virus that has caught the imagination of immunologists, virologists and oncologists because of the juxtaposition of a number of important properties. First, the ability of the virus to immortalize B lymphocytes in vitro has provided an antigen presenting cell in which all the latent antigens of the virus are displayed and are available for systematic study. Second, the virus presents an ideal system for studying the immune parameters that maintain latency and the consequences of disturbing this cell-virus relationship. Third, this wealth of immunological background has provided a platform for elucidating the role of the immune system in protection from viral-associated malignancies of B cell and epithelial cell origin. Finally, attention is now being directed towards the development of vaccine formulations which might have broad application in the control of human malignancies.

Differential splicing of antigen-encoding RNA reduces endogenous epitope presentation that regulates the expansion and cytotoxicity of T cells

The activation of CTLs is dependent on the recognition of MHC-bound peptide present on the surface of APCs. We give evidence in this study that differential splicing of Ag-encoding RNA can decrease the antigenic dose in APCs and regulate the recall of human memory CTLs. Differential splicing of RNA that encoded an immunodominant HLA-B8-restricted CTL epitope of EBV reduced the functional presentation of this epitope, and consequently the in vitro expansion and activity of CTLs, as measured by MHC/peptide-tetramer staining and cytotoxicity assays. The reduced activity of the stimulated CTLs was not only due to lower numbers of Ag-specific CTLs but, surprisingly, was also characterized by decreased cytotoxicity of the CTLs to target cells presenting limiting amounts of the peptide epitope. As indicated by TCR repertoire analysis, the reduction in CTL activity was not caused by stimulation of distinct populations of TCR clonotypes. This study demonstrates how a common eukaryotic posttranscriptional mechanism of gene regulation can modulate the endogenous presentation of Ag and ultimately contribute to the fine tuning of immunological memory cells, which are important in the fight against pathogens and tumors and in autoimmunity.

Murine gamma-herpesvirus infection causes V(beta)4-specific CDR3-restricted clonal expansions within CD8(+) peripheral blood T lymphocytes

Infection of mice with the gamma-herpesvirus MHV-68 results in lytic infection in the lung cleared by CD8(+) cells and establishment of lifelong latency. An Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-like infectious mononucleosis (IM) syndrome emerges approximately 3 weeks after infection. In human IM, the majority of T cells in the peripheral blood are monoclonal or oligoclonal and are frequently specific for lytic or latent viral epitopes. However, a unique feature of MHV-68-induced IM is a prominent MHC haplotype-independent expansion of CD8(+) T cells, the majority of which utilize V(beta)4 chains in their alphabetaTCR. The ligand driving the V(beta)4 expansion is unknown, but the V(beta) bias and MHC haplotype independence raised the possibility that these cells were responding to a virally encoded or a virally induced endogenous superantigen (sAg). The aim of this study was to determine whether this rapidly proliferating subset is composed of polyclonally or clonally expanded T cells. Complementarity-determining region (CDR)-3 size analysis of V(beta)4(+)CD8(+) cells in infected mice demonstrated CDR3-restricted expansions in the V(beta)4 family as a whole. More refined analysis demonstrated major distortions in every J(beta) subfamily. V-D-J junctional region sequencing indicated that these CDR3 size-restricted expansions were composed of clonal or oligoclonal populations. The sequences were largely unique in individual mice, although evidence for 'public' or highly conserved T cell expansions was also seen between different mice. Taken together with previous studies showing an apparent MHC independence, the data suggest that a novel ligand, distinct from conventional sAg and peptide-MHC, drives proliferation of V(beta)4(+)CD8(+) T cells.

Cytotoxic T cell recognition of allelic variants of HLA B35 bound to an Epstein-Barr virus epitope: influence of peptide conformation and TCR-peptide interaction

Fine specificity analysis of HLA B35-restricted Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) clones revealed a unique heterogeneity whereby one group of these clones cross-recognized an EBV epitope (YPLHEQHGM) on virus-infected cells expressing either HLA B*3501 or HLA B*3503, while another group cross-recognized this epitope in association with either HLA B*3502 or HLA B*3503. Peptide binding and titration studies ruled out the possibility that these differences were due to variation in the efficiency of peptide presentation by the HLA B35 alleles. Sequence analysis of the TCR genetic elements showed that these clonotypes either expressed BV12/AV3 or BV14/ADV17S1 heterodimers. Interestingly, CTL analysis with monosubstituted alanine mutants of the YPLHEQHGM epitope indicated that the BV12/AV3+ clones preferentially recognized residues towards the C terminus of the peptide, while the BV14/ADV17S1+ clones interacted with residues towards N terminus of the peptide. Molecular modelling of the MHC-peptide complexes suggests that the differences in two floor positions (114 and 116) of the HLA B35 alleles dictate different conformations of the peptide residues L3 and/or H7 and directly contribute in the discerning allele-specific immune recognition by the CTL clonotypes. These results provide evidence for a critical role for the selective interaction of the TCR with specific residues within the peptide epitope in the fine specificity of CTL recognition of allelic variants of an HLA molecule.

Crossreactive recognition of viral, self, and bacterial peptide ligands by human class I-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte clonotypes: implications for molecular mimicry in autoimmune disease

The immunodominant, CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response to the HLA-B8-restricted peptide, RAKFKQLL, located in the Epstein-Barr virus immediate-early antigen, BZLF1, is characterized by a diverse T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire. Here, we show that this diversity can be partitioned on the basis of crossreactive cytotoxicity patterns involving the recognition of a self peptide-RSKFRQIV-located in a serine/threonine kinase and a bacterial peptide-RRKYKQII-located in Staphylococcus aureus replication initiation protein. Thus CTL clones that recognized the viral, self, and bacterial peptides expressed a highly restricted alphabeta TCR phenotype. The CTL clones that recognized viral and self peptides were more oligoclonal, whereas clones that strictly recognized the viral peptide displayed a diverse TCR profile. Interestingly, the self and bacterial peptides equally were substantially less effective than the cognate viral peptide in sensitizing target cell lysis, and also resulted only in a weak reactivation of memory CTLs in limiting dilution assays, whereas the cognate peptide was highly immunogenic. The described crossreactions show that human antiviral, CD8(+) CTL responses can be shaped by peptide ligands derived from autoantigens and environmental bacterial antigens, thereby providing a firm structural basis for molecular mimicry involving class I-restricted CTLs in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease.

A functional link for major TCR expansions in healthy adults caused by persistent Epstein-Barr virus infection

Dramatic clonal expansions of unknown functional significance have been documented in the T cell receptor (TCR) alpha beta peripheral blood repertoires of apparently healthy adults. In this study, we provide evidence that persistent infection with the ubiquitous Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) causes major distortions within the memory repertoire of healthy virus carriers. Using complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3) length analysis to measure repertoire diversity, dominant expansions that dramatically skewed the entire TCRBV6 blood repertoire towards oligoclonality were enriched in the CD8(+)CD45RO+CD45RA- subset of HLA B8(+) healthy virus carriers. Evidence of phenotypic heterogeneity between individuals was also observed for these expansions based on their variable coexpression of CD45RO and CD45RA. TCR junctional region sequencing revealed that these expansions were clonal and that they represented commonly selected HLA B8-restricted memory cytotoxic T cells that recognize the immunodominant latent EBV epitope, FLRGRAYGL. Furthermore, the functional identity of these virus-specific CD8(+) T cells was confirmed by their FLRGRAYGL-specific cytotoxicity. Therefore, the functional significance of dramatic clonal expansions in healthy adults can be linked in some cases to virus-specific CD8(+) T cells that play an essential role in immunosurveillance. This first identified link for expansions in the circulation of healthy adults strongly implies that restricted-memory TCR responses to environmental antigens play a pivotal role in expansion development, which should have an important impact on studies interpreting TCR expansion patterns in health and disease.

Selection of a diverse TCR repertoire in response to an Epstein-Barr virus-encoded transactivator protein BZLF1 by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes during primary and persistent infection

We investigated the CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) repertoire to an HLA B8-restricted peptide, RAKFKQLLQ, located in the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) immediate-early protein, BZLF1. Repertoire selection was monitored by determining the TCR beta chain sequences of RAKFKQLLQ-specific CTL established from primary infected and healthy virus carriers. PCR analysis of spontaneous EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCL) from three individuals with primary infection showed that two were infected with type A and one with type B EBV. Polyclonal and clonal CTL that were generated by stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells with an HLA B8+ homozygous LCL lysed T cell blasts pulsed with the peptide, RAKFKQLLQ; lysis of certain HLA B8+ LCL targets was associated with the abundance of BZLF1 transcripts. TCR beta analysis showed that while there was loop length restriction in the putative peptide contact site of all responding beta chains, diverse and unique (non-recurrent) TCR beta clonotypes were selected in individuals during primary infection and continued to emerge after long-term virus exposure. TCR-contact site heterogeneity was excluded as the selective force in diversity generation since the epitope-encoded sequences were found to be identical within endogenous virus isolates. In this first study of TCR repertoire selection for an EBV lytic antigen, a BZLF1-reactive component of diverse clonotypes was identified in primary type A or type B EBV infection which was sustained in the EBV-specific memory response throughout life-long infection. This diversity selection is likely to play a critical role in maintaining a balanced viral load throughout EBV persistence.

Hierarchy of Epstein-Barr virus-specific cytotoxic T-cell responses in individuals carrying different subtypes of an HLA allele: implications for epitope-based antiviral vaccines

Major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in healthy virus carriers constitute a primary effector arm of the immune system in controlling the proliferation of virus-infected B cells in vivo. These CTLs generally recognize target epitopes included within the latent antigens of the virus. For example, CTLs from HLA B44+ healthy virus carriers often recognize peptide EENLLDFVRF [corrected] from EBV nuclear antigen 6. However, the strength of this response directly correlates with the HLA B44 subtype expressed by the individual donor. Indeed, HLA B*4405+ virus carriers consistently show a very high frequency of CTL precursors for the EENLLDFVRF [corrected] epitope, while a much weaker response is seen in HLA B*4403+ and HLA B*4402+ individuals. This disparity is not due to an intrinsic difference in the CTLs generated by individuals carrying different subtypes of HLA B44. In fact, virus-specific CTLs recognize EENLLDFVRF [corrected] peptide-sensitized HLA B*4405+ target cells more efficiently than B*4402+ or B*4403+ target cells irrespective of the HLA B44 subtype expressed by the donors from whom these effectors were isolated. This effect is evident whether the CTL epitope is endogenously processed or exogenously presented. In addition, a comparison of the intracellular transport kinetics of different B44 subtypes revealed that the B*4405 allele is rapidly assembled and arrives in the trans-Golgi compartment at a faster rate than B*4402 or B*4403. Based on these results, we propose that HLA class I alleles that are capable of binding peptides more efficiently from the intracellular pool, and are rapidly assembled and transported, may confer a protective advantage against viral infection.

Dominant cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to the immediate-early trans-activator protein, BZLF1, in persistent type A or B Epstein-Barr virus infection

Five healthy human leukocyte antigen-B8 (HLA-B8)-positive virus carriers were studied to investigate the CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response to an HLA-B8-restricted peptide, RAKFKQLLQ, located in the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) immediate-early trans-activator protein, BZLF1. Of the 5 virus carriers, 4 were infected with type A and 1 with type B EBV. Using limiting-dilution analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, a high RAKFKQLLQ-specific CTL precursor frequency was demonstrated after specific peptide or autologous lymphoblastoid cell line stimulation in both type A and type B EBV carriers. The RAKFKQLLQ-specific CTL precursor frequencies in all 5 persons were at least as dominant as those observed with two other EBV-associated, HLA-B8-restricted latent epitopes, FLRGRAYGL and QAKWRLQTL. These findings show that healthy virus carriers maintain a high frequency of BZLF1-specific memory T cells, potentially to control virus spread from lytically infected cells.

Cross-reactive memory T cells for Epstein-Barr virus augment the alloresponse to common human leukocyte antigens: degenerate recognition of major histocompatibility complex-bound peptide by T cells and its role in alloreactivity

In the present report, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) clones are described that display dual specificity for one of two common human leukocyte antigens (HLA B14 or B35) as alloantigens, and an immunodominant epitope (FLRGRAYGL) from Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that binds to HLA B8. These T cell clonotypes were isolated from several unrelated HLA B8+, EBV-exposed individuals, and each distinct cross-reactivity pattern was associated with a common, public T cell receptor (TCR). In some individuals, CTL cross-reactive with these alloantigens completely dominated the memory response to this EBV epitope. Moreover, these memory T cells to EBV could be reactivated as a significant component of the repertoire of CTL responding to allogeneic stimulator cells expressing either HLA B14 or B35. These data illustrate how a history of infection with an immunogenic virus such as EBV can augment responsiveness to particular alloantigens; such influences may underlie the observed clinical association between herpesvirus infection and both allograft rejection and graft-versus-host disease. We have also explored the molecular basis for T cell cross-reactivity with alloantigens using the HLA B35 allo-reactive CTL clonotype. To elucidate the structural features of peptides that may be cross-recognized by these T cells, mono-substituted analogs of the viral epitope were screened for recognition, revealing broad specificity for major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-bound peptide. Based on the particular amino acid changes tolerated by the CTL at each peptide position, the human protein sequence database was searched for possible sequences that were recognized in association with HLA B35. Four peptides were identified (MPEATVYGL, IPIAPVYGM, KPSPPYFGL, and KPIVVLHGY) that were powerful activating ligands for the CTL when presented on HLA B35 but not B8. Thus, equivalent epitopes, capable of fully activating a single TCR, were formed by peptides with minimal obvious sequence homology bound to either HLA B8 or B35. These data indicate that degenerate peptide recognition by TCR may play an important role in the vigorous response of self-MHC-restricted T cells to alloantigens.

Human leukocyte antigen phenotype imposes complex constraints on the antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte repertoire

The memory response to the immunodominant Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) epitope FLRGRAYGL, which associates with HLA B8, is exceptionally restricted, being dominated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) with a single, public T cell receptor (TCR). CTL clones that express this receptor fortuitously cross-react with the alloantigen HLA B44. However, of the two major subtypes of this HLA, B*4402 and B*4403, that differ by a single amino acid, only the former is recognized by these mature CTL clones. Individuals heterozygous for HLA B8 and B*4402 use alternative TCR for the EBV determinant since the dominant TCR is potentially self-reactive. We now demonstrate that this clonotype is also essentially absent from the repertoire of CTL directed against the viral epitope in seven from seven unrelated individuals heterozygous for HLA B8 and B*4403. Thus immune tolerance of these CTL recognizing HLA B*4402 is associated with expression of either B*4402 or B*4403. This suggests that tolerance in the human T cell compartment requires a lower threshold of recognition than for effector function, thus providing a buffer zone minimizing the risk of autoimmunity. These data also illustrate the potential for non-restricting HLA molecules to bias dramatically the T cell repertoire used for specific immune responses. Such influences may be the basis of the "protective" effects of certain HLA alleles in susceptibility to autoimmune disorders.

Identification of type B-specific and cross-reactive cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses to Epstein-Barr virus

Persistent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection is primarily controlled by HLA class I-restricted memory cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) responses which can be reactivated in vitro by stimulation of peripheral blood lymphocytes with autologous lymphoblastoid cell lines. During an investigation of a donor infected by both type A and type B EBV, CTL specific for type B EBV were isolated. The CTL were found to recognize an epitope encoded by the EBNA-6B gene. The minimal epitope sequence was identified as QNGALAINTF, corresponding to residues 213 to 222 in the EBNA-6B protein, and presentation of this epitope was shown to be via HLA B62 (B15). This is the first report of the characterization of an epitope that is EBV type B specific. CTL recognizing sequences common to type A and type B EBV were identified as well. A cross-reactive epitope recognized by these CTL was encoded within the EBNA-6 gene of both type A and type B. This minimal sequence for this epitope was LLDFVRFMGV (residues 284 to 293 in both types), and the epitope was restricted through HLA A*0201. This second epitope sequence overlaps with a published EBV B44-restricted epitope (EENLLDFVRF). The implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the design and efficacy of epitope-based vaccines.

Plasmodium falciparum-specific T cell clones from non-exposed and exposed donors are highly diverse in TCR beta chain V segment usage

Humans lacking previous exposure to Plasmodium falciparum typically have a high frequency of malaria-reactive T cells in peripheral blood, which cross-react with antigens from other microorganisms. We studied a large number of malaria-specific human T cell clones from non-exposed and malaria-exposed donors to determine whether this response is oligoclonal, and might therefore be generated by a limited number of cross-reactive epitopes. Most clones responded well to schizont antigen from three antigenically distinct stocks of P. falciparum. Clones derived from the same donor tended to show similar patterns of reactivity to a panel of non-malaria antigens from various microorganisms, suggesting that a limited number of epitopes were recognized by individuals. However, analysis of the usage of V segments of the beta chain of the TCR (TCRBV) revealed no evidence of TCRBV restriction in the T cell response, either within individual donors or across all donors. An apparent skewing towards TCRBV8 in one donor was shown by two methods to be due to in vitro expansion of a single clone: (i) Direct sorting of TCRBV8+ CD4+ T cells from fresh PBMC did not reveal any enrichment for pRBC-reactive cells; (ii) Sequencing of VDJ regions revealed that the TCRBV8 clones were identical. Sequences of non-TCRBV8 clones from this donor showed major differences in the VDJ junctional region. No differences in TCRBV repertoire between non-exposed and exposed donors were observed. These results exclude the existence of a malarial superantigen and suggest that the T cell response to malaria schizont antigen in non-exposed donors is driven by a large number of epitopes.

Development of Epstein-Barr virus-specific memory T cell receptor clonotypes in acute infectious mononucleosis

The importance of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in the immunosurveillance of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected B cells is firmly established, and the viral antigens of CTL recognition in latent infection are well defined. The epitopes targeted by CTLs during primary infection have not been identified, however, and there is only limited information about T cell receptor (TCR) selection. In the present report, we have monitored the development of memory TCR-beta clonotypes selected in response to natural EBV infection in a longitudinal study of an HLA-B8+ individual with acute infectious mononucleosis (IM). By stimulating peripheral blood lymphocytes with HLA-B8+ EBV-transformed B lymphoblastoid cells, the primary virus-specific CTL response was shown to include specificities for two HLA-B8-restricted antigenic determinants, FLRGRAYGL and QAKWRLQTL, which are encoded within the latent EBV nuclear antigen EBNA-3. TCR-beta sequence analysis of CTL clones specific for each epitope showed polyclonal TCR-beta repertoire selection, with structural restrictions on recognition that indicated antigen-driven selection. Furthermore, longitudinal repertoire analysis revealed long-term preservation of a multiclonal effector response throughout convalescence, with the reemergence of distinct memory T cell clonotypes sharing similar structural restrictions. Tracking the progression of specific TCR-beta clonotypes and antigen-specific TCR-V beta family gene expression in the peripheral repertoire ex vivo using semiquantitative PCR strongly suggested that selective TCR-beta expansions were present at the clonotype level, but not at the TCR-V beta family level. Overall, in this first analysis of antigen-specific TCR development in IM, a picture of polyclonal TCR stimulation is apparent. This diversity may be especially important in the establishment of an effective CTL control during acute EBV infection and in recovery from disease.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte clones specific for an immunodominant epitope display discerning antagonistic response to naturally occurring Epstein-Barr virus variants

In the present study we have identified Epstein-Barr virus isolates which encode variant sequences within an HLA B35-restricted immunodominant cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) epitope that act as natural antagonists and can inhibit CTL activity on the wild-type epitope. This effect can be demonstrated if the wild-type epitope is presented as a synthetic peptide or when processed from a full-length Epstein-Barr virus protein expressed by recombinant vaccinia constructs. However, this antagonistic effect was only selectively seen with some CTL clones, while a strong agonistic effect was evident for other clones in the presence of the same variant peptide. The data presented in this study strongly suggest that it is unlikely that the variant viruses can completely antagonize a virus-specific CTL response by this mechanism since the host immune response is capable of generating CTLs expressing a diverse array of T-cell receptors. Moreover, many of these CTLs can recognize the variant sequences as efficiently as wild-type epitope.

Induction of pleckstrin by the Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen 3 family

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encoded nuclear antigens, EBNA-3, -4, and -6 (EBNA 3 family) are expressed in latently infected human B-cells and are involved in the transformation of lymphocytes by EBV. Human Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) dG75 cells which stably expressed either the complete EBNA 3 gene family or the vector alone were generated and changes in gene activity in these transfectants were assayed using the differential display of mRNA technique. For the first time, the human gene pleckstrin, which is thought to be involved in signalling and differentiation of hemopoietic cells, was found to be upregulated in the presence of the EBNA 3 protein family, but not in cells expressing the individual EBNA-3, -4, or -6 gene. Pleckstrin was increased up to sevenfold in different cell clones and the bulk culture of EBNA 3 gene family expressing cells as demonstrated by Northern blot. RT-PCR, and immunoblot in contrast to EBV-negative BL cells, pleckstrin RNA and protein were highly expressed in EBV growth transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines which are thought to play an important role in EBV persistence in vivo. These data suggest that induction of pleckstrin might be important for the EBV-controlled activation of cells and offers a unique biological system for analyzing pleckstrin function.

Peptide transporter (TAP-1 and TAP-2)-independent endogenous processing of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent membrane protein 2A: implications for cytotoxic T-lymphocyte control of EBV-associated malignancies

Major histocompatibility [correction of histocampatability] complex (MHC) class I-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) recognizing Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent antigens play a pivotal role in restricting the proliferation of EBV-infected normal B cells. However, it is now well established that most of the EBV-associated malignancies escape this potent CTL response in vivo. This resistance to immune surveillance is not due to an obvious CTL dysfunction but has been partly attributed to the down-regulation of the peptide transporters, TAP-1 and TAP-2, thus restricting the endogenous loading of MHC class I molecules with peptides derived from viral nuclear antigens. In the present study we have explored the possibility that EBV latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A), which is often expressed in many of the EBV-associated malignancies, such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma and Hodgkin's disease tumors, can be endogenously processed through an alternative, TAP-1- and TAP-2-independent pathway. The data presented in this study clearly demonstrate not only that LMP2A can be processed by a TAP-independent mechanism but also that tumor cells with down-regulated TAP expression can be efficiently recognized by LMP2A-specific T cells following infection with recombinant vaccinia virus encoding this protein. We propose that since LMP2A is a membrane protein, it is directly translocated into the secretory pathway and the processing enzymes present in the endoplasmic reticulum are capable of generating the relevant peptide epitopes for MHC binding. The present finding of TAP-1- and TAP-2-independent presentation of LMP2A epitopes suggests a novel mechanism for immune targeting of EBV-positive malignancies, such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma and Hodgkin's disease tumors.

T cell receptor repertoire for a viral epitope in humans is diversified by tolerance to a background major histocompatibility complex antigen

Two unusual characteristics of the memory response to the immunodominant Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) epitope FLRGRAYGL, which associates with HLA B8, have provided an unique opportunity to investigate self tolerance and T cell receptor (TCR) plasticity in humans. First, the response is exceptionally restricted, dominated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) with identical TCR protein sequences (Argaet, V. P., C. W. Schmidt, S. R. Burrows, S. L. Silins, M. G. Kurilla, D. L. Doolan, A. Suhrbier, D. J. Moss, E. Kieff, T. B. Sculley, and I. S. Misko. 1994. J. Exp. Med. 180:2335-2340). Second, CTL expressing this receptor are cross-reactive with the alloantigen HLA B* 4402 on uninfected cells (Burrows, S. R., R. Khanna, J. M. Burrows, and D. J. Moss. 1994. J. Exp. Med. 179:1155-1161). No CTL using this conserved public TCR could be reactivated from the peripheral blood of EBV exposed individuals expressing both HLA B8 and B*4402, demonstrating the clonal inactivation of potentially self-reactive T cells in humans. A significant FLRGRAYGL-specific response was still apparent, however, and TCR sequence analysis of multiple CTL clones revealed an oligoclonal TCR repertoire for this determinant within these individuals, using diverse V and J gene segments and CDR3 regions. In addition, a significant public TCR component was identified in which several distinct alpha/beta rearrangements are shared by CTL clones from a number of unrelated HLA B8+, B*4402+ donors. The striking dominance of public TCR in the response to this EBV epitope suggests a strong genetic bias in TCR gene recombination. Fine specificity analysis using peptide analogues showed that, of six different antigen receptors for FLRGRAYGL/HLA B8, none associate closely with the peptide's full array of potential TCR contact residues. Whereas the HLA B*4402-cross-reactive receptor binds amino acids toward the COOH terminus of the peptide, others preferentially favor an NH2-terminal determinant, presumably evading an area that mimics a structure presented on HLA B*4402. Thus, tolerance to a background major histocompatibility antigen can effectively diversify the TCR repertoire for a foreign epitope by deflecting the response away from an immunodominant combination of TCR-binding residues.

Burkitt's lymphoma cells are resistant to programmed cell death in the presence of the Epstein-Barr virus latent antigen EBNA-4

Group I Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells display a surface phenotype characteristic of germinal centre B cells and readily undergo apoptosis in response to a variety of stimuli, including serum deprivation. Activation of EBV latent gene expression has been shown to increase the survival of these tumour cells by blocking programmed cell death. To investigate the nature of this protection, we assessed the function of the EBV latent EBNA-4 gene in a group I lymphoma line, dG75. Group I BL cells induced to undergo apoptosis in response to serum starvation were protected in the presence of EBNA-4 protein. A possible factor underlying this EBNA-4-associated survival was increased expression of the oncoprotein bcl-2, a known repressor of cell death. Together these data suggest that EBNA-4 plays an important role in the regulation of programmed cell death in BL tumour cells.

Dominant selection of an invariant T cell antigen receptor in response to persistent infection by Epstein-Barr virus

To examine T cell receptor (TCR) diversity involved in the memory response to a persistent human pathogen, we determined nucleotide sequences encoding TCR-alpha and -beta chains from HLA-B8-restricted, CD8+ cytotoxic T cell clones specific for an immunodominant epitope (FLRGRAYGL) in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen 3. Herein, we show that identical TCR protein sequences are used by clones from each of four healthy unrelated virus carriers; a clone from a fifth varied conservatively at only two residues. This dominant selection of alpha and beta chain rearrangements suggest that a persistent viral infection can select for a highly focused memory response and indicates a strong bias in gene segment usage and recombination. A novel double-step semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) procedure and direct sequencing of amplified TCR cDNA from fresh lymphocytes derived from three HLA-B8 individuals detected transcripts specific for the conserved beta chain in an EBV-seropositive donor but not in two seronegative donors. This report describes an unprecedented degree of conservation in TCR selected in response to a natural persistent infection.

Modulation of vimentin, the CD40 activation antigen and Burkitt's lymphoma antigen (CD77) by the Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen EBNA-4

The growth transformation of human B cells by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is controlled by the coordinate expression of 10 latent viral genes. This transforming capacity is believed to be fundamental to the involvement of the virus in human malignancies of B cell origin. EBV-negative Burkitt's lymphoma (dG75) clones stably expressing one of these EBV-coded antigens, EBNA-4, have been established using an episomal-based plasmid. EBNA-4 expression was found to upregulate the cytoskeletal protein vimentin as well as surface expression of the activation antigen CD40. In addition, the presence of EBNA-4 resulted in downregulation of the Burkitt's lymphoma-associated antigen (BLA/CD77). These studies show for the first time that EBNA-4 modulates the expression of several cellular genes implicated in cell-growth transformation.

Isolation of Epstein-Barr virus genomes using pulse-field gel electrophoresis

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